FIITJEE LTD

NARAYANGUDA
PHYSICS-II
IPE NOTES - 2023

CHAPTER 14 - NUCLEI

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What are isotopes and isobars?
Ans. Such atomic species of the same element differing in mass are called isotopes. All nuclides
with same mass number A are called isobars.

2. What are isotones and isomers?

198
Ans. Nuclides with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z, for example 80 Hg and
197
79 Au 197 79 Au, are called isotones.
Isomers are molecules or polyatomic ions with identical molecular formulae – that is, same
number of atoms of each element – but distinct arrangements of atoms in space. Examples of
isomers with the formula C8H10 are ethyl benzene, m-xylene, p-xylene, and o-xylene.

3. What is a.m.u.? What is its equivalent energy?

Ans. a.m.u unit is the atomic mass unit (u), defined as 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C) atom
and has a value of 1.660539 x 10-27 kg. According to Einstein’s equation of mass-energy
equivalence, E = mc2, 1 a.m.u. = 1.4924 x 10-10 J = 931.5 MeV.

4. What will be the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
Ans. A nucleus of mass number A has a radius R  R0 A1 3 where R0  1.2  10 15 .
Therefore, the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2 is
R1 R 2   A1 A 2 
13

5. Natural radioactive nuclei are mostly nuclei of high mass number. Why?
Ans. A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of
a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons
get more tightly bound and become more stable. This implies energy would be released in the
process. Hence, Natural radioactive nuclei are mostly nuclei of high mass number.

6. Does the ratio of neutrons to protons in a nucleus increase, decrease or remain the
same after the emission of an α-particle?
Ans. In α-decay nucleus and α-particle i.e., 24 He is emitted.
For example in the following α-decay, 238
92 He 90
234
Th  24 He ,
n  238  92  146 n  234  90  144
     1.587 and      90  1.6
p
 U  92  92 p
 Th  90 
Therefore, in the decay of nucleus ZA X , the ratio of neutrons to protons in the
nucleus, increases after the emission of an `alpha`- particle.

7. A nucleus contains no electrons but can emit them. How?

Ans. A radioactive decay takes place primarily for the nucleus to attain greater stability. A beta
decay is a statistical process governed by the Law of Radioactive Decay and, an electron is
32
emitted by the nucleus, as in the decay of 15 P
 32
15 P 16
32
S  e 1   where  is the antineutrino

8. What are the units and dimensions of the disintegration constant?

Ans. The disintegration constant or decay constant is defined as
1 dN  change in number of nucleons 
 
N dt  original number of nucleons    time 
Hence, its unit is s-1 and the dimensions are [M0L0T-1].

9. Why do all electrons emitted during β-decay not have the same energy?
Ans. In β-decay, particles like antineutrinos are also emitted along with electrons. The available
energy is shared by electrons and antineutrinos in all proportions. That is why all electrons
emitted during β−decay not have the same energy.

10. Neutrons are the best projectiles to produce nuclear reactions. Why?
Ans. Neutrons are uncharged particles and they are not deflected by the electric and magnetic
fields. Hence Neutrons are considered as best projectiles in nuclear reaction.

11. Neutrons cannot produce ionization. Why?

Ans. For ionisation, charged particles – electrons or protons – are needed. Neutron being
uncharged particles, cannot produce ionization.

12. What are delayed neutrons?

Ans. In a fission reaction two types of neutrons are produced. A prompt neutron is emitted
instantaneously by a nucleus undergoing fission—in contrast to a delayed neutron,
which is emitted by an excited nucleus among the fission products at an appreciable
time interval (milliseconds to minutes) after fission has occurred.

13. What are thermal neutrons? What is their importance?

Ans. A thermal neutron is any free neutron (one that is not bound within an atomic nucleus) that
has an average energy of motion (kinetic energy) corresponding to the average energy of the
particles of the ambient materials.
Relatively slow and of low energy, thermal neutrons exhibit properties, that make them
desirable in certain chain-reaction applications.
Thermal neutrons are produced by slowing down more energetic neutrons in a substance
called a moderator after they have been ejected from atomic nuclei during nuclear reactions
such as fission.

14. What is the value of neutron multiplication factor in a controlled reaction and in an
uncontrolled chain reaction?
Ans. In a controlled chain reaction in a nuclear reactor, the neutron multiplication factor K < 1.
At K = 1, the reactor is said to be critical and for K>1, the chain reaction becomes
uncontrolled and would lead explosion.

15. What is the role of controlling rods in a nuclear reaction?

Ans. The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made of neutron-absorbing material such
as cadmium. By absorbing neutrons, a control rod prevents the neutrons from causing further
fissions and keep the multiplication factor K under control.

16. Why are nuclear fusion reactions called thermonuclear reaction?

Ans. The Coulomb barrier is the energy barrier due to electrostatic interaction that two nuclei need
to overcome so they can get close enough to undergo a nuclear reaction. Thus, in a nuclear
fusion reaction, the temperature of the material is raised until the particles have enough
energy to penetrate the coulomb barrier. Hence, this process is called thermonuclear fusion
reaction.

