Basic semiconductor properties

• A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity

lies between the conductors and insulators. That
means, its resistivity is less than insulators and
more than conductors.
• Semiconductors have negative temperature co-
efficient and the resistance in semiconductors
decreases with the increase in temperature.
• The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor
changes, when a suitable impurity is added to it.
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
Electrical Very low and ranges High and ranges Very high and ranges
resistivity from 10-9 to 10- from 10-3 to 10- from 104 to 1017(Ohm-
4(Ohm-m) 4(Ohm-m) m)
 Conduction in Semiconductors
• The outermost shell or the valence electrons are
loosely attached to the nucleus.
• When two atoms brought close to the each other,
the valence electrons of both these atoms combine
to form “covalent bond” and this bonding is not so
very strong
• For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second
orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of
germanium atom. These electrons tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining
atoms, to form the electron pairs, as shown in the following figure.
Covalent bond of germanium

Electronic per shell 2, 8, 18, 4

 Creation of Hole
• Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some
electrons tend to move out of their place and break the
covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in
free electrons which wander randomly.
• The place electron moved away creates an empty
space behind, which is called as a hole.
• This hole which represents a missing electron can be
considered as a unit positive charge while the electron
is considered as a unit negative charge.
• The liberated electrons move randomly in the structure
but when some external electric field is applied, these
electrons move in opposite direction to the applied field.
But the holes created due to absence of electrons,
move in the direction of applied field.
• Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics
and classified based on impurities added or not.

Classification of semiconductors based on impurities added

 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said
to be an intrinsic semiconductor.
• The properties of this pure semiconductor(intrinsic
semiconductor) are as follows −
 The electrons and holes are solely created by
thermal excitation.
 The number of free electrons is equal to the
number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room
temperature.
 Extrinsic semiconductor
• In order to increase the conduction capability of
intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some
impurities. The process of adding impurities is
called as Doping.
• The doped semiconductor is known as an Extrinsic
Semiconductor.
• The impurities added, are generally pentavalent
and trivalent impurities.
• The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has
five valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
• The pentavalent atom is a donor atom because it
donates one electron to the conduction band of pure
semiconductor atom.
• A semiconductors doped with pentavalent is n-type
semiconductor
• Trivalent impurities are the ones which has three
valence electrons in the outer most orbit. Example:
Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
• The trivalent atom is an acceptor atom because it
accepts one electron from the semiconductor atom.
• A semiconductors doped with trivalent elements is p-type
semiconductors

(b)
(a)
• Figure a, shows Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence
electrons get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron.

• Figure b. shows the Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence
electrons attached with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds but, one more electron
in germanium remains without forming any bond because no electron in boron to form a
covalent bond with Ge and the space is remain treated as a hole.
 Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?
Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and
silicon, the extensively used material for manufacturing
various electronic components is Silicon (Si). Silicon is
preferred over germanium for many reasons such as:
• The thermal pair generation is smaller.
• The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which
helps in the manufacture of many components along
with integration technology.
• Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
• Noise is less in components made up of Si than in
Ge.
The main electronic components include
• Resistors and variable resistors,
• Capacitors and variable capacitors
• Inductors,
• diodes
• Tunnel diodes
• Varactor diodes
• Transistors: BJTs, FETs, MOSFETs,
• LDR
• LED
• Solar cells
• Thermistor
• Varistor
• Transformer
• Switches, etc.
The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons
& holes in a semiconductor can be modulated
in several ways:
1. by adding special impurity atoms (
dopants )
2. by applying an electric field
3. by changing the temperature
4. by irradiation
 Carrier Concentrations in Intrinsic Silicon
• The concentration of conduction electrons in
intrinsic silicon, ni, depends exponentially on energy
band gap (Eg) and the absolute temperature (T) and
given by
 Eg
ni  5.2 10 T15 3/ 2
exp electrons / cm 3

2kT

ni  110 electrons / cm at 300K

10 3

ni  11015 electrons / cm 3 at 600K

 Terminology
• donor: impurity atom that increases n
• acceptor: impurity atom that increases p

• N-type material: contains more electrons than holes

• P-type material: contains more holes than electrons

• majority carrier: the most abundant carrier

• minority carrier: the least abundant carrier

• intrinsic semiconductor: n = p = ni
• extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor