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Topic: Mass Wasting

Sub – topic: Soil Creep and Landslide

Definitions
1. Mass wasting or mass movement refers to the downward movement of soil and rock
debris down a slope, due to gravity and the lubricating action of rainwater.

2. Landslide is a rapid, gravitational driven movement of large masses of rock debris and soli,
from a cliff or steep slope, along a definite plane and usually occur after heavy rainfall.

3. Soil creep refers to a slow, gentle and continuous downhill movement of overburden,
consisting of weathered rock debris or regolith under the force of gravity.

Mass Wasting
• If the combined force exerted on the slope by the weight of the rock debris, soil and water
is greater than the frictional forces that try to prevent the soil from moving , the weight
of the material become detached from the underlying rock and slide downhill. The
movement may be slow or fast. The degree of the movement is influence by:
• the angle of the slope
• the nature of the materials
• the structure of the rocks.

Mass wasting is induced by:

• steep slopes
• heavy rainfall
• human interference with the natural vegetation

Processes of Mass Wasting

1. Soil creep
This is a very slow but generally continuous movement of soil downslope. It is most
common in damp soils where water acts as a lubricant. This allows soil particles to move
over each other and the underlying rock. Eventually, the movement of soil tilts fences,
posts and even trees. Soil accumulates behind walls and other obstacles and also at the
foot of slopes. Cracks appear in roads in areas where soil creep is taking place.

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Photograph showing effects of soil creep – cracks in the road.

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2. Landslides
A landslide is a sudden movement of rock or soil downslope under the influence of gravity.
They can have devastating consequences on the environment and all who inhabit it.
Landslides can block roads and railways, dam rivers, destroy buildings or even bury entire
villages. For example, in October 2010, during Hurricane Tomas, the district of Soufriere
(St. Lucia) experienced some devastating landslides. The landscape was scarred, roads
were blocked, many houses and other buildings were damaged or destroyed and lives
were lost as a result of them. Landslides are more likely to occur under the following
conditions:
• On steep slopes: steep slopes are more likely to experience landslides than gentle ones.

• Where there is a thick layer of unconsolidated material on the slope (such as sand, clay
or volcanic ash). If this layer becomes saturated during a period of heavy rainfall, a
landslide may occur.

• When bedding planes are roughly parallel to the slope surface: This makes it easier for
material to slide along the bedding planes, especially if there is a layer of impermeable
rock under permeable ones. Water may saturate the top layer or layers but cannot
penetrate the impermeable layer. The top layers can then slide off the impermeable layer.

• Where there are rocks like shale or clay which become slippery when wet: Any
material above a layer of shale, clay or a similar material can slide off very easily when
they are wet.

• Heavy rainfall: This saturates the soil, making it heavier. It also reduces friction. Rainfall
increases the possibility of landslides in areas where the previously mentioned conditions
exist.

• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions cause vibrations in the ground which sometimes
trigger landslides.

Man increases the chance of landslides in the following ways:

• Removing vegetation from steep slopes: This makes landslides more likely as there are
no roots to hold the soil in place.
• Building on unstable slopes: Buildings place additional strain on already unstable slopes.
• Undercutting the base of slopes to build roads.

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Effects of Landslide

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Limestone
• Lime is one of the earliest binding materials used in buildings because its raw materials
are rich and widely distributed, the production process is simple and low-cost, and it is
easy to use. Therefore, lime is still widely used in construction until now.

Limestone is the name given to rock which is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Calcium
carbonate is a chemical compound of calcium, carbon and oxygen. The chemical formula for
calcium carbonate is CaCO3. Limestone is a sedimentary rock which is formed underwater. Some
limestone consists mainly of coral or the shells of other small marine creatures. Limestone may
also be precipitated from seawater. Limestone is a permeable rock. This means that water can
enter limestone through pores, joints or cracks in the rock. This means that water can enter
limestone through pores, joints or cracks in the rock. Another characteristic of limestone is that
it can be slowly dissolved by water. When groundwater or rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide, it
becomes a weak acidic solution which is especially effective at dissolving limestone. Because of
these simple facts, wherever limestone is in contact with rainwater or groundwater, some
interesting limestone features tend to develop.
Characteristics of limestone
2. Good Water Retention

The lime mortar generated by the aging of lime has good water retention, so it can be mixed in
cement mortar to improve the water retention of mortar to facilitate construction.
2. Slow Setting and Hardening, Low Strength

Because the carbonization of lime mortar in the air is very slow, the production of calcium
carbonate and calcium hydroxide is a little and quite slow. And thus, the strength of hardened
lime is low. According to tests, 1: 3 lime mortar of 28d has only 0.2-0.5 MPa strength which should
not be the basis for important buildings.
3. Poor Water Resistance
Calcium hydroxide is soluble in water, so if it is exposed to moisture or immerses in water for a
long time, the hardened lime will scatter. If lime mortar is in humid environment before complete
hardening, the water in lime cannot evaporate, and the hardening will be hindered. Therefore,
lime should not be applied in humid environment.
4. Large Shrinkage

In the hardening process of lime mortar, a large amount of water evaporates, which cause the
shrinkage of volume. And desiccation cracks will appear. Thus, lime mortar should not be used
alone except for the lime cream for thin painting. In use, it is often mixed with sand, hemp fiber,
paper pulp, and other things to resist cracking caused by shrinkage.

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Common Limestone Features

1. Sink holes: A sink hole (or swallow hole) is a natural depression or hole in the Earth’s
surface commonly found in limestone areas. They are formed when joints or fissures in the
rock are enlarged by carbonation or when the roof of an underground cavern collapses.
Sometimes a river or stream may “disappear” down a sink hole and continue flowing
underground. The photo below shows a large sinkhole located in China.

2. Caves: A cave is a naturally occurring underground hollow or passage, especially one with
an opening to the surface of the Earth. Caves often form in limestone areas when
underground water dissolves the rock, forming tunnels passages and even large caverns.
There are several caves in Barbados, the most famous of which is Harrison’s cave. Part of
Harrison’s Cave can be seen in the photo below.

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3. Stalactites and Stalagmites

• Stalactites: Water dripping from the ceiling of a cave contains dissolved calcium
carbonate. Some of this calcium carbonate may be deposited on the ceiling of the cave.
Over time the deposition of calcium carbonate will form an elongated feature which
hangs down from the ceiling. This feature is known as a stalactite.

• Stalagmites: As water drips from the ceiling onto the floor of the cave, calcium carbonate
may be deposited on the floor of the cave. Over time this may form an elongated feature
which rises vertically from the cave floor. This feature is known as a stalagmite.

4. Pillars: A stalagmite may form directly below a stalactite as water drips from the ceiling of
the cave onto the floor. The stalactite may continue to grow downwards and the
stalagmite may continue to grow upwards until the two limestone features eventually
meet. When this happens they form a new feature known as a pillar or column which
extends all the way from the ceiling of the cave to the floor.

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Karst Landscapes
In many limestone areas, the chemical weathering processes of solution and carbonation have produced
distinctive landscapes known as karst landscapes. Karst landscapes are dominated by features such as
sinkholes, disappearing streams and caves. One well known karst landscape in the Caribbean is
the Cockpit Country in Jamaica.

Map of Jamaica showing the Cockpit Country- outlined in pink

The Cockpit country is a large area with many small hills and depressions. This karst landscape
was formed in an area with white limestone. In this area, the rock has many joints. These joints
cross each other as some run from east to west and others run generally from north to south.
Water collects in these joints. Therefore the rock near the joints is dissolved relatively quickly
forming depressions. Small hills form in areas which are further away from the joints as the rock
in these areas is not dissolved as quickly.

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Photograph showing Karst Landscape

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