UNIT 3, 4 & 5

TWO STEP FLOW THEORY / PERSONAL INFLUENCE THEORY

Based on Katz and Lazarsfeld, the concept of Personal influence can be defined as the
mechanism of change of opinions, attitudes and behaviors of everyday associates using
social pressure and social support.
This theory is the outcome of the Presidential election of 1940. Surveys conducted by
Lazaefeld,Berelson and Gaudel in 1948 helped reveal that decisions to a great extent
were found to be modified by interpersonal communication and personal influences to a
great extent. Researchers identified certain people to have a great influence over others
-Opinion leaders.
The opinion leaders are found to be people who are well acquainted to media themselves
and are found to be well influenced by the media. The opinion leaders tend to pass down
this influence to other people through face to face communication thereby generating
either a Two-step flow of communication, Multi step flow of communication.

Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to lesser
active persons in the group.
LERNER MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The major ideas of early mass media and the resultant modernization approach are well
illustrated by Daniel Lerner in The Passing of Traditional Society (1958). He identified
and explained what can be referred to as a mobile personality. This according to Lerner
was a psychological pattern identified in individuals which was required as well as
reinforced by the modern society. This mobile personality that came into existence,
therefore, was equipped with a high capacity to identify new aspects of the environment
and internalize in one’s own system the novel demands that this new larger society
expected of oneself. This new avatar of a person exhibited a high degree of empathy- a
capacity to see oneself in another person's situation. This empathy, according to Lerner,
accomplished two very important tasks. One, it enabled the person to efficiently operate
in a constantly evolving and dynamic modern society setup. Second, it equipped the
individual with the indispensable skill of wishing to step out of their traditional settings.
MAGIC BULLET THEORY/HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY

A brief revision of the bullet communication model is being done here. Bullet theory
which came into existence during World War II suggests that messages were thought to
be like magic bullets that were shot directly to the receiver who were assumed as passive
in nature. But this theory doesn’t exist any longer because the various communication
theorists did not support the views. According to this needle theory, mass media has a
direct, immediate and powerful effect on audiences. In the 1940s and 1950s it was
observed that mass media had a powerful influence on behaviour changes. The fast
popularization of radio and television, the emergence of the persuasion media industries
along with advertising and propaganda, the impact of motion pictures and use of mass
media during World War II to unify the German public behind the Nazi party, contributed
to this “strong effects” theory of communication. Harold Lasswell pioneered the work of
Propaganda Technique in the World War (1927). He gave his opinion that the people had
been duped and degraded by propaganda during the war. Lasswell based his work on a
stimulus-response model focusing on mass effects, this approach sighted human
feedbacks to the media as uniform and immediate. E. D. Martin opined, “Propaganda
offers ready-made opinions for the unthinking herd”. The “Magic Bullet” or
“Hypodermic Needle Theory” sometimes is not widely accepted by scholars. Lowery &
DefFleur said that it is thought that it was not based on empirical results from research
but rather on assumptions of the time about human nature. People were assumed to be
consistently managed by ‘instincts’ and those they give reaction uniformly to whatever
‘stimuli’ came along.
USES & GRATIFICATIONS THEORY

The Uses and Gratification theory discusses the effects of the media on people. It
explains how people use the media for their own need and get satisfied when their needs
are fulfilled. In other words, it can be said that the theory argues what people do with
media rather than what media does to people.
BASIC DIFFUSION MODEL

Everett M. Rogers provided the earliest definition of development. He said that it was, “a
type of social change in which new ideas are introduced into a social system in order to
produce higher per capita incomes and levels of living through more modern
production methods and improved social organization” (Rogers, 1969). It was
understood that the communication and acceptance of new ideas from sources that were
but external to the social system is what led one towards the essential path of change
from a traditional to a modern persona.

In fact Rogers work is considered to be central in this area. His model stated that while
analysing the diffusion of an idea or innovation, the main elements included are: “(1) the
innovation, (2) its communication through certain channels, (3) among members of a
social system, (4) over time” (Rogers, 1971). Thus adoption could be defined as the
process through which the individual ever since first becoming aware of an innovation
either decides to adopt or reject it. These five stages were awareness, interest,
evaluation, trial, and adoption.