17. Define Becquerel and Curie.

Ans. The total decay rate R of a sample of one or more radionuclides is called the activity of that
sample.
 The SI unit for activity is becquerel.
Therefore, 1 becquerel = 1Bq = 1 decay per second.
An older unit, the curie, is still in common use:
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq (decays per second)

18. What is a chain reaction?

Ans. Chain Reaction in nuclear fission:
In many nuclear fission reactions, two or more neutrons are
produced in fission than are consumed. A chain reaction
refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission
produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus.
This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process
repeats.

19. What is the function of moderator in a nuclear reactor?

Ans. A moderator is a substance, such as heavy water (D2O) and graphite, that are used in nuclear
reactors to control the ratio, K, of number of fissions produced by a given generation of
neutrons to the number of fissions of the preceding generation. In effect moderators are used
to control the chain reactions that occur in nuclear fission.

20. What is the energy released in the fusion of four protons to form a Helium nucleus?
Ans. Four hydrogen atoms combine to form a Helium  4
2 
He atom with a release of 26.7 MeV of
energy.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Why is the density of the nucleus more than that of the atom? Show that the density of
nuclear matter is same for all nuclei.
Ans. The Volume of the atom is greater than that of nucleus, that forms of the atom. Also the total
mass of the electrons is much less than the total mass of the nucleons, protons and neutron
put together.
Thus, the total mass remaining almost the same,
1
density 
volume
Density of the nucleus more than that of the atom.
4
Volume of the nucleus V = R3 ( Since nucleus is assumed to be shape of a sphere)
3
1
Radius of the nucleus is given by R  R0 A 3 (where R0 is a constant & ‘A’ is the mass number)
4
 (R0 A1/ 3 )3
3
4R30 A

3
i.e., the volume of the nucleus is proportional to the mass number A
Mass of the nucleus = Am (Since m p  mn  m )
mass of the nucleus
Density of the nucleus () 
volume of the nucleus
Am 3m
 
4 3
R0 A 4R0
3

3
From the above equation it is clear that the density of the nucleus is independent of the mass
number A and is same for all the nuclei.

2. Write a short note on discovery of neutron.

Ans. Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen, they must contain only
one proton each.
But the masses of the nuclei of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are in the ratio of 1:2:3.
Therefore, the nuclei of deuterium and tritium must contain, in addition to a proton,
some neutral matter.
This hypothesis was verified in 1932 by James Chadwick who observed emission of neutral
radiation when beryllium nuclei were bombarded with alpha-particles. It was found that this
neutral radiation could knock out protons from light nuclei such as those of helium, carbon
and nitrogen.
The only neutral radiation known at that time was photons (electromagnetic radiation).
Application of the principles of conservation of energy and momentum showed that if the
neutral radiation consisted of photons, the energy of photons would have to be much higher
than is available from the bombardment of beryllium nuclei with α-particles.
The clue to this puzzle, which Chadwick satisfactorily solved, was to assume that the neutral
radiation consists of a new type of neutral particles called neutrons. From law of conservation
of energy and momentum it was proved that mass of the neutron is approximately equal to
mass of the proton.

3. What are properties of a neutron?

Ans. The Properties of neutron:
1. It is a neutral particle. It does not have any charge. It is not deflected by the electric and
magnetic fields
2. Its mass is given by m n  1.00866 u  1.6749  1027 kg
3. A free neutron, unlike a free proton, is unstable. It decays into a proton, an electron and a
antineutrino (another neutral elementary particle), and has a mean life of about 1000s. It
is, however, stable inside the nucleus.
4. It has very high penetrating power and has very low ionization power

4. What are nuclear forces? Write their properties.

Ans. Nuclear Force: ‘The force which holds the nucleons together in nucleus is called nuclear
force”. It is classified as two fundamental forces – strong nuclear force and weak nuclear
force.
1. Strong Nuclear Force:
(a) The strong nuclear force is attractive in nature and is the strongest of all the basic
forces, about 100 times the electromagnetic force in strength. The nuclear binding force
must dominate over the Coulomb repulsive force between protons inside the nucleus. This
happens only because the nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force. The

gravitational force is much weaker than even Coulomb force FSn  Fc  FWn  Fg . 
(b) Nuclear force is a short-range force. the potential energy between two nucleons as a
function of distance is shown in the Fig. 13.2. The potential energy is a minimum at a
distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger than
0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
(c) The strong nuclear force is It is charge-independent and the nuclear force between
neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same. The
nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.
(d) Unlike Coulomb’s law or the Newton’s law of gravitation there is no simple
mathematical form of the nuclear force.
(e) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more
than a few femtometres. This leads to saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized
nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of the binding energy per nucleon.
2. Weak Nuclear Force:
(a) The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the β-decay
of a nucleus. In β-decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called
neutrino.
(b) The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, but much weaker than
the strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces.
(c) The range of weak nuclear force is exceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m.
5. For greater stability a nucleus should have greater value of binding energy per
nucleon. Why?
Ans. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore, the expected mass of the
nucleus is equal to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons. But the nuclear mass
M is found to be always less than this.
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, M , is called the mass defect, and
is given by
M =[Zmp + (A -Z )mn ]-M ,
where A is the mass number (total number of protons and neutrons), Z is the atomic number
(number of protons), mp is the mass a proton, mn is the mass of a neutron and M is the mass
of the nucleus.
Binding energy: The energy Eb released in a process in bringing a certain number of
neutrons and protons together to form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass is called the
binding energy of the nucleus.
If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a total energy equal to
Eb , to those particles.
Binding energy Eb  Mc 2  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ] x 931.5 MeV.
The stability of the nucleus is established by binding energy per nucleon, i.e., the average
energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.
E
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon Ebn 
A
Example:
Uranium has a relatively low binding energy per nucleon as 7.6 MeV. Hence to attain greater
stability Uranium breaks up into intermediate mass nuclei resulting in a phenomenon called
nuclear fission.
Lighter nuclei such as hydrogen combine to form heavy nucleus to form helium for greater
stability, resulting in a phenomenon called nuclear fusion.
Iron whose binding energy per nucleon stands maximum at 8.7 MeV is the most stable and
will undergo neither fission nor fusion.

