New Era University College of Business Education and Administration

SOCIOLOGY
Jennifer A. Guillermo BSBA B1 Mrs. Adelaida Pallones

DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES: 1. Anomie - is a state of being, as it would be experienced by an individual. EXAMPLE: >feeling depressed because of hopelessness and not knowing where one fits into society. An uncertain future would bring about anomie in people and society during an economic depression for instance. 2. Deviance - is something that goes against social norms. EXAMPLE: > (INFORMAL DEVIANCE) picking ones nose in the public > (FORMAL DEVIANCE) robbery, theft, rape, murder 3.Disaster Behavior - is the behavior of the people in a natural or man-made hazard that has come to fruition resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. EXAMPLE: >Accidents, Fires, Explosions, Floods. 4. Aggregates - Large collections of people may act as groups, with some degree of common purpose, but they may also act as non-organized collectivities, or aggregates. EXAMPLE: >an audience or crowd may be said to be an aggregate, in so far as its members lack any organization or persisting pattern of social relationships. The term is also used more broadly in reference to research or analysis that deals only with aggregate data, which consist of statistics produced for broad groups or categories (for example certain types of persons, households, or companies), and in which the characteristics of individual respondents (persons, households, or companies) are no longer identifiable. 5. War- is a state of organized, armed and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality.In addition to the existence of this organized behavior pattern amongst human primates, very similar organized warlike behavior patterns are also found in many other primate species such as chimpanzees, as well as in manyant species.

EXAMPLES: a.)Civil War This is a war in which a large portion of the population of a country goes to war with another large part of the population, in open conflict. The best example of this is the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865. b.) Revolutionary War This occurs when the general population of a country rises up against its own government, in order to overthrow it and replace it. The best examples of this would be The American Revolutionary War and The French Revolution. c.) Wars of religion This is when a large number of people, from the same country or different countries, take up arms against the people of another religion, or even different sects of the same religion. The best examples of many countries banding together for the sake of religion, to fight another religion, would be the Crusades, The 30 Years war in Europe, and The War of the Spanish Succession. d.) World War When many countries all over the world go to war against each other, while united through alliances against the opposing side. The Best examples of this would be WWI and WWII, although it may be said that the 7 Years War of 1756 to 1763 was also a world war, in that it was fought mainly in North America and in Europe, while minor sea engagements spread to the Caribbean and other places. e.) Cyber War This is a very new form of warfare, dealing with the attacks on another country's computer systems, mainly through the internet. This could be done through misinformation, such as false reports placed in another country's most popular media, to virus attacks to shut down internet communications completely. A good example of this would be the garbage and misinformation coming out of the Middle East today, from such sources as Al Jazeera, Al Qaida, and the Taliban. Their victories could be said to occur when people of the target country begin to believe bizzarre conspiracy theories, or think that we a re losing in Iraq, when we are actually winning, and nearly finished there. f.) Guerrilla War This is Spanish for "little war". This is when there is a part of a population of a country, much smaller than the established part, who take to fighting in jungles and forests in little groups, always hiding and attacking only by surprise, usually on people who can not fight back.

Good examples of this would be the Malay war of the 1950's, Vietnam, and present-day columbia. g.) Proxy War As another answerer had said, this is when two major countries, for whatever reasons, can not openly fight each other, so they involve themselves in smaller conlicts, supporting either side, practicing for a possible future war against each other. The goals of the conflict itself usually become minor to the big picture of the two big countries indirectly fighting. A good example of this would be the Afghanistan War of 1979-1989. The Soviets entered to support a failing communist government, only to be embroiled in a long guerrilla war with the Mujahedeen, supported by the U.S.. h.) Insurgency This is when the majority of a country has a popular elected government, yet some small elements of the population refuse to accept the reality, and carry out attacks usually on defenseless people, to scare them into reversing their support for the government. The best example of this would be the present day Iraq War. i.) Class or caste war This is when a whole group of a certain class rise up in rebellion against another class. The best examples of this would be the Russian Revolution, and Cambodia in 1975-79. j.) Wars of Unification This is when one strong state of a group of states, begins a series of wars to unite all the states into one country. The best examples of this would be the Unification of Germany under Bismarck, and the Unification of Italy under Garibaldi and Maximillian. k.) Wars of Nationalism This occurs when the people of one country suddenly feel that they are better than the people of another country, and therefore should be ruled by them. Good examples of this would be Japan and Korea, Japan and China, and the FrancoPrussian War of 1870. l.) Wars for Resources This is when the people or government of a country decides that it needs the resources of another country, in order to survive or prosper. It can also be of different peoples of the same country. Good examples of this would be Darfur today, over water and arable land, or Japan's drive for the Indonesia oilfields at the beginning of WWII in the Pacific. m.) Wars of Genocide This happens when one group of people decide that another group of people aren't fit to

live, and must be exterminated. A good example of this would be Rwanda a few years ago. n.) Total War This is an advanced stage of World War, where no form of attack is barred. Good examples of this would be the bombing raids on Germany during WWII, unrestricted u-boat warfare during WWII, and the use of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. o.) Cold War This is a form of war with balances, where both sides of alliances try to meet attack and defense needs of each other, either trying for an advantage, thus a reasonable chance for a successful outcome of a real war, or balance, thus preventing it. The best example of this would be the Cold War of 1946 to 1991, in Europe and elsewhere, between the Warsaw Pact and NATO.

6. Marriage - a binding contract between the two parties that joins together their possessions, income, and lives. Marriage is recognized by the state, and the dissolving of the contract can only happen through the legal process of divorce. EXAMPLES: Devitalized Couples This type of marriage has the lowest of all Enrich scores. The couples are very dissatisfied in their marriages and had considered divorce. The characteristics of these couples were: - Being younger than average - Less educated - Lower status occupations - Lower incomes Conflicted Couples This type of marriage had moderately low scores in the Enrich inventory overall, but were higher in religious aspects. Their lowest scores were in the marital relationship areas of conflict resolution and communication. The characteristics of this group was: - Being younger than average - Less educated - Lower status occupations - Lower incomes - Husbands frequently had two jobs

- Shorter courtship - Married recently - Higher instance of religious differences Traditional Couples This group had higher than average scores, and were the most satisfied group in handling children and parenting duties. Characteristics of this type include: - Younger marriage, but have been married longer - Have children - Religion is important in their marriage Harmonious Couples This group had moderately high scores, second to vitalized couples, but their levels of agreement on parenting issues were lower (and this group had the fewest children, often one child). Characteristics include: - Older - Married for a short period of time - Few children - Wives tended to work full-time - Men had lower incomes - Higher education - Higher status jobs - Majority of couples had not considered divorce Vitalized Couples This type of marriage has the highest level of satisfaction across all categories. They were very high in marital interaction scores, meaning they were comfortable with their partner's personality, habits, communication, and conflict resolution. Characteristics include: - Older - Married for longer time - More educated - HIgher incomes - Husbands tended to work one job (not two) and be part-time more often

7. Division of Labor- is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and like roles. Historically an increasingly complex division of labour is closely associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialisation processes. Division of labour was also a method used by the Sumerians to categorise different jobs, and divide them to skilled members of a society. A division of labour is when there is a job to be done, and then you divide up that job into various tasks for all to do. EXAMPLES: Food Production The division of labor begins when food production begins, which is a pattern rooted in the history of humanity. The earliest humans tended to divide their work by category, where men hunted and fished and women gathered vegetable foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts Preparing Foods Food preparation particularly that which occurs in the home and family is most strongly associated with women and women's work. This is a pattern that has been documented widely. Journalist Laura Shapiro and food writer Ruth Reichl outline the history of this development in the United States in Perfection Salad, their account of the "domestic science" movement. As a result of this movement, women's work came to be viewed as professional and cooking and other domestic activities were elevated to a woman's highest calling. Other Types of Divisions However, gender is not the only way that labor is divided. This is true for food preparation, as it is for many other types of labor. Class or rank is a major category of division. For example, among the affluent in society, in modern times as well as in the past, servants often prepare food for the household. Also, certain kinds of foods might only be prepared or consumed by people of specific social classes. Archaeologist Christine Hastorf's work in Peru traced the preparation and consumption of corn, in the form of corn beer, through the pre-Incan and Incan periods. Using a sophisticated array of techniques, Hastorf compared the presence of corn pollens among different house sites and throughout neighborhoods.

8. Oligarchy- A form of government in which the supreme power is placed in the hands of a few persons; also, those who form the ruling few. EXAMPLES: >Since the collapse of the Soviet Union on 31 December 1991, privately owned Russia-based multinational corporations, including producers of petroleum, natural gas, and metal have become oligarchs. Privatization allowed executives to amass phenomenal wealth and power almost overnight. In May 2004, the Russian edition of Forbes identified 36 of these oligarchs as being worth at least $1 billion.[4] A well-known fictional oligarchy is represented by the Party in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. 9. Fascism- Political ideology that imposes strict social and economicalmeasures as a method of empowering the government andstripping citizens of rights. This authoritative system of government is usually headed by an absolute dictator whokeeps citizens suppressed via acts of violence and strictlaws that govern the people. The most noted form of Fascism was implemented under Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, who both stripped citizens of their rights and maintained strict regimes that resulted in the deaths of thousands of humans. Some of the defining characteristicsof fascism are: (1) racism, (2) militarism, (3) dictatorship, and (4) destructive nationalistic policies. EXAMPLES: > Fascism is a form of socialism. The best example of Fascism was Nazi Germany. Fascism is the public ownership of all property except in name. It allows citizens to pretend that they own property, but they must use it in accordance with the wishes of the state. Since ownership means the ability to control a piece of property, the ownership is actually in the hands of the government. Fascism is often confused with other aspects of the Nazi regime. The Nazis were racists and nationalists. These are not necessary components of Fascism, though. Fascism is simply government ownership of all property in fact, with private ownership of property in name.

10. Catholicism - the faith, practice, or system of Catholic Christianity EXAMPLES: Types of Catholics- Ultratraditionalist Catholics. Ultratraditionalist Catholics consider themselves nonrevisionist Catholics. They are extremely critical of the changes brought about by Vatican II and wish the church would return to its earlier course. They can be somewhat radical in their defense of "old time" Catholicism. For example, they would be happy if the mass (liturgical service centered around the Eucharist) were still recited in Latin. They hold the traditions and hierarchy of the church in highest esteem (except when the hierarchy steps on their nonrevisionist toes). They would strongly affirm classical Catholicism as revealed in the ancient creeds, councils, conciliar documents (i.e., documents produced during councils), and papal encyclicals (i.e., letters). They are generally suspicious and intolerant toward other divergent groups within Catholicism. Types of Catholics- Traditionalist Catholics. The traditionalist Catholics in many ways make up the backbone of the church hierarchy. A Christianity Today editorial described the group this way: "This important segment of the church, specially powerful among the laity of the national churches, the older clergy, and the bishops and upper level of the hierarchy, adheres to the whole of creedal Roman Catholicism and obedience to the church as interpreted by the pope."13 The traditionalists are very critical of liberalism and modernism within the church, but they are generally accepting of the reforms found in Vatican II. Although this group's influence diminished somewhat after Vatican II, they have enjoyed a revival during John Paul II's reign as pope. While Pope John Paul may be considered progressive in many of his decisions concerning the church, at heart his doctrinal views are those of a traditional Catholic. This is especially illustrated in his beliefs concerning the Virgin Mary. Types of Catholics- Liberal Catholics. Liberal Catholics have substantially departed from traditional Catholicism, and one might say from traditional Christianity as a whole. While liberals differ among themselves in the degree to which they depart from classical Catholicism, like their Protestant counterparts they have conceded much to the rationalistic unbelief so prevalent in Western culture since the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period. They have in effect replaced the Bible and church authority with the authority of human reason. Types of Catholics- Charismatic/Evangelical Catholics. 1992 marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Catholic charismatic renewal movement. Emerging from humble beginnings in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1967, the late 1960s and 1970s saw the Catholic charismatic renewal flourish in the church.

11. Stimulants - An agent, especially a chemical agent such as caffeine, that temporarily arouses or accelerates physiological or organic activity. EXAMPES: >cocaine, methamphetines, nicotine, speed and caffeine 12. Convergence Perspective - has been defined as the ability of one or different networks to carry different services.Or the bringing together of industries in the communications area, which were previously viewed as separate and distinct in both the commercial and the technological sense. EXAMPLES: >provision of Internet access and TV to mobiles and triple or quad play services offered by ISPs or Cable TV Operators. 13. Fashion - a general term for a currently popular style or practice, especially in clothing, foot wear or accessories. Fashion references to anything that is the current trend in look and dress up of a person. The more technical term, costume, has become so linked in the public eye with the term "fashion" that the more general term "costume" has in popular use mostly been relegated to special senses like fancy dress ormasquerade wear, while the term "fashion" means clothing generally, and the study of it. For a broad cross-cultural look at clothing and its place in society, refer to the entries for clothing, costume and fabrics. EXAMPLES: The modern classic you are preppy, but with a modern edge. Other then the odd stripe, you prefer solid colours. You are most comfortable in updated tailored items, twin sets, knee length skirts, button down shirts, dark blue jeans and plain pumps. Your look is simple, feminine, appropriate and understated. The sporty natural you are an outdoorsy, low maintenance type of girl, who is usually athletically inclined. There is often a tomboy element to you and you generally dont like to shop. You live in jeans, shorts, plain t-shirts, shirts and appropriate sportswear for hiking, rock climbing, kayaking or working out. The funky urbanite you are retro and shun anything that looks polished and pristine. You like your clothing to look worn and embrace practical messenger bags and fashionable walking shoes. Your neutral colour palette is sophisticated and your style uncomplicated and efficient. You are often edgy and can even look a bit gothic at times.

The trendy fashionista you are a fashion trend tracker and usually the first to sport a new fashion statement. You are passionate about fashion and love to shop. You are fearless when it comes to mixing colours, fabrics, textures and prints. You are always well turned out and ready for a change when the new season comes along. The artistic eclectic you like novelty and selectively choose fashion trends that tickle your fancy, often ignoring key looks that everyone else has latched onto. You may prefer to dress exotically if you are inspired by a particular culture. Your accessories are unconventional (often vintage), and you always find creative ways of matching them with your ensemble. The bohemian hippie you are an earthy flower child. You love empire lines, peasant blouses ethnic jewelry and flared leg pants. Youll often have long wavy hair and enjoy the opportunity to be creative. You dont follow trends, but certainly have a playful style all of your own. 14.Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct EXAMPLES: The European "discovery" and settlement of the Americas (the New World) - the demise and disappearance of many---but by no means all--Native American communities in the United States as an example. Yet, acculturation was two way - ipotatoes, tomatoes , and chocolate were first domesticated by Native Americans and unknown in the rest of the world until the 16th century. Same with tobacco--a multi-billion dollar industry, a health hazard to many, a cherished part of their lives to others. Tobacco, too, was unknown in Europe and Asia prior to 1500.

15. Property Property is any physical or intangible entity that is owned by a person or jointly by a group of people. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property has the right to consume, sell, rent, mortgage,transfer, exchange or destroy it, or to exclude others from doing these things.[1][2][3] Important widely recognized types of property include real property (the combination of land and any improvements to or on the land),personal property (physical possessions belonging to a person), private property (property owned by legal persons or business entities), public property (state owned or publicly owned and available possessions) andintellectual property (exclusive rights over artistic creations, inventions, etc.), although the latter is not always as widely recognized or enforced. [4] A title, or a right of ownership, establishes the relation between the property and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the property as the owner sees fit. Some philosophers assert

that property rights arise from social convention. Others find origins for them inmorality or natural law. EXAMPLES: Most legal systems distinguish different types (immovable property, estate in land, real estate, real property) of property, especially between land and all other forms of property goods and chattels, movable property or personal property. They often distinguish tangible and intangible property (see below). One categorization scheme specifies three species of property: land, improvements (immovable man-made things), and personal property (movable man-made things). In common law, real property (immovable property) is the combination of interests in land and improvements thereto, and personal property is interest in movable property. Real property rights are rights relating to the land. These rights include ownership and usage. Owners can grant rights to persons and entities in the form of leases, licenses and easements. Later, with the development of more complex forms of non-tangible property, personal property was divided into tangible property (such as cars and clothing) and intangible property (such as financial instruments, including stocks and bonds, and intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks). 16. Matrilocal- denoting, having, or relating to a marriage pattern in which the couple live with the wife's family. 17. Terrorism- the use of violence and threats to intimidate or coerce, especially for political purposes. EXAMPLE: >Death Squads El Salvador. >The bombing of a Cuban Airliner supported by a U.S. Administration. Paramilitaries throughout Central and South America by The U.S.A. Haiti by the U.S.A. a coup in 1994.