Characteristics of the Model

⮚ Persuasion - ‘source’ to the uninformed ‘receiver’.

⮚ Communication tends to assign the responsibility of under-development to the

people residing within the concerned society.

⮚ Through the diffusion of innovations, the two-step-flow, and other ‘social

marketing’ strategies of attitude and behaviour change directed towards

‘underdeveloped’ people within a region;
⮚ In the campaign of development through communication, mass media plays an

effective role and the early predictions of development through communication

had a great effect.
GLOBAL INTER DEPENDENCY MODEL

The global interdependency model as illustrated below revolves around the issue of
international interdependency so as to enable international development to occur. It is
also important for the resolving of crucial issues like political conflicts and war.
Communication happens to be an important component.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL

An important component of communications is knowledge. It needs management for its

effective use in varied sectors of activity. The Knowledge Management Model addresses
the issues of knowledge management dynamics and competencies, techniques,
components, applications and its effect on a number of other variables. The model has
been illustrated below:
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT MODEL

This model deals with the conflict process, the variables of conflict and how through
conflict management, conflict resolution efforts can be made. In fact in order to achieve
balance and justice, conflicting information is seen as being managed by various
stakeholders
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Leon Festinger is the father of “Cognitive Dissonance” theory. The mental clash or
tension resulting from the processes of acquiring knowledge or understanding through the
senses is called cognitive dissonance. In simple the clash of mind when we have to
choose from the choices is can be called cognitive dissonance. This is the feeling of
discomfort from two conflicting thoughts, it may increase or decrease according to the
following factors

● The relevance of subject to us

● How solid the choices or thoughts are
● The capability of our mind to choose, rationalize or explain the thoughts.
The theory suggests that our mind have a tendency to avoid such clashes and tensions
through various methods and attain harmony. The dissonance will be on it highest on the
matters regarding the self-image. The theory states that we are possessed with a powerful
drive to maintain cognitive steadiness and reliability which may sometimes become
irrational. The mind will attain its harmony by the following steps

● Altering cognitions: Changing the attitude or behavior

● Changing cognitions: Rationalize our behavior by changing the differing
cognitions
● Adding cognitions: Rationalize our behavior by adding new cognition.
This is the reason why we human beings have the tendency to justify ourselves. The
theory says that the tendency of changing beliefs when we couldn’t complete something
is because of this. This theory is subjective in nature because we cannot physically
observe cognitive dissonance so that we cannot obtain any objective measurements. It has
a sort of vagueness in its nature because it is not sure whether people will act or think
according to the theory. Every people will have their individual differences always.
Example

In a class all the students are good at photography except X. No matter how much he
tried but he kept failing in all his attempts. After passing through mental dissonance he
came in the conclusion that photography cannot do any good to him for his life. He tends
to believe that photography is boring and time wasting. And he came at the conclusion
that rather not to waste anymore of his time for photography. Here X couldn’t perform
something or he couldn’t attain what he wished for so his mind went through cognitive
dissonance and finds a solution as the theory explain.

Another example for this theory can be found in the stories of Aesop, which is a story of
fox who wanted the grapes. The fox failed to reach the grapes when he jumps; he tried
again and failed miserably. At last he reached at the conclusion that the grapes are not
sweet, they taste sour. That reduced the anxiety of the fox and it went away.

In the story of fox we could find how someone can come up with some cognition that
helps him to attain mental harmony. Making excuses is a kind of rationalization that we
does to reduce our mental dissonance. Making excuses is the best example for this theory
and we are very well known for our ability to make excuses.
PLAY THEORY

William Stephenson, a British social scientist first introduced the concept play theory in
his book “the play theory of mass communication”. The play theory is mainly
emphasized on “how we use media for our satisfaction and also how media bring
changes in our lives according to its contents”. This theory is based on a field where
pain is in one end and pleasures the other.

This theory is closely related to uses and gratifications theory where we can observe how
people use the media and why. The media greatly influences the needs of the audiences
and also the gratification the media provide them. In play theory the media is mainly used
to get pleasure out of its usage than as the medium of information and education. When
we use media we might use it as an intensification of ourselves by relating the events
which is presented in the media with our real lives.