6. Explain α-decay.
Ans. When a nucleus undergoes alpha-decay, it transforms to a different nucleus by emitting an
alpha- particle (a helium nucleus, 42 He ).
238 234
For example, when 92 U undergoes alpha-decay, it transforms to 90Th .
238 234 4
92 U  90Th  2 He

In this process, it is observed that since 42 He contains two protons and two neutrons, the
mass number and the atomic number of the daughter nucleus decreases by four and two,
respectively. Thus, the transformation of a nucleus AZ X into a nucleus AZ42Y can be
expressed as
A A 4 4
Z X  Z  2Y  2 He .
A A 4
where ZX is the parent nucleus and Z  2Y is the daughter nucleus.
238
The alpha-decay of 92 U can occur spontaneously (without an external source of energy)
234
because the total mass of the decay products 90Th and 42 He is less than the mass of the
original 238
92 U . Thus, the total mass energy of the decay products is less than the mass energy
of the original nuclide.
The difference between the initial mass energy and the final mass energy of the decay
products is called the Q value of the process or the disintegration energy. Thus, the Q value
of an alpha decay can be expressed as

Q  m x  m y  m He c2 . 
A 4 4
This energy is shared by the daughter nucleus Z2 Y and the alpha-particle, 2 He in the form
of kinetic energy.
7. Explain β-decay.
Ans. A nucleus that decays spontaneously by emitting an electron or a positron is said to undergo
beta decay.
Like alpha decay, this is a spontaneous process, with a definite disintegration energy and
half-life.
32
In beta minus (β- ) decay an electron is emitted by the nucleus, as in the decay of 15 P.
32
15 P
32
16 S  e  
22
In beta plus (β+ ) decay , a positron is emitted by the nucleus, as in the decay of 11 Na .
22 22 
11 Na 10 Ne  e   .
The symbols  and  represent antineutrino and neutrino, respectively; both are neutral
particles, with very little or no mass. These particles are emitted from the nucleus along with
the electron or positron during the decay process.
In beta-minus decay, a neutron transforms into a proton within the nucleus according to
n  p  e   ,
where as in beta-plus decay, a proton transforms into neutron (inside the nucleus) via
p  n  e  
These processes show why the mass number A of a nuclide undergoing
beta decay does not change.

8. Explain  - decay.
Ans: There are energy levels in a nucleus, just like there are energy levels in atoms.
When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can make a
transition to a lower energy state by the emission of
electromagnetic radiation.
As the energy differences between levels in a nucleus
are of the order of MeV, the photons emitted by the
nuclei have MeV energies and are called gamma rays.
Most radio nuclides after an alpha decay or a beta
decay leave the daughter nucleus in an excited state.
The daughter nucleus reaches the ground state by a single transition or sometimes by
successive transitions by emitting one or more gamma rays. A well-known example of such a
process is that of 60
27 Co .

By beta emission, the 60 60

27 Co nucleus transforms into 28 Ni nucleus in its excited state.

The excited 60
28 Ni nucleus so formed then de-excites to its ground state by successive
emission of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV gamma rays.

9. Define half-life period and decay constant for a radioactive substance. Deduce the
relation between them.
Ans: Half-life period: Time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei to disintegrate to half of its
original number of nuclei is called half-life period.
Decay constant (): The ratio of the rate of radioactive decay to the number of nuclei present
at that instant.
It is a proportional constant and is denoted by ‘’.
 dN 
 
dt 
  
N
The radioactive decay law N = N0 E–t states that the number of radioactive nuclei in a
radioactive sample, decreases exponentially with time.
Here  is called decay constant. If N0 is the number of nuclei at t = 0 and N is the radioactive
nuclei at any instant of time t.
N
Substituting N  0 at t = T in N = N0 E–t
2
Where T is half-life of the radioactive substance
 N0
 N0 e T
2
e–t = 2
T  ln2
ln2 2.303log10 2
T 
 
0.693
T

The above equation represents the relation between half-life (T) and decay constant (). is
different for different radioactive substances.