18. Ecclesia- The ecclesia (like the universal church) shares the same ethical system as the larger society. The ecclesia represents the interests of the ruling class, and hence loses its influence over the lower classes EXAMPLE: Catholic church in medieval Europe, the Anglican church in England and Islam in several Near East societies 19. Cult - refers to a group whose beliefs or practices are considered abnormal or bizarre.The word originally denoted a system of ritual practices. The narrower, derogatory sense of the word is a product of the 20th century, especially since the 1980s, and is considered subjective. It is also a result of the anti-cult movement which uses the word in reference to groups seen as authoritarian, exploitative and that are believed to use dangerous rituals or mind control. The word implies a group which is a minority in a given society. The word was first used in the early 17th century denoting homage paid to a divinity and derived from French culte or Latin cultus worship, from cult- inhabited, cultivated, worshiped, from the verb colere 'care, cultivation. EXAMPLES:
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The Peoples Temple - Jim Jones, the leader of The Peoples Temple, was an odd child who was intrigued, at a very young age, by religious zeal and a strong interest in death. From these abnormal beginnings, Jones rose to become a macabre symbol of mind control and brainwashing. Jones cloaked his darker interest in death beneath a veneer of Socialism, believing that true religious consciousness would lead to a socialist viewpoint. He felt that the Bible was ridiculous; a sort of joke or fairy tale, and his followers grew in numbers as he refined his own doctrine. Eventually, Jones and his disciples had to flee the United States, as they were pressured by the government regarding charges of violence, abuse of followers, and illegal cult activity. They escaped to a settlement in Guyana, which Jones named (naturally) Jonestown. This is where the largest mass suicide in cult history was played out, the result of Jones convincing his followers that they were being pursued by foreign governments who would torture them and hurt their children. Gripped with terror, 909 followers (including many children) drank the infamous Kool-Aid and gave their lives over to the cult, forever. Branch Davidias - David Koresh was a charismatic leader who taught his followers that the United States Government was the enemy of God. Also preaching the nowfamiliar refrain of apocalyptic terror and destruction, Koresh installed all of his followers at a compound in Waco, Texas, with some serious weapons, and

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instructions to fear and fight the authorities that threatened their life at the cult. Koresh enjoyed the bodies of his young female followers, while painting himself as the Messiah. In February of 1994, the ATF went out to the compound, to investigate allegations of the sexual abuse of children as young as twelve, and the illegal hoarding of weapons. A famous standoff ended in tragedy as canisters of tear gas were tossed into the compound by the ATF, resulting (maybe?) in fires that caused the death of 76 members. There is much contention about whose fault the tragic fire was: the controversy continues to this day. The Solar Temple - Another cult with a charismatic leader, Luc Joret, the Solar Temple also preached the message of Apocalypse, claiming that it would come through natural disasters. Only Solar Temple converts would escape the fate of mankind: since they were the faithful, they would be spared. The Solar Temple devotees believed that suicide was actually salvation, and that they would be really be going on a journey to a star called Sirius. These beliefs were so strong that, in 1994, 53 members of the cult were found dead of suicide in a compound near Geneva, Switzerland. Joret, having earned more than 93 million dollars instilling this doctrine in his followers, was one of the dead in Switzerland, apparently also on a death voyage to a distant star: Joret started out as Gestapo officer during World War II. Heavens Gate - A true doomsday cult, Heavens Gate followers believed in UFOs and that the Earth (and everyone on it) was about to be wiped clean and recycled. The only chance of escape, preached leaders Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles, was to get off the planet immediately. Such teachings were the harbingers of mass suicides, and the followers were prepared with instructional videos and teachings, to leave their flesh bodies behind, and ascend to a new level of being. When the Hale-Bopp comet appeared in 1997, Applewhite had the sign he needed. Convinced that a spaceship was waiting just beyond the comet, to rescue his followers, he ordered the suicides of 38 followers, who believed it all. The 38 followers, and Applewhite, were all found dead in a beautiful house in San Diego in 1997. The Manson Family - One of the most notorious cults of the modern age, the Manson Family was small, but deadly. Led by charismatic leader Charles Manson, a juvenile delinquent who sodomized other boys while in detention, Family followers believed in Helter Skelter, a massive retaliation by the black race against, in their own words, whitey. They also shared Mansons belief that the Beatles White Album was sending them messages about how to participate in Helter Skelter. Songs like Piggies, from that album, inspired drug-addled murderers like Charles Tex Watson and Patricia Krenwinkel to go into the Hollywood Hills and commit the