Example
People tend to follow the trend of the popular culture in the society. Likewise a famous
movie actress will be the promoter of this trend. We will try to relate our life with the
content that they are showing in the movies and will try imitate them. We tend to follow
the merchandise that they use, we tend to live up to them and find pleasure by doing so.
The batman series has become quiet famous nowadays and the kids and even the young
adults have been influenced by the characters in that movie. This has influenced the
people in positive way. Most of the time people become helpless confronting an injustice,
and in the movie batman is been showed as a protector. The event can be related to the
happenings of a real life and people tend to see it as a continuation of their experiences.
JOHARI WINDOW MODEL

The Johari window model is used to enhance the individual’s perception on others. This
model is based on two ideas- trust can be acquired by revealing information about you to
others and learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each person is represented by the
Johari model through four quadrants or window pane. Each four window panes signifies
personal information, feelings, motivation and whether that information is known or
unknown to oneself or others in four viewpoints.

The method of conveying and accepting feedback is interpreted in this model. A Johari is
represented as a common window with four panes. Two of these panes represent self and
the other two represent the part unknown to self but to others. The information transfers
from one pane to the other as the result of mutual trust which can be achieved through
socializing and the feedback got from other members of the group.

Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person his attitudes,
behaviour, emotions, feelings, skills and views will be known by the person as well as by
others. This is mainly the area where all the communications occur and the larger the
arena becomes the more effectual and dynamic the relationship will be. ‘Feedback
solicitation’ is a process which occurs by understanding and listening to the feedback
from another person. Through this way the open area can be increased horizontally
decreasing the blind spot. The size of the arena can also be increased downwards and thus
by reducing the hidden and unknown areas through revealing one’s feelings to other
person.
Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that others know in a group but
you will be unaware of it. Others may interpret yourselves differently than you expect.
The blind spot is reduced for an efficient communication through seeking feedback from
others.

Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but will be kept unknown
from others. This can be any personal information which you feel reluctant to reveal. This
includes feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we keep some of our feelings and
information as private as it affects the relationships and thus the hidden area must be
reduced by moving the information to the open areas.

Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves as well as others.
This includes the information, feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can be due to
traumatic past experiences or events which can be unknown for a lifetime. The person
will be unaware till he discovers his hidden qualities and capabilities or through
observation of others. Open communication is also an effective way to decrease the
unknown area and thus to communicate effectively.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory or SLT explains that people learn new behavior through overt
reinforcement or punishment, or via observational learning of the social factors in
their environment. If people observe positive, desired outcomes in the observed
behavior, then they are more likely to model, imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves.

Social learning theory is derived from the work of Cornell Montgomery (1843-1904)
which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of limitation, such
as close contact, imitation of superiors, understanding of concepts, role model behaviour.
It consists of three parts observing, imitating, and reinforcements.

As children enter adolescence, print and electronic media help them define who they are
and what they want to become. By the time children reach middle school, they have spent
tens of thousands of hours watching television, movies, and videos; listening to the radio,
CDs and cassettes; reading magazines, newspapers, and books; playing video and
computer games and surfing the internet. Advertisers of alcohol use the power and
influence of media to convey a positive message for their products. Alcohol
advertisements glamorize drinking and play directly into the needs of teenagers by
promising fun, popularity, relaxation and escape. Social learning theory has generated
much research. Evidence shows that social learning theory and one’s sense of self
efficacy predicts such diverse outcomes as alcohol abuse, smoking cessation, pain
tolerance, athletic performance, career choices, assertiveness, coping with feared events,
recovery from medical procedures and sales performance.
DEPENDENCY THEORY

Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur proposed the “Dependency theory” in 1976.
Media Dependency theory is one of the theories, first of its kind which regards audience
as an active part in communication process. The dependency theory is expanded from the
theory of Uses and Gratification.

According to this theory, there is an internal link between media, audience and large
social system. The audience learning from the real life is limited, so they can use media
to get more information to fulfil their needs. An extensive use of media generates
dependent relation in audience. Also Media can able to create dependence relationship
with target audiences to achieve their goals by using its media power.