10. Define average life of a radioactive substance. Obtain the relation between decay
constant and average life.
Ans: Average life (): It is equal to the total life time of all the N0 nuclei divided by the total number
of original nuclei N0. It is denoted by .
Let N0 be the radioactive nuclei that are present at t = 0 in the radioactive sample. The no. of
nuclei which decay between t and t + dt is dN.
The total life time of these dN nuclei is t dN. The total life time of all the nuclei present initially

in the sample   t dN .
0

Average life time () is equal to the total life time of all the N0 nuclei divided by the total
number of original nuclei N0.

Average life ( ) 
 t dN
N0
dN
But  N
dt
dN = – Ndt = N0 e–t dt [ N  N0 e t ]


0 t  N0 et dt
 
N0
1
on integration, we get  

T1/ 2  0.693 
    
0.693  T1/ 2 
 = 1/
From the above equation the reciprocal of the decay constant gives us the average life of a
radioactive sample.

11. Deduce the relation between half-life and average life of a radioactive substance.
Ans. Half-life: Time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei to disintegrate to half of its original
number of nuclei is called half life and is denoted by T1/ 2 .
Mean life: It is equal to the total life time of all the N0 nuclei divided by the total number of
original nuclei N0. It is denoted by .

 Average life  
 t dN
N0
 dN 
But     N
 dt 
dN = – Ndt = N0 e–t dt [ N  N0 e t ]
 

0 t  N0 e
t
dt
 
N0
1
On integration, we get  

The reciprocal of the decay constant gives the average life of a radioactive sample.
T   
  1/ 2
0.693  T1/ 2  0.693 
 

12. What is nuclear fission? Give an example to illustrate it.

Ans. Nuclear fission:
When nucleus of a heavier element is bombarded with neutrons it splits up into two nuclei of
nearly equal mass accompanied by release of energy such a process is called nuclear fission.
An example of such a reaction is 10 n 92
235 236
U 92 U 144 89 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  30 n
Fission does not always produce barium and krypton. A different pair can be produced, for
example
1 235 236 133 99 1
0 n  92 U 92 U  51 Sb  41 Nb  40 n

Still another example is 10 n 92

235
U 14 94 1
54 Xe  38 Sr  20 n
The fragment nuclei produced in fission are highly neutron-rich and unstable. They are
radioactive and emit beta particles in succession until each reaches a stable end product.
The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is of the order
of 200 MeV per nucleus that undergoes fission.

13. What is nuclear fusion? write the conditions for nuclear fusion to occur.
Ans. Nuclear fusion: If two light nuclei combine to form a single larger nucleus by releasing some
energy such a process is called nuclear fusion . Some examples of such energy liberating
reactions are
1 1 2 
1 H 1 H 1 H  e  v  0.42 MeV
2 2
1 H 1 H 32 He  n  3.27 MeV
2 2
1 H 1 H 13 H 11 H  4.03 MeV
Conditions required for nuclear fusion
It can be observed that nuclear fusion is obstructed by the Coulomb repulsion that acts to
prevent the two positively charged particles from getting close enough to be within the range
of their attractive nuclear forces and thus ‘fusing’ i.e, they require some amount of energy to
overcome the repulsive forces and it is called as height of coulomb barrier. The height of this
Coulomb barrier depends on the charges and the radii of the two interacting nuclei.
The required energy is provided to them by heating the bulk matter. That’s why these
reactions are also called as Thermo nuclear reactions. The temperature at which protons in a
proton gas would have enough energy to overcome the coulomb’s barrier is given by
 3 / 2 k T  k  400 keV and is about 3  109 K
That is why fusion requires very high temperatures

14. Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Ans:
Fission
1. Splitting of heavy nucleus takes place.
2. Two stable nuclei of comparable masses
are formed.
3. Neutrons are produced during this process.
4. Energy of 200 MeV is released for each
fission.
5. Heavy nucleus is bombarded with a
neutron.
6. It takes place at ordinary temperature.
Fusion
1. Fusion of two lighter nuclei takes place.
2. A stable nucleus is formed
3. Neutrons are released.
4. Energy of about 28 MeV is liberated
per fusion.
5. There is no bombardment with neutron.
6. It requires very high temperature of the

7. Fission energy can be used constructively
in nuclear reactors.
8. Fission energy can be used destructively by
atom bomb.
order of 107 K.
7. Fusion energy cannot be used
constructively.
8. Fusion energy can be used
destructively by hydrogen bomb.

15. Explain the terms chain reaction and multiplication factor.

How is a chain reaction sustained?
Ans. Chain reaction: The neutrons produced in the fission of
a nucleus can cause fission in other neighbouring
nuclei producing more and more neutrons to continue
the fission until the whole fissionable material is
disintegrated. This is called chain reaction.