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gruesome murders of successful, rich members of the upper classes. When Roman Polanksis pregnant fiance, the stunning actress Sharon Tate, begged for the life of her unborn baby, she was told, I have no mercy for you. Ku Klux Klan (KKK) - Spawned from the intensely racist Christian Identity Movement, The KKK practiced cold-blooded acts of murder during their reign of terror, at its most potent during the time after the Civil War. But their activities, born out of a desire for white supremacy, did not stop there. Famous for the meetings they attended, fully hidden by white robes and hoods, and the burning crosses they would erect to frighten those they despised, the KKK membership swelled to almost four million at its peak in 1928. The KKK had many enemies, looking down not only on the entire black race, but also on Catholics, Jews, and other non-white races Children of God - A seriously twisted cult that delivered an evil message that sex with children was natural and right, The Children of God cult was also known as the Family and was founded by David Berg. Known for turning female cult followers into prostitutes who used sex to entice men into the cult, they were the purveyors of The System, a doctrine that included belief in the Apocalypse. Actress Rose McGowan of Charmed was raised in the cult, and so was River Phoenix, who later died after an overdose in front of Johnny Depps Viper Room. The cults system of sexual abuse and flirty fishing (the use of sex to lure new members) makes it a particularly nasty addition to our list. The Unification of Church - Better known by the mocking nickname, Moonies, the disciples of Sun Myung Moon believe that Moon himself is the divine being, or Messiah. His status as the second coming of Christ allows him to live in royal fashion, supported by his many followers all over the world. Moon was unwelcome in Germany, being banned from the country, along with his wife, as a potentially dangerous influence on German youth: they were not allowed to enter Germany until 2006. It is believed that the cult lures in young people and separates them from their loved ones by making them feel a part of a new and more loving family. Moon expects to be treated as God, because he believes he is God, or so he has led his many followers to believe. Other belief systems of the Moonie cult are that an actual kingdom of heaven exists on Earth, not solely in the afterlife, as Christians believe. Korea is the chosen realm of this kingdom, according to Moon, who has earned millions and millions of dollars from Koreans, his chosen people, while preaching that Christian churches are the devils instruments.

20. Hallucinogens - A substance that significantly distorts the way a person experiences reality. While under the affects of a hallucinogen, it is possible to see objects or events, smell odors, hear sounds or feel other stimuli without these things existing in the external environment. EXAMPLES: LSD DMT (Ayahuasca) DET STP (DOM) Psilocybin ("Magic Mushrooms") Mescaline (Peyote, San Pedro) Datura (Jimson Weed) PCP (Phencyclidine, Angel's Dust) Ketamine DPT 21. Rumors - often viewed as "an unverified account or explanation of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern. However, a review of the research on rumor conducted by Pendleton in 1998 found that research across sociology, psychology, and communication studies had widely varying definitions of rumor. Thus, rumor is a concept that lacks a particular definition in the social sciences. But most theories agree that rumor involves some kind of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. In addition, some scholars have identified rumor as a subset of propaganda, the latter another notoriously difficult concept to define. A pioneer of propaganda studies, Harold Lasswell defined propaganda in 1927 as referring "solely to the control of opinion by significant symbols, or, to speak more concretely and less accurately, by stories, rumors, reports, pictures, and other forms of social communication" (1927:9). Rumors are also often discussed with regard to "misinformation" and "disinformation" (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government). Rumors thus have often been viewed as particular forms of other communication concepts. EXAMPLES: Pipe dream rumors represent wishful thinking on the part of the circulators. Bogie rumor is a fear rumor that spooks the market place. Self-fulfilling rumors are based on a perception of what could happen in the future if something else were to occur.

Inprem edit ated rumors individuals spread rumors that may help them financially or otherwise. Spontaneous rumors arise when people seek explanations for unusual events. 22. Bureaucracy - system of administration distinguished by its (1) clearhierarchy of authority, (2) rigid division of labor, (3) written and inflexible rules, regulations, and procedures, and (4) impersonal relationships. Once instituted, bureaucracies are difficult to dislodge or change. EXAMPLES: > The word "bureaucracy" stems from the word "bureau", used from the early 18th century in Western Europe not just to refer to a writing desk, but to an office, i.e. a workplace, where officials worked Because bureaucrats have more information than elected officials about what they are doing and what they should be doing, bureaucrats might have the ability to implement policies or regulations that go against the public interest.Theodore Lowi concluded in a 1979 book that the U.S. Congress does not exercise effective oversight of bureaucratic agencies. Instead, policies are made by "iron triangles," consisting of interest groups, appointed bureaucrats, and Congressional subcommittees. 23. Accomodation - Initially proposed by Jean Piaget, the term accommodation refers to part of the adaptation process. The process of accommodation involves altering ones existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process. EXAMPLES: >A young child may have an existing schema for dogs. Dogs have four legs, so the child may automatically believe that all animals with four legs are dogs. When the child learns that cats also have four legs, she will undergo a process of accommodation in which her existing schema for dogs will change and she will also develop a new schema for cats. 24. Family - Social unit of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption and having a shared commitment to the mutual relationship. EXAMPLES: On the basis of marriage: Family has been classified into three major types:

Polygamous or polygynous family

Polyandrous family Monogamous family

On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into three main forms.

