FIITJEE LTD

NARAYANGUDA
PHYSICS-II
IPE NOTES - 2023

CHAPTER 13
ATOMS

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is the angular momentum of electron in the second orbit of Bohr’s model of
hydrogen atom?
Ans. According to Bohr’s postulate for hydrogen-like atom, the angular momentum of an electron in
the nth orbit is.
nh
L
2
Therefore, the angular momentum of electron in the second orbit of Bohr’s mode of
2h h
Hydrogen atom, L  
2 

2. What is the expression for fine-structure constant and what is its value?
Ans. The amount of splitting is characterized by a dimensionless constant called the fine-structure
constant. This constant is given by the equation α = ke2/hc, where k is Coulomb’s
constant, e is the charge of the electron, h is Planck’s constant, and c is the speed of light.
The value of the constant α is 7.29735254 × 10−3, which is nearly equal to 1/137

3. What is the physical meaning of ‘negative energy of an electron’?

Ans. As an electron moves towards the nucleus, energy goes on decreasing. Initially as electrons
and nucleus were at infinite distance from one another, zero potential is considered and any
further decrease in potential energy implies negative potential energy.

4. Sharp lines are present in the spectrum of a gas. What does this indicate?
Ans. The spectrum of a gas appears as a series of sharp, bright lines. In such gases, the average
spacing between atoms is large. Hence, the radiation emitted can be considered due to
individual atoms rather than because of interactions between atoms or molecules. This
indicates that the spectrum has only certain discrete wavelengths.

5. Name a physical quantity whose dimensions are the same as those of angular
momentum.
nh
Ans. According to Bohr’s postulate, L  , where L is the angular momentum, n is the obit
2
number and h is the Planck’s constant. Therefore, [L] =[h] [M1L2T-1] , i.e., dimensions of
angular momentum and those of Planck’s Constant are the same.

6. What is the difference of α-particle and Helium atom?

Ans. An alpha particle is identical to a helium atom that has been stripped of its two electrons.
Therefore, an alpha-particle is a charged particle with mass equal to the Helium atom,
neglecting the mass if the two electrons in orbit.

7. How is impact parameter is related to angle of scattering?

Ans. The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the α-
particle from the centre of the nucleus. An α-particle close to the nucleus (small impact
 parameter) suffers large scattering. In case of head-on collision, the impact parameter is
minimum and the α-particle rebounds back (θ ≅ π). For a large impact parameter, the α-
particle goes nearly un-deviated and has a small deflection (θ ≅ 0).

8. Among alpha, beta and gamma radiations, which get affected by the electric field?
Ans. Alpha radiations have positively charged particles and beta radiations are emissions of
electrons or positrons both of which are charged particles. Gamma radiations are
electromagnetic radiation of the shortest wavelength and highest energy and are not affected
by the electric field while alpha and beta radiations are deflected in an electric field.

9. What do you understand from the phrase ‘ground state atom’?

Ans. The lowest state of the atom, called the ground state, is that of the lowest energy, with the
electron revolving in the orbit of smallest radius, the Bohr radius, a0. The energy of this state
(n = 1), E1 is –13.6 eV.

10. Why does the mass of the nucleus not have any significance in scattering in
Rutherford’s experiment?
Ans. The mass of the atom is concentrated in a small volume. Whatever be the mass of the
nucleus, it (radius about 10–15 m) is much smaller than the size of atom, (radius ≈ 10–10 m).
The fa ct that only a small fraction of the number of incident particles rebound back indicates
that the number of α-particles undergoing head on collision is small. Hence the mass and
size of the nucleus does not have any significance in the Rutherford Experiment.

11. The Lyman Series of hydrogen spectrum lies in the ultraviolet region. Why?
Ans. The Lyman Series of hydrogen spectrum is given by the expression,
1 1 1
 R1 2  2  for n = 2,3,4,…
 1 n 
From the above equation, in Lyman series longest wavelength corresponding to n = 2 is
121.57 nm and shortest wavelength corresponding to n = ∞ is 91.18 nm. Therefore, the entire
range of Lyman series lies in ultraviolet region.

12. Write down a table giving longest and shortest wavelengths of different spectral series.
Ans.
SERIES SHORTEST WAVELENGTH LONGEST WAVELENGTH
Lyman Series 91 nm 122 nm
Balmer Series 356 nm 656 nm
Paschen Series 820 nm 1875 nm
Brackett Series 1459 nm 4051 nm
Pfund Series 2279 nm 7458 nm

13. The wavelengths of some of the spectral lines obtained in hydrogen spectrum are 1216
  
A , 6463 A and 9546 A . Which one of these wavelengths belongs of the Paschen
series?

Ans. The wavelength 9546 A belongs to Paschen Series.

14. Give two drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model.

Ans. 1) The Rutherford model proposed orbital motion of an electron around the nucleus. Such a
motion would cause the energy of the accelerating electron to decrease due to radiation of
EM Waves. This would cause the electron to spiral inward and eventually fall into the nucleus.
Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.

2) As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular velocities and hence their frequencies would
change continuously. Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, in contradiction to the
line spectrum that is experimentally observed.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is impact parameter and angle of scattering? How are they related to each other?
Ans. Impact parameter (b): In Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment, the perpendicular
distance of the initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus is called
Impact parameter.

Angle of scattering (θ): The angle of deviation suffered by α-particle due to collision with
nucleus is called angle of scattering.

Relation between Impact parameter and Angle of scattering:

The trajectory traced by an α-particle depends on the impact parameter (b) of collision. A
given beam of α-particles has a distribution of impact parameters (b), so that the beam is
scattered in various directions with different probabilities. The trajectory of α- particles in the
coulomb field of a target nucleus is as shown in the below figure. The impact parameter (b)
and the scattering angle (θ) are also depicted in the figure.

It is seen that an α-particle close to the nucleus (small impact parameter) suffers large
scattering.
In case of head-on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and the α-particle rebounds
back. (θ ≅ π).
For a large impact parameter, the α-particle goes nearly un-deviated and has a small
deflection (θ ≅0).

2. Derive an expression for potential and kinetic energy of an electron in any orbit of a
hydrogen atom according to Bohr’s atomic model. How does P.E changes with
increasing n?
Ans. The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and the nucleus
provides the requisite centripetal force (Fc) to keep them in their orbits.
Thus, for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom,
Centripetal force = Electrostatic force of attraction
i.e.; Fe=Fc
mv 2 1 e2

r 4 0 r 2
1 e2
mv 
2
……………………… (1)
4 0 r
Where ‘m’ is mass and ‘e’ is the magnitude of charge of electron.
From Bohr’s second postulate, we have
nh
mvr  …………………….. (2)
2
By squaring equation (2) and dividing it with equation (1)
m 2 v 2 r 2 n 2 h 2 4 0 r

mv 2 4 2 e2
h 2 0 n 2
r …………………….. (3)
 e2 m
Kinetic energy of electron:
By dividing equation (1) with 2 we have
 1 2 1 e2
mv 
2 8 0 r
1 2 1 e2
 K .E  mv 
2 8 0 r
By substituting the value of ‘r’ in the above equation,
1 e2 e 2 m
K .E 
8 0 h2 0 n 2
me 4
 K .E 
8h 2 0 2 n 2
Potential energy of electron:
P.E= Potential (V) at a distance ‘Y’ from nucleus x charge of the electron
1 e 1 e2
 P.E   e   
4 0 r 4 0 r
By putting equation (3) in the above equation,
1 Qq
d0 
4 0 K
me4
U   2 2 2
4h 0 n
As ‘n’ increases potential energy decreases.

3. What are the limitations of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom?

Ans. Limitations:
1. The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended even to mere
two electron atoms such as helium. The analysis of atoms with more than one electron
was attempted on the lines of Bohr’s model for hydrogenic atoms but did not meet with
any success. Difficulty lies in the fact that each electron interacts not only with the
positively charged nucleus but also with all other electrons.
2. The formulation of Bohr model involves electrical force between positively charged
nucleus and electron. It does not include the electrical forces between electrons which
necessarily appear in multi-electron atoms.
3. While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by
hydrogenic atoms, the model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the
frequencies in the spectrum. In emission spectrum of hydrogen, some of the visible
frequencies have weak intensity, others strong. Experimental observations depict that
some transitions are more favoured than others. Bohr’s model is unable to account for
the intensity variations.
4. Bohr’s model presents an elegant picture of an atom and cannot be generalized to
complex atoms. For complex atoms we have to use a new and radical theory based on
Quantum Mechanics, which provides a more complete picture of the atomic structure.

4. Explain the distance of closest approach and impact parameter?

Ans. Distance of closest approach:
When an α-particle is approaching a gold nucleus with a kinetic energy K, the distance from
gold nucleus at which its kinetic energy becomes zero is called the distance of closest
approach (d0).
1 Qq
K  qV 
4 0 d 0
1 Qq
 d0 
4 0 K
 Where ‘q’ is the charge of α-particle and ‘Q’ is the charge of gold nucleus in Rutherford’s
experiment.
Impact parameter: In Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment, the perpendicular distance of
the initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the Centre of the nucleus is called Impact
parameter.

5. Give a brief account of Thomson model of atom. What are its limitations?
Ans. Thomson model of Atom:
In Thomson’s model, the positive charge of the atom is
-
uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the
- - -
negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a -
watermelon. Thomson’s model was compared to a British
- - -
dessert called plum pudding, hence the name. It is also called -
blueberry muffin model.
-
The Thomson’s model constitutes an electro statically unstable
system.
Limitations:
1. It could not explain Rutherford’s alpha particles scattering experiment, according to
which most of the space inside the atom must be empty.
2. It could not explain the spectral lines and spectral series of different atoms.

6. Describe Rutherford atom model. What are the drawbacks of this model?
Ans. Rutherford atom model:
Rutherford discovered nucleus of atom. This nucleus contains almost all the mass of the atom
and all its positive charge. Outside the nucleus there are electrons which move around the
nucleus like planets move around the sun. The space between the nucleus and the electrons
is empty.
Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in explaining the structure of atom:
1) The Rutherford model proposed orbital motion of an electron around the nucleus. Such a
motion would cause the energy of the accelerating electron to decrease due to radiation of
EM Waves. This would cause the electron to spiral inward and eventually fall into the nucleus.
Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.
2) As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular velocities and hence their frequencies would
change continuously. Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, in contradiction to the
line spectrum that is experimentally observed.

7. Distinguish between excitation potential and ionization potential?

Ans. Excitation potential:
The energy absorbed by an atom to move an electron in it from one orbit to the other is called
excitation potential.
When an atom absorbs some energy the electron may jump over to an orbit of higher energy.
This process is called excitation and the atom is said to be in the excited state.
Ionization potential:
If the energy supplied is large enough to remove an electron from the atom, then the atom is
said to be ionized.
The minimum energy needed to ionize an atom is called ionization energy. Here the removed
electron will have zero energy. Therefore, the ionization potential of a hydrogen atom in the
ground state is 13.6ev.