Multiplication factor K: It is defined as the ratio of the number of neutrons in the present
generation to the number of neutrons in the previous generation. It is the measure of the
growth rate of the neutrons in the reactor. For K = 1, the operation of the reactor is said to be
critical, which is what we wish it to be for steady power operation. If K becomes greater than
one, the reaction rate and the reactor power increases exponentially. Unless the factor K is
brought down very close to unity, the reactor will become supercritical and can even explode.
To sustain the chain reaction, the value of the neutron multiplication factor K is maintained at
1.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary
with mass number? What is its significance?
Ans. Mass Defect:
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents, M , is called the mass defect, and
is given by
M =[Zmp + (A -Z )mn ]-M ,
where A is the mass number (total number of protons and neutrons), Z is the atomic number
(number of protons), mp is the mass a proton, mn is the mass of a neutron and M is the mass
of the nucleus.
Binding energy: The energy Eb released in a process in bringing a certain number of
neutrons and protons together to form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass is called the
binding energy of the nucleus.
If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a total energy equal to
Eb , to those particles.
Binding energy Eb  Mc 2  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ] x 931.5 MeV.
The stability of the nucleus is established by binding energy per nucleon, i.e., the average
energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.
E
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon Ebn 
A
The following graph represents how the binding energy per nucleon varies with the mass
number A.
 From the graph that
(i) the binding energy per nucleon Ebn is practically constant, i.e., practically independent of
the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170)
(ii) The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A
= 238.
(iii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).

From the above we draw the following conclusions:

(i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per
nucleon. From the equation Eb  Mc 2 , mass defect of 1 a.m.u. is equal to 931.5 MeV
(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the
fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged. The property that a given nucleon influences only
nucleons close to it is also referred to as saturation property of the nuclear force.
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to
that of a nucleus with A = 120. This implies energy would be released in the process of
breaking a nucleus A = 240 into two A = 120 nuclei, as the nucleons get more tightly bound.
It has very important implications for energy production through fission. Hence to attain
greater stability Uranium breaks up into intermediate mass nuclei.
(iv) Consider two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding
energy per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of
the lighter nuclei. This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial
system. Again, energy would be released in such a process of fusion. This is the energy
source of sun.

2. What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive decay. Show that radioactive decay
is exponential in nature. Does the activity of a radioactive element depend on external
physical conditions?
Ans. Radioactivity: The nuclei of certain elements disintegrate spontaneously by emitting alpha (),
beta () and gamma () rays.
This nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay is called
radioactive decay. The act of emitting radiation spontaneously is called Radioactivity or
Natural radioactivity.
This kind of radioactive decay occurs in unstable nuclei.
The Law of radioactive decay states that the number of nuclei decaying per unit time at any
 dN 
instant, i.e., the rate of radioactive decay   , is directly proportional to the number of
 dt 
nuclei (N) present at that instant.
Explanation: Consider a radioactive substance. Let the number of nuclei present in the
sample at t = 0, be N0 and let N be the radioactive nuclei remain at an instant t.
dN
According to the Law of Radioactive decay.  N
dt
 dN
 N , where  is the constant of proportionality called the decay constant or
dt
disintegration constant.
dN = – Ndt …………… (1)
The negative sign indicates the decrease in the number of nuclei.
From equation (1)
dN
  dt …………… (2)
N
Integrating on both sides
N dN t
N0 N   0 dt
N
lnN  lnN0  t  ln    t
 N0 
N t
 e
 N0 
 N  N0 e t
The above equation represents radioactive decay law and shows that the radioactive decay is
exponential i.e., the number of radioactive nuclei in a radioactive sample decrease
exponentially with time.
The activity of a radioactive element is independent of external physical conditions like
pressure, temperature etc.

3. Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled
diagram.
Ans. Principle: A nuclear reactor works on the principle of generating great amounts of energy by
controlled chain reaction in the fission of natural Uranium 238U enriched with 235U.
This is made possible by:
1. Slowing down the fission neutrons to thermal
neutrons using a moderator. Thermal neutrons
initiate the fission of 238U.
2. By using control rods of a material which can
absorb neutrons. This is important to control the
rate of reaction and maintain it so that the value of
neutron multiplication factor K remains 1.
3. The heat generated in the reactor is transferred
through the coolant (hard water) to the secondary
loop consisting of the power generator.
Primary Loop:
NUCLEAR REACTOR:
A nuclear reactor consists of
1. Fuel: In the reactor the nuclear fuel is
fabricated in the form of thin and long
cylindrical rods. These group of rods
are called a fuel assembly. These rods
are surrounded by coolant, which is
used to transfer heat produced in the
reactor during the fission reactions.
2. Moderator: The average energy of neutrons released in fission process is 2 MeV. They
are used to slow down the velocity of neutrons. Graphite rods are used as moderating
materials in reactor as it efficiently decreases the speed of the neutrons.
3. Control Rods: These are used to control the fission rate in reactor by absorbing the
neutrons. Cadmium and boron in the form of rods are used for controlling the neutrons.
4. Shielding: During fission reaction beta and gamma rays are emitted in addition to
neutrons. Suitable shielding such as steel, lead, concrete etc are provided around the
reactor to absorb and reduce the intensity of radiations to such low levels that do not
harm the operating personnel.
 5. Coolant: The heat generated in fuel elements is removed by using a suitable coolant to
flow around them. The coolants used are water at high pressures, molten sodium etc.
Working:
(a) Uranium fuel rods are placed in the aluminium cylinders.
(b) The graphite moderator is placed in between the fuel cylinders.
(c) To control the number of neutrons, several control rods of cadmium or beryllium or boron
are placed in the holes of graphite block.
(d) A few 235U nuclei undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated. These neutrons pass
through the surrounding graphite moderator and lose their energy to become thermal
neutrons.
(e) These thermal neutrons are captured by 235U.
Secondary Loop:
(f) The heat generated here is used for heating suitable coolants which in turn heat water
and produce steam.
(g) This steam is made to rotate steam turbine and thereby drive a generator for production
of electric power.

4. Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon–nitrogen cycle and proton–
proton cycle occurring in stars.
Ans. The sun and stars have been radiating huge amount of energy for several billions of years.
This energy of the sun and the brightest stars is produced by nuclear fusion in the core of sun
or of the stars, where the temperature is of the order 107 K or more. Scientists proposed two
types of cyclic processes for the sources of energy in the sun and stars. The first is known as
carbon—nitrogen cycle and the second is proton-proton cycle.
1. Carbon – Nitrogen Cycle: According to Bethe carbon – nitrogen cycle is mainly
responsible to produce solar energy. This cycle consists of a chain of nuclear reactions in
which hydrogen is converted into Helium, with the help of Carbon and Nitrogen as
catalysts. Highly energetic thermal protons are the projectiles in these nuclear reactions. A
proton collides with ordinary carbon to form the lighter isotope of nitrogen 13N which is
radioactive. 13N emits a positron to become an isotope of Carbon 13C, Another proton
converts 13C into the ordinary Nitrogen 14N which collides with another proton to form an
unstable isotope of Oxygen 15O. It decays by positron emission to form an isotope of
Nitrogen 15N. Finally, this 15N reacts with a fourth proton forming a carbon nucleus 12C and
a helium nucleus 4He. These nuclear reactions are as given below.
6 C  1H   13
7 N
12 1

13
7 N  13
6 C  1e  v
0

13
6 C  11H  14
7 N
14
7 N  11H  15
8 O
15
8 O  15 7 N  1e  v
0

2. Proton – Proton Cycle: A star is formed by the condensation of a large amount of matter at
a point in space. Its temperature rises to 2,00,000°C as the matter contracts under the
influence of gravitational attraction. At this temperature the thermal energy of the protons
is sufficient to form a deuteron and a positron. The deuteron then combines with another
proton to form lighter nuclei of helium 2He3. Two such helium nuclei combine to form a
helium nucleus 2He4 and two protons releasing a total amount of energy 26.7 MeV. The
nuclear fusion reactions are given below.
1 1 2 
1 H 1 H 1 H  e  v  0.42 MeV ………. (i)
e   e     1.02 MeV ………. (ii)
2 1 3
1 H 1 H 2 He    5.49 MeV ………. (iii)
3 3 4
2 H  2 H 2 He 11 H 11 H  12.86 MeV ……….. (iv)
For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice, in which
case two light helium nuclei unite to form ordinary helium or nucleus. If we consider the
combination 2(i) + 2(ii) + 2(iii) +(iv), the net effect is 411 H  2e 24 He  2v  6   26.7 MeV .
4
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 2 He atom with a release of 26.7 MeV of
energy.
 PROBLEMS
1. Show that the density of a nucleus does not depend upon its mass number.
1
Ans: Radius of the nucleus is given by R  R0 A 3 (where R0 is a constant & ‘A’ is the mass number)
4 4R30 A
 (R0 A1/ 3 )3 
3 3
i.e., the volume of the nucleus is proportional to the mass number A
Mass of the nucleus = Am (Since m p  mn  m )
mass of the nucleus
Density of the nucleus () 
volume of the nucleus
Am 3m
 
4 3 4 R30
R0 A
3
From the above equation, it is clear that the density of the nucleus is independent of the mass
number A and is same for all the nuclei.

2. Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass number 27 and 64

1
Ans: Radius of the nucleus is given by R  R0 (where R0 is a constant & ‘A’ is the mass number)
A 3

Therefore, the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1=27 and A2=64 is
 271 3  3
 
13
R1 R 2   A1 A 2   27
13
  13  
64
 64  4

16
3. The radius of the Oxygen nucleus 8 O is 2.8 x 10-15 m. Find the radius of the Lead
205
nucleus 82 Pb
1
Ans: Radius of the nucleus is given by R  R0 A 3 (where R0 is a constant & ‘A’ is the mass number)
 2051 3  5.9
 16 
13
RPb RO   A Pb A O   205
13
 13   2.34
 16  2.5
 RPb  2.34  2.8  1015  6.55  10 15 m

4. Find the binding energy of 56 26 Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349 u and that of Hydrogen
is 1.00783 u and mass of neutron is 1.00876 u
Ans: Given: A = 56, Z= 26, mFe = 55.9349 u, mH = mp = 1.00783, mn = 1.00876
Let 1 u be equivalent to 931.5 MeV
Binding energy Eb  Mc 2  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ] x 931.5 MeV
Eb  [ 26  1.00783   (56  26)  1.00876   55.9349 ]  931.5MeV
 [ 26.20358    30.2628    55.9349 ]  931.5MeV
 0.53148  931.5  495MeV