Family of matrilocal residence Family of patrilocal residence Family of changing residence

On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two main types

Matrilineal family Patrilineal family

On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations family can be classified into two main types.

Nuclear or the single unit family Joint family

On the basis of the nature of relations among the family members the family can be classified into two main types.

The conjugal family which consists of adult members among there exists sex relationship. Consanguine family which consists of members among whom there exists blood relationship- brother and sister, father and son etc.

25. Endogamy - Marriage within a particular group in accordance with custom or law. Endogamy is common in many cultures and ethnic groups. Several ethnic religious groups are traditionally more endogamous, although sometimes with the added dimension of requiring marital religious conversion, permitting an ostensibly endogamous marriage to be performed since the convert has accepted the partner's culture. Certain groups such as Orthodox Jews have practiced endogamy as an inherent part of their religious beliefs and traditions. EXAMPLES: Famous examples of strictly endogamous religious groups have been the Assyrians, Jews, Yazidi in Northern Iraq (under Islamic majority), Turkmens and Armenians in Iran, Old Order Amish, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons and the Parsi of India (a non-Hindu minority in India). Through the 1940-1950s in the United States, the Roman Catholic Church was successful at keeping its people marrying within the Catholic community. Since the 1960s, that has been

changing as well. The caste system in India is based on an order of (predominantly) endogamous groups. Its formation has been suggested to have originated from the social organization of these groups. 26. Communism - Communism is a sociopolitical movement that aims for a classless and stateless society structured upon common ownership of the means of production, free access to articles of consumption, and the end of wage labour and private property in the means of production and real estate. EXAMPLES: All people are equal in which being ruled by the state alone.It brings a hwole group together as the power. The wealth and equality is divided among the people in which no man is richer and no man is poorer.No one is left behind. Ex: You have barely enough food for your own family and your neighbor has none at all. You make sure in all equality that even though you may barely have food, you must give some to your neighbor. You both will eat dinner tonight even if it is not a the full suggested amount.

27. Totalitarianism- form of government that theoretically permits no individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of the individuals life to the authority of the government. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term totalitario in the early 1920s to describe the new fascist state of Italy, which he further described as: All within the state, none outside the state, none against the state. By the beginning of World War II, totalitarian had become synonymous with absolute and oppressive single-party government. EXAMPLES: A totalitarian government is a country run with only one political party, like China, or North Korea. The government can prevent people from doing anything including leaving the country. Stalin lead a totalitarian government in Russia during the Cold War. Totalitarianisn can also mean that this country might be ruled by one person. In general, it means that one person or party holds absolute control. It generally means that the population is excluded from the political process, and any form of dissent is met with force.

28. Sect - A group of people forming a distinct unit within a larger group by virtue of certain refinements or distinctions of belief or practice. Small religious group that is an offshoot of an established religion or denomination. It holds most beliefs in common with its religion of origin, but has a number of novel concepts which differentiate them from that religion. EXAMPLES: >However, in many countries, the term "sect" takes on the negative meanings associated with the word "cult." The two terms are considered synonyms in some cases.Many religions started as sects. One well-known example was the Nazarenes. This was an reform movement within Judaism formed by Jesus' apostles after the execution of Jesus circa 30 CE They were largely dispersed or killed some four decades later when the Romans attacked Jerusalem and destroyed the temple. Sects can therefore be considered a normal mechanism by which new religious movements are generated. Most sects die out quickly. Others linger. Still others grow and evolve in to a new established religious movement and are properly called denominations. A very few become new religions. 29. Life of Expectancy - is the expected (in the statistical sense) number of years of life remaining at a given age.[1] It is denoted by ex, which means the average number of subsequent years of life for someone now aged x, according to a particular mortalityexperience. (In technical literature, this symbol means the average number of complete years of life remaining, excluding fractions of a year. The corresponding statistic including fractions of a year, the normal meaning of life expectancy, has a symbol with a small circle over the e.) In modern times, life expectancy has substantially changed on a yearly basis and cannot be used accurately for long-term predictions. EXAMPLES: >life expectancy from birth for all people in the United States is 77.7 years, those who live to age 65 will have an average of almost 18 additional years left to live, making their life expectancy almost 83 years. 30. Sedatives - a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. EXAMPLES: Seconal, Tuinal, Nembutal and Phenobarbital, Benzodiazepines (Valium, Atavan, Librium, Zanax, Lorazapam, Methaqualone, & Meprobamate. 31. Expressive Crowds - Not all crowds act. In some crowds the participants are largely preoccupied with themselves or with one another, and with participation in a common experience. Beginning as early as the 7th century in Europe, and continuing throughout the Middle Ages, there were reported epidemics in which groups of people were caught up in a