The degree of dependence in

Individual: The media have ability to satisfy the audience needs. An individual will
become more dependent on media, if the medium satisfy his/her needs. Otherwise the
media dependence will become less

Social Stability: The audience reconsiders their beliefs, practice and behaviour when
strong social change, conflicts, riot or election which will force to re-evaluate and make
new decisions. During this period media dependency is dramatically increased, because
there is a strong need for information, support and advice

Active audience: In this communication process, the active audience chooses the media
dependence on their individual needs and other factors such as economic conditions,
society and culture. If alternative source fulfil the audience needs, then it will reciprocally
decrease the media dependence
Process of Creating Dependence:

Media attracts individuals by offering the content which is able to fulfil the audience
needs for understanding, entertainment and information

There is much difference in the level of strength in Dependence relationship. Cognitive

motivations encourage the individuals to maintain the level of attention and Affective
motivation serves the individuals to enhance the level of satisfaction

Both Cognitive and Affective motivation are intensifying the audience to higher level of
involvement to enable the information process

Example:

In 2011, Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Eastern Japan very badly. Due to this natural
disaster the whole communication were blocked and others could not know the exact
effects of tsunami in Eastern Japan. During this period, Peoples information needs were
dramatically increased and they were all more depend on media than any other.
AUDIENCE THEORY

Stuart Hall developed reception theory, popularly known as Audience Theory or reader’s
reception theory, in 1973.

The reception theory concept points out that, a movie, book, or game events though it has
none/some inherent meaning, the audience who watch them or experience it make a
meaning. The audience comes into an understanding of the happenings of the text or
screen.

Understanding of Reception Theory

“It is unnecessary that the audience will decode the message encoded by the author just
the same”. – Stuart Hall

The audience receives the creative work done and perceives to its content in either similar
or different. The meaning of the message can change in the way they see it fit according
to their social context.

Encoding – The encoded messages usually contains shared rules and symbols common
with other people. So the (encoder) sender has to think how the receiver will perceive the
message.

Decoding – Decoding would be a successful deliver only if the message sent by the
encoder is understood completely to its content as it was intended.

The messages sent with verbal/non-verbal cues and gestures don’t bring the same result
always as intended by the sender, bringing an altogether different meaning an insight to
the concept sent. Thus, the distortion occurs when the audience cannot understand the
concept of having a different take on the conclusion itself. Such distortion can be because
of the age, gender, religion, race, political views, ethnicity, class, culture and the mood in
which the audience receive the message etc.,
It is difficult to gather the information necessary to analyze every single audience’s
experience belongs to a mass. So the media houses and other social handles come in a
useful tool to reach the bigger mass as to get to know their experience and understanding.

Press releases, other forms of publicity such as advertisements, the fan letters, celebrity
words, fan message boards, reviews, serve as useful materials for the analysts to see how
the reception has been.

Here the perceiving of the work can scope in three categories:

● Dominant Audience
● Negotiated Audience
● Oppositional Audience

Dominant Audience
They are the audience who take in the work as given by the director which no extra notes
attached. Example, Teacher asking the student to submit their assignments or parent
implying on the child to clean their room is a direct message. The child understands the
messages properly and it is followed by the child. In the Harry Potter Series, Lord
Voldemort is a bad guy, and how have the media producers have conveyed it with a bald
head, black cloak, sunken eyes, cold and cruel voice, and threatening presence to his
surroundings.

Negotiated Audience

The negotiated audience here is the audiences who thought they know and are aware of
the acts made in the film are bad and not right but get on to accept that it is fine because
there is a reason behind it. Thus, accepting the author’s message even though it goes
against the audiences’ personal convictions is negotiated audience. For example, many
video games/comics has contents which are against our personal views but we still read,
enjoy and accept the content given the situation depicted on it.

Oppositional Audience
The audience has none acceptance for the author’s takes on the concept of the film or the
subject it handled. It can be morally wrong, emotionally disturbing, unnecessary adult
contents of violence and blood gore, religious belief, political outlooks etc., which will
make the audience, reject the idea. For example, in 1970-1980 was an era in Indian Films
they showed smoking as a sign of prestige, image, wealth, power and flourishing
happiness whereas, the reality states otherwise, for it causes cancer. And the pleasant
sense of smoking is nothing more than juxtaposed where in reality is an unpleasant smell
and is perceived as a very unhealthy habit.