120
5. How much energy is required to separate the typical middle mass nucleus 50 Sn into its
120
constituent nucleons? (Mass of Sn =119.902199 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u and
50
mass of neutron = 1.008665 u)
Ans: Given: A = 120, Z= 50, mSn = 119.902199 u, mp = 1.007825, mn = 1.008665 u
Binding energy Eb  Mc 2  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ] x 931.5 MeV
 Eb  [ 50  1.007825   (120  50)  1.008665  119.902199 ]  931.5MeV
 [ 50.39125    70.60655   119.902199 ]  931.5MeV
 1020.5MeV

6. Calculate the binding energy of an α-particle. Given that mass of proton = 1.0073 u and
mass of neutron = 1.0087 u and mass of α-particle = 4.0015 u
Ans: Given: A = 4, Z= 2, mHe = 4.0015 u, mp = 1.0073 u, mn = 1.0087 u
Binding energy Eb  Mc 2  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ] x 931.5 MeV
Eb  [ 2  1.0073   (4  2)  1.0087   4.0015 ]  931.5MeV
 [ 2.0146    2.0164    4.0015 ]  931.5MeV
 28.4MeV

7. Find the energy required to split 16

8 O into four α-particles. The mass of α-particle =
4.002603 u and that of Oxygen is 15.994915 u.
Ans: Given: mHe = 4.002603 u, mO = 15.994915 u
Energy required to split = Eb  Mc 2  [4m 4 He  m16 O ] x 931.5 MeV
Eb  Mc 2  [ 4  4.002603   15.994915]  931.5MeV
 16.010412  15.994915   931.5  0.015497  931.5  14.44MeV

35 35
8. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 17 Cl nucleus. Given that mass of 17 Cl
nucleus = 34.980000 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u, mass of neutron = 1.008665 u and
I u is equivalent to 931 MeV.
Ans: Given: mCl = 34.980000 u, mp = 1.007825 u, mn =1.008665 u, I u is equivalent to 931 MeV
Binding Energy per nucleon
E m  931 [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ]  931
Ebn  b  
A A A
[17  1.007825     35  17   1.008665   34.9800]  931

35
17.133025  18.15597  34.980000   931 0.308995  931
   8.219MeV / nucleon
35 35

40 40
9. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 20 Ca . Given that mass of 20 Ca nucleus =
39.962589 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u, mass of neutron = 1.008665 u and I u is
equivalent to 931 MeV.
Ans: Given: mCa = 39.962589 u, mp = 1.007825 u, mn =1.008665 u, I u is equivalent to 931 MeV
Binding Energy per nucleon
E m  931 [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ]  931
Ebn  b  
A A A
[ 20  1.007825     40  20   1.008665   39.962589]  931

40
 20.1565  20.1733  39.962589   931 0.367211 931
   8.547MeV / nucleon
40 40

12
10. Calculate (i) mass defect, (ii) binding energy, (iii) the binding energy per nucleon of 6 C
12
nucleus. Nuclear mass of C = 12.000000 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u and mass of
6
neutron = 1.008665 u.
Ans: Given: mC = 12.000000 u, mp = 1.007825 u, mn =1.008665 u, I u is equivalent to 931 MeV
(i) Mass Defect: m  [Zmp  (A  Z)mn  ma ]
  [ 6  1.007825    12  6   1.008665   12.000000]
  6  2.01649   12  0.09894u
(ii) Binding Energy Eb  M 931.5  0.09894  931.5  92.16MeV
Eb 92.16
(iii) Binding Energy per nucleon, Ebn    7.68MeV
A 12

11. The binding energies per nucleon for deuterium and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
respectively. What energy in joules will be liberated when 109 deuterons take part in
the reaction?
Ans: Given: Ebn,2H = 1.1 MeV, Ebn,4He = 7.0 MeV, N = 109.
Eb,2H = 2x1.1 MeV = 2.2 MeV
Eb,4He = 4x7.0 MeV = 28.0 MeV
1 H 1 H  2He  Q
2 2 4

Eb, 2H  Eb, 2H  Eb, 4He  Q

2.2 MeV  2.2 MeV  28.0 MeV  Q
Q   4.4  28.0  MeV  23.6 MeV
Energy released from 2 deuterons = 23.6 MeV
Energy released from N deuterons
N 109
Q   23.6 MeV
2 2
   
 11.8  109 MeV  1.60  1013 J MeV = (Nx23.6) MeV = (Nx23.6)x(1.60x10-13) J =
4
 18.88  10 J

12. Bombardment of Lithium with protons gives rise to the following reaction:
7 1
4 
3 Li 1 H  2  2 He   Q . Find the Q-value of the reaction.

The atomic masses of Lithium, proton and Helium are 7.016 u, 1-008 u and 4.004 u
respectively.
Ans: Given: mLi = 7.016 u, mp = 1.008 u, mHe =4.004 u,
Let 1 u be equivalent to 931 MeV.
7 1
4 
3 Li 1 H  2  2He   Q

mLi  mH   931.5  2  mHe   931.5  Q

 Q   mLi  mH  2mHe   931.5
  7.016  1.008  8.008   931.5  14.904 MeV

13*. The half-life of Radium is 1600 years. How much time does 1 g of Radium take to
reduce to 0.125 g?
Ans: Given: T1 2  1600 years. N0 = 1 g, N = 0.125 g
 N0   t 
  2 where  n
n
N 
   T1 2 
 1 
   2  8  2  n  3
n n