8. Explain the different types of spectral series?

Ans. Spectral series:
Hydrogen is the simplest atom and therefore, has the simplest spectrum. The spacing
between lines within certain sets of the hydrogen spectrum decreases in a regular way as
shown in figure below. Each of these sets is called a spectral series.
Hydrogen atom emits spectra of different series.
1. Lyman series
2. Balmar series
3. Paschen series
4. Brackett series
5. Pfund series
 The wavelength of spectral line emitted by hydrogen atom is given by
1 me4  1 1 
 2 
 2
 8h 0  n f
3 2
ni 
1  1 1 
Or  R 2  2  ………….. (1)
 n ni 
 f
where ‘R’ is a constant called the Rydberg constant. The value of ‘R’ is 1.097x107m-1. This
equation is also called Balmer formula. Different spectra emitted by hydrogen atom are,
When nf=1 and ni=2,3,4…. the lines emitted belong to Lyman series (UV)
When nf=2 and ni=3,4,5…. the lines emitted belong to Balmar series (Visible)
When nf=3 and ni=4,5,6…. the lines emitted belong to Paschen series (IR)
When nf=4 and ni=5,6,7…. the lines emitted belong to Brackett series (IR)
When nf=5 and ni=6,7,8…. the lines emitted belong to Pfund series (IR)
We know that   c
1 
Or 
 c
Thus equation (1) becomes,
 1 1 
  Rc   2
n 2
ni 
 f
9. Write a short note on de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate of
quantization?
Ans. de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate:
Bohr proposed his second postulate as the angular
momentum of an electron in a stationary orbit is quantized.
de Broglie argued that the electron in the stationary orbit acts
like a particle wave. As a result it forms stationary waves in
the orbit.
For an electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius rn, the
total distance is the circumference of the orbit, 2πrn.
Thus, 2 rn  n ………………. (1)
Where n= 1,2,3……
Figure below illustrates a standing particle wave on a circular orbit where four de Broglie
wavelengths fit into the circumference of the orbit (n = 4),
i.e., 2πrn = 4λ, where λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the electron moving in nth orbit.
We know λ= h/p, where p is the magnitude of the electron’s momentum. If the speed of the
electron is much less than the speed of light, the momentum is mvn. Thus, λ= h/mvn.
By putting the value of λ in equation (1) we have
h
2 rn  n
mvn
nh
i.e. mvn rn 
2
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum of the electron.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Describe Geiger-Marsden experiment on scattering of α-particles. How is the size of
the nucleus estimated in this experiment?
Ans: Geiger-Marsden experiment:
 Schematic arrangement of the Geiger-
Marsden experiment is as shown below.
Alpha-particles emitted by a 83Bi214 radioactive
source were collimated into a narrow beam by
their passage through lead bricks. The beam
was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of
thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m.
The scattered alpha-particles were observed
through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc
sulphide screen and a microscope.
The scattered alpha-particles on striking the screen produced brief light flashes. These
flashes may be viewed through a microscope and the distribution of the number of scattered
particles may be studied as a function of angle of scattering.
A typical graph of the total number of
α-particles scattered at different
angles, in a given interval of time, is as
shown in figure.
The dots are α-particle scattering data
for a thin gold.
The solid curve is the theoretical
prediction based on the assumption
that atom has a small, dense,
positively charged nucleus.
The scattering data shown in above
figure can be analyzed by employing Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom. As the gold foil
is very thin, it can be assumed that α-particles will suffer not more than one scattering during
their passage through it. Therefore, computation of the trajectory of an alpha-particle
scattered by a single nucleus is enough. Alpha-particles are nuclei of helium atoms and,
therefore, carry two units, 2e, of positive charge and have the mass of the helium atom. The
charge of the gold nucleus is Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the atom; for gold Z = 79.
Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than an α-particle, it is reasonable to
assume that it remains stationary throughout the scattering process. Under these
assumptions, the trajectory of an alpha-particle can be computed using Newton’s second law
of motion and the Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force of repulsion between the alpha-particle
and the positively charged nucleus. The magnitude of this force is
1  2e  Ze 
F
4 0 r2
where r is the distance between the α-particle and the nucleus. The force is directed along the
line joining the α-particle and the nucleus. The magnitude and direction of the force on an α-
particle continuously changes as it approaches the nucleus and recedes away from it.