frenzy of dancing that continued until they dropped. Later a collective frenzy of dancing, singing, and shouting became a regular feature of frontier revivals in 19th-century America. Crowds that exceeded conventional limits of revelry have been common in many historical eras. 32. Leadership - Leadership has been described as the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Definitions inclusive of nature of leadership have also emerged. Alan Keith ofGenentech states that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen." According to Ken "SKC" Ogbonnia, "effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals." 33. Amalgamation- is nothing but joining of two companies. One company join to another company after they are making a new company is called AMALGAMATION. 34. Polygyny (from neo-Greek: poly - "many", and gyny - "woman or wife")[ is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist. It is distinguished from relationships where a man has a sexual partner outside marriage, such as a concubine, casual sexual partner, paramour, cohabits with a married woman or other culturally but not legally recognized secondary partner. Polygyny is the most common form of polygamy; the much rarer practice of polyandry is the form of marriage in which one woman has two or more husbands at the same time.[3] 35. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit, usually in competitive markets.[1] Income in a capitalist system takes at least two forms, profit on the one hand and wages on the other. There is also a tradition that treats rent, income from the control of natural resources, as a third phenomenon distinct from either of those. In any case, profit is what is received, by virtue of control of the tools of production, by those who provide the capital. Often profits are used to expand an enterprise, thus creating more jobs and wealth. Wages are received by those who provide a service to the enterprise, also known as workers, but do not have an ownership stake in it, and are therefore compensated irrespective of whether the enterprise makes a profit or a loss. In the case of profitable enterprise, profits are therefore not translated to workers except at the discretion of the owners, who may or may not receive increased compensation, whereas losses are not translated to workers except at similar discretion manifested by decreased compensation.

36. Economy- relating to the production, development, and management of material wealth, as of a country, household, or business enterprise. EXAMPLES: Job Oppurtunities, stock market(the stock market does not play a big role in the economy but as far as moral support for the people it can either better the economoy or strengthen the economy), health services, and transportation. 37. Government - refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized.[1][2] Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. The word government is derived from the Latin verb gubernare, an infinitive meaning "to govern" or "to manage", and the Latin noun mente, meaning "mind". EXAMPLES: 1. Democracy The word "democracy" literally means "rule by the people." In a democracy, the people govern. 2. Republic A literal democracy is impossible in a political system containing more than a few people. All "democracies" are really republics. In a republic, the people elect representatives to make and enforce laws. 3. Monarchy A monarchy consists of rule by a king or queen. Sometimes a king is called an "emperor," especially if there is a large empire, such as China before 1911. There are no large monarchies today. The United Kingdom, which has a queen, is really a republic because the queen has virtually no political power. 4. Aristocracy An aristocracy is rule by the aristocrats. Aristocrats are typically wealthy, educated people. Many monarchies have really been ruled by aristocrats. Today, typically, the term "aristocracy" is used

negatively to accuse a republic of being dominated by rich people, such as saying, "The United States has become an aristocracy." 5. Dictatorship A dictatorship consists of rule by one person or a group of people. Very few dictators admit they are dictators; they almost always claim to be leaders of democracies. The dictator may be one person, such as Castro in Cuba or Hitler in Germany, or a group of people, such as the Communist Party in China. 6. Democratic Republic Usually, a "democratic republic" is not democratic and is not a republic. A government that officially calls itself a "democratic republic" is usually a dictatorship. Communist dictatorships have been especially prone to use this term. For example, the official name of North Vietnam was "The Democratic Republic of Vietnam." China uses a variant, "The People's Republic of China." 38. Merge - The combining of two or more companies, generally by offering the stockholders of one company securities in the acquiring company in exchange for the surrender of their stock. 39. Fertility - is the natural capability of giving life. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction (influenced by gamete production, fertilisation and carrying a pregnancy to term). A lack of fecundity would be called sterility