 0.125 
t
  3  t  4800 years
1600
14*. Plutonium decays with half-life of 24,000 years. If Plutonium is stored for 72,000 years,
what fraction of it remains?
Ans: Given: T1 2  24,000 years. T = 72,000 years
  t 
   n Half-life periods
 T1 2 
 
 72,000 
n  3
 24,000 
N  1 1 1
Fraction of Radium left    n 3 
 N0   2  2 8

15. A certain substance decays to 1 32 of its initial activity in 25 days. Calculate its half-life.
N  1
Ans: Given:   years. t = 25 days
 N0  32
N   1 1 1
  n  n  n  5 half-life periods
 N0  2  32 2
This is equal to 25 days
Hence, 5T1 2  25  T1 2  5 days

th
16. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 20 days. What time it takes for 7 8
of its original mass to disintegrate?
N N 7
Ans: Given: T1 2  20 days,  0 
 N0  8
 N0  N  7  N 7 N 1 1
    1     3
 N0  8  N0  8  N0  8 2
Thus, the number of half-life periods that elapsed is 3
th
Therefore, the time it takes for 7 8 of its original mass to disintegrate = 3 x 20 = 60 days

238
17. How many disintegrations per second will occur in one gram of 92 U , if its half-life
against α-decay is 1.42 x 1017 s
Ans: Given: T1 2  1.42  1017 s, mU = 1 g
NA 6.023  1023
N0  
m 238
dN ln 2
 N0  N0
dt T1 2
0.693 6.023  1023
   12,350 s-1.
1.42  1017 238

18. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 100 years. Calculate in how many years the
th
activity will decay to 1 10 of its initial value.
N 1
Ans: Given:    , T1 2  100 years
 N0  10
 N0   t 
 N   2 where n  
n


   T1 2 
ln10
10   2   n 
n
 3.32
ln2
 t  ln10 ln10
   t  100   332
 100  ln 2 ln2
19. One gram of Radium is reduced by 2 milligram in 5 years. Calculate the half-life of
Radium
R 1
Ans: Given: m0  1 g , m  2  10 3 g t  5 years, 
R0 10
N  m  m 499
    1 
 1  2  10 3  
 N0   m0  m0 500
N  t 499
 e   e 5 
 N0  500
 500  1  500  4
5  ln      ln    4  10
 499  5  499 
ln  2  0.693
T1 2    1,731 years
 4  104

20. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5000 years. In how many years its activity will
decay to 0.2 times of its initial value? Given, log105 = 0.6990.
Ans: Given:
R 1
T1 2  100 years, 
R0 5
R  ln  2 
ln   t
 R0  T1 2
R 
ln  0 
R  log  5  0.699
t  T1 2   5000   5000   1.16  10 4 years (g = 10 m/s2)
ln  2  log  2  0.301

21. An explosion of atomic bomb releases an energy of 7.6 x 1013 J. If 200 MeV energy is
released on fission of one 235U atom, calculate (i) the number of Uranium atoms
undergoing fission, (ii) the mass of Uranium used in the bomb.
Ans: Given:
Total energy released = 7.6 x 1013 J
Energy released per fission of 235U = 200 MeV = 200 x 1.602 x 10-13 J
Solution:
7.6  1013
(i) Number of 235U atoms undergoing fission N   2.375  1024
200  1.60  10 13
(ii) Mass of 6.023 x 1023 235U atoms = 235 g
 2.375  1024 
Mass of 2.375 x 1024 235U atoms   23 
 235  926.81 g
 6.022  10 

22*. If one microgram of 235

92 U is completely destroyed in an atom bomb, how much energy will
be released?
Ans: Given:
-6 -9
Mass of 235
92 U = 10 g =10 kg

Solution:
   
2
E  mc 2  10 9  3  108  9  107 J

23. Calculate the energy released by fission from 2 g of 235

92 U in kWh. Given that the energy
released per fission is 200 MeV.
Ans: Given:
Mass of 235
92 U= 2 g
 Solution:
2
N  6.022  1023  5.125  1021 J
235
Energy released per fission  200MeV   200  1.60  10 13   3.2  10 11 J
Therefore, energy released in the fission of 2 g of 235
92 U

 5.125  10 21
   3.2  10   16.4  10
11 10
J
105

 16.4  1010  36
 4.55  10 4 kWh

 1 
 1 J  1 Ws    10 5  kWh
 36 

24*. 200 MeV energy is released when one nucleus of U undergoes fission. Find the
235

number of fissions per second required for producing a power 1 megawatt.

Ans: Given:
Energy per fission of 235 U = 200 MeV = 3.2 x 10-11 J
Power required = 1MW =106 J s-1
Solution:
Total energy per second
Number of fissions per second 235 U 
energy released per fission
106
  3.125  1016
3.2  1011

25*. How much 235 U is consumed in a day in an atomic power house operating at 400 MW,
provided the whole mass of 235
U is converted into energy?
Ans: Given:
Power required per day= 400 MW =4 x 108 J s-1
Solution:
Energy released per day, E   4  108    24  3600  J
E 3.456  1013
From Mass-Energy equivalence, E  mc 2  m    3.84  104 kg =0.384 g
c2 9  1016