2. Discuss Bohr’s theory of the spectrum of hydrogen atom?

Ans. According to Bohr’s theory when an atom makes a transition from the higher energy state with
quantum number ni to the lower energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni), the difference
of energy is carried away by a photon of frequency  such that
h  Ei  E f
where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states.
me 4
Using equation E for Ef and Ei we get,
8h 2 0 2 n 2
me 4  1 1 
h    
8h 2 0 2  n f 2 ni 2 
me4  1 1 
  3 2  2  2 
8h 0  n f ni 
  1 1 
or   Rc   2
n 2
ni 
 f
This equation is called the Rydberg formula, for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom, and ‘R’ is
called the Rydberg constant. The value of ‘R’ is,
me4
R  1.03  107 m-1
8h 0 c
3 2

Since both nf and ni are integers, this immediately shows that in transitions between different
atomic levels, light is radiated in various discrete frequencies.
For hydrogen spectrum, the Balmer formula corresponds to nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, 5, etc. The
results of the Bohr’s model suggested the presence of other series spectra for hydrogen atom
those corresponding to transitions resulting from
nf=1 and ni=2,3,4…. the lines emitted belong to Lyman series (UV)
nf=2 and ni=3,4,5…. the lines emitted belong to Balmar series (Visible)
nf=3 and ni=4,5,6…. the lines emitted belong to Paschen series (IR)
nf=4 and ni=5,6,7…. the lines emitted belong to Brackett series (IR)
nf=5 and ni=6,7,8…. the lines emitted belong to Pfund series (IR)
The electronic transitions corresponding to these series are shown in figure below.

The various lines in the atomic spectra are produced when electrons jump from higher energy
state to a lower energy state and photons are emitted. These spectral lines are called
emission lines. But when an atom absorbs a photon that has precisely the same energy
needed by the electron in a lower energy state to make transitions to a higher energy state,
the process is called absorption.

3. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic spectra. Hence obtain an
expression for the radius of orbit and the energy of orbital electron in a hydrogen
atom?
Ans. Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three
postulates. These are:
1. Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable
orbits without the emission of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions of electromagnetic
theory. According to this postulate, each atom has certain definite stable states in which it can
exist, and each possible state has definite total energy. These are called the stationary states
of the atom.
2. Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the
electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is
some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 ×10–34 J s).
Thus the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is L = nh/2 π.
Where n=1,2,3…..
3. Bohr’s third postulate incorporated into atomic theory. It states that an electron might
make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy.
When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between
the initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by hν= Ei – Ef
where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef.
Expression for the radius of orbit and the energy of orbital electron in a hydrogen
atom:
The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and the nucleus
provides the requisite centripetal force (Fc) to keep them in their orbits. Thus, for a
dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom,
Centripetal force = Electrostatic force of attraction
i.e.; Fe=Fc
mv 2 1 e2

r 4 0 r 2
1 e2
mv 2  ……………………… (1)
4 0 r
Where ‘m’ is mass and ‘e’ is the magnitude of charge of electron.
From Bohr’s second postulate, we have
nh
mvr  …………………….. (2)
2
By squaring equation (2) and dividing it with equation (1)
m 2 v 2 r 2 n 2 h 2 4 0 r

mv 2 4 2 e2
h 2 0 n 2
r ………………………… (3)
 e2 m
Kinetic energy of electron:
By dividing equation (1) with 2 we have
1 2 1 e2
mv 
2 8 0 r
1 2 1 e2
 K .E  mv 
2 8 0 r
By substituting the value of ‘r’ in the above equation,
1 e2 e 2 m
K .E 
8 0 h2 0 n 2
me 4
 K .E 
8h 2 0 2 n 2
Potential energy of electron:
P.E= Potential (V) at a distance ‘Y’ from nucleus x charge of the electron
 1 e 1 e2
 P.E   e   
4 0 r 4 0 r
By putting equation (3) in the above equation,
1 Qq
d0 
4 0 K
me4
U   2 2 2
4h 0 n
Now total energy E=K+U
me4 me 4
E 
8h 2 0 2 n 2 4h 2 0 2 n 2
me4
E   2 2 2
8h 0 n