Conclusion
Reception theory is far more complex in understanding as each mind perceives in its own
way. A single person can have a mixed reaction of being a dominant, oppositional, and
negotiated reader when they are going through the process of receiving the message. The
content producer cannot take/judge for every single individual perspective. The
conclusion taken by the audience which was/is/will be right for and their perspectives
will change as when the time goes by and will feel just right for the conclusion derived at
that moment.
THE CULTIVATION THEORY
It was proposed by George Gerbner. People who watch television frequently are more
likely to be influenced by the messages from the world of television. The influence goes
to such an extent that their world view and perceptions start reflecting what they
repeatedly see and hear on television.

The theory argues that the media generally presents an image of the world that does not
reflect reality. Television images are an exaggeration or fantasy of what actually exists.
There is a disproportionate number of handsome gentlemen,beautiful women, crime,
wealth and violence. As a result, people end up perceiving the real world in a distorted
manner and viewing actuality through a ‘television perspective.’

Cultivation Theory’ Hypothesis

The theory postulates that watching television frequently influences an individual to
develop certain ideas of reality or beliefs and assumptions about life. The more a person
watches television, the more likely he is to be influenced by what he watches when
compared to others who watch less but share other similar demographic characteristics.
Cultivation Theory
According to cultivation theory:
● Low Users, those who watch TV less than 2 hours a day
● Normal Users, those who watch TV from 2 to 6 hours a day.
● Heavy Users, those who watch TV for more than 6 hours a day.

Application of Theory
Various studies have supported the claim that those who watch television more
frequently, often display higher tendencies of being depressed and lonely, sense of
alienation, have feelings of mistrust and think that the world is a malicious place. A
study conducted in an experimental setting saw the outcome, at the end of the test period,
that students who watch more action-adventure programs during a six month period are
more likely to believe that the world was a very dangerous place. They also believe that
there is a high chance that they would be personally involved in a violent incident. This
is in stark contrast compared to the attitudes of other students who did not watch as many
action-adventure shows as the test group.

Research by L.J.Shrum has shown that people who watch television frequently are more
likely to answer questions faster as well. They also give answers that reflect the
messages or images that are the most common or repeated on television.

The cultivation theory has been widely used in the study of violence in television. The
theory has been used to explain how children who watch violent cartoons become violent
themselves. Repeated exposure to violence on television reinforces existing beliefs that
the world is a dangerous and unsafe place. Exposure to television further strengthens the
position that acts of violence are a natural response to situations of conflict.
Features of Cultivation theory
▪ People believe whatever is shown in media unconsciously.

▪ Media influences attitudes, beliefs, meanings and perception in a society.

▪ Media has the most persuasive power in society.

▪ Television has long-term indirect but significant effects.

▪ Media shapes what people think.

▪ Mean World Syndrome is the result of televisions’ portrayal of violence.

Examples of Cultivation Theory

1. A study was conducted in 450 school going children of New Jersey. They had
been categorized into heavy viewers and light viewers on the basis of their
television viewing time.The results were: Heavy viewers were more afraid of
going out alone at night in comparison to light viewerswhen asked to estimate the
 number of crimes that happen in a week, heavy viewers over-estimated the
number. This effect of media was called ‘Mean World Syndrome’.

2. People from Australia who watch US television series get an image that their own
country is dangerous than the US. They also perceive that more people in
Australia are substance abusers than in US.

3. Television shows young people from African origin to be involved in petty crimes
and drug use.

4. Incorrect generalization of the behaviors of members of LGBTQ community have

encouraged discrimination against them.

5. Television has created a mindset in people that females are supposed to be pretty
and with lots of make-up. This has encouraged teens and young girls to follow
what they see.

6. Patriotism promoted by television has caused many wars within and among
countries. Marginalization and discrimination is also promoted by media.

Criticisms
▪ The theory focuses on television only and have not considered effects of other

media and human experiences.

▪ More fearful people can be watching more television and not the opposite.

▪ Other studies have shown that change in variables like age, location, education and

sex could have removed cultivation effects.

▪ People rarely compare others in social situations with people on television.
▪ It is also criticized on being entirely about the US and not getting similar results in

Britain.
▪ Most people do not believe what they see on television.

▪ Content and choice of programs also change cultivation in people.