Electronic Circuits (ELE_112)

Design a BJT As Amplifier

Dr Ayman Elshabrawy M Ahmed Date : 30/4/2023

Base-Biased Amplifier
• The capacitor is called a coupling
capacitor because it couples or
transmits the ac signal to the resistor.
• Coupling capacitors are important
because they allow us to couple an ac
signal into an amplifier without
disturbing its Q point.
• For a coupling capacitor to work
properly, its reactance must be much
smaller than the resistance at the
lowest frequency of the ac source
• Good coupling: 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 0.1𝑅𝑅
• Frequency of the ac source varies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 2

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅2 + (0.1𝑅𝑅)2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 0.01𝑅𝑅2 = 1.01𝑅𝑅2 = 1.005𝑅𝑅

• One more thing to note about coupling capacitors: The reactance of a
coupling capacitor is infinite at zero frequency because dc voltage has
a zero frequency. Therefore, we shall approximate a capacitor using
these two characteristics:
1. For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
2. For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.
DC Circuit
• The Figure shows a base-biased circuit. The dc
base voltage is 0.7 V. Because 30 V is much
greater than 0.7 V, the base current is
approximately 30 V divided by 1 MΩ, or:
• IB = 30 μA
• With a current gain of 100, the collector current
is:
• IC = 3 mA
• and the collector voltage is:
• VC = 30 V − (3 mA)(5 kΩ) = 15 V
So the Q point is located at 3 mA and 15 V.
Amplifying Circuit

• The key idea is that the coupling

capacitors prevent the ac source and
load resistance from changing the Q
point.
Voltage Gain
• The voltage gain ofan amplifier is defined as the ac output voltage divided by the
ac input voltage. As a definition:
𝑣𝑣out
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 =
𝑣𝑣in
• For instance, if we measure an ac load voltage of 50mV with an ac input voltage
of 100𝜇𝜇V, the voltage gain is:
50mV
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = = 500
100𝜇𝜇V
Emitter-Biased Amplifier
• To use transistor as Emitter Biased amplifier we need a bypass capacitor
• A bypass capacitor is similar to a coupling capacitor because it appears
open to direct current and shorted to alternating current. But it is not
used to couple a signal between two points. Instead, it is used to create
an ac ground.
• Good Bypassing: 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 0.1𝑅𝑅
The input frequency of 𝑽𝑽 is 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. What value of 𝑪𝑪 is needed to
effectively short point 𝑬𝑬 to ground?
• SOLUTION First, find the Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor 𝐶𝐶.
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 600Ω ∥ 1kΩ = 375Ω
Next, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 should be 10 times smaller than 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 . Therefore, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 37.5Ω at
1kHz. Now solve for 𝐶𝐶 by:
1 1
𝐶𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 (2𝜋𝜋)(1kHz)(37.5Ω)
𝐶𝐶 = 4.2𝜇𝜇F
Emitter-Biased Amplifier
• The quiescent or dc values for
this circuit are:
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 1.8 V
𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 1.1 V
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 6.04 V
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 1.1 mA
• This is coupled into the base.
Because of the bypass capacitor,
all of this ac voltage appears
across the base-emitter diode.
The ac base current then
produces an amplified ac
collector voltage, as previously
described
Small-Signal Operation
• The ac emitter current is not a perfect replica of
the ac base voltage because of the curvature of
the graph. Since the graph is curved upward, the
positive half-cycle of the ac emitter current is
elongated (stretched) and the negative half-
cycle is compressed. This stretching and
compressing of alternate half-cycles is called
distortion. It is undesirable in high-fidelity
amplifiers because it changes the sound of voice
and music.
 Reducing Distortion
• One way to reduce distortion as in figure is by keeping
the ac base voltage small. When you reduce the peak
value of the base voltage, you reduce the movement of
the instantaneous operating point. The smaller this swing
or variation, the less the curvature in the graph. If the
signal is small enough, the graph appears to be linear.

• The 10 Percent Rule.

• The total emitter current shown in shown Figure consists of a dc component and an ac component,
which can be written as:
• 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒

• Where 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸 = the total emitter current

𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = the dc emitter current
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 = the ac emitter current
Small signal: 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒(𝑝𝑝−𝑝𝑝) < 0.1𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
• Amplifiers that satisfy the 10 percent rule as small-signal amplifiers
AC Beta
• The current gain in all discussions up to this
point has been dc current gain. This was defined
as:
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶
𝜷𝜷dc =
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵
Definition
The ac current gain is different. It is defined as:
𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐
𝜷𝜷 =
𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏
• In words, the ac current gain equals the ac
collector current divided by the ac base current.
In Figure , the ac signal uses only a small part of
the graph on both sides of the 𝑄𝑄 point. Because
of this, the value of the ac current gain is
different from the dc current gain, which uses
almost all of the graph.
AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode
• The total emitter current has a dc component and an
ac component.
𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒

where 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 is the dc emitter current and 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 is the ac

emitter current.
• The total base-emitter voltage in Figure has a dc
component and an ac component. Its equation can
be written as:
• 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
• The ac emitter resistance of the emitter diode is
defined as:
𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
• 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ =
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒
AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode
• For instance, the Figure displays a 5mVp−p ac base-
emitter voltage. This creates an ac emitter current
of 100𝜇𝜇Ap−p at the specified Q point. The emitter
diode's ac resistance is:
5mV
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ = = 50Ω
100𝜇𝜇A
• As another example, assume that a higher 𝑄𝑄 point
in the shown Figure has 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 5mV and 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 = 200𝜇𝜇A.
Then, the ac resistance decreases to:
5mV
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ = = 25Ω
200𝜇𝜇A
• The point is this: The ac emitter resistance always
decreases when the dc emitter current increases
because 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is essentially a constant value.
25mV
• Normally 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ =
𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸
Two Transistor Models
• The T Model
𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏

• The π Model
𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = =
𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜷𝜷𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
Analyzing an Amplifier

• To analyze amplifiers, we can calculate the

effect of the dc sources and then the effect of the
ac sources. When using the superposition
theorem in this analysis, the effect of each
source acting alone is added to get the total
effect of all sources acting simultaneously.
VDB Amplifier
• All capacitors have been
shorted, the dc supply point has
become an ac ground, and the
transistor has been replaced by
its π model.
• In the base circuit, the ac input
voltage appears across R in 1

parallel with R in parallel with

2

βr ′.
e

• In the collector circuit, the

current source pumps an ac
current of i through R in parallel
c C

with R .
L
 Voltage Gain
• Voltage gain was defined as
the ac output voltage divided
by the ac input voltage. With
this definition, we can derive
another equation for voltage
gain that is useful in
troubleshooting
• Figure shows the ac-
equivalent circuit using the
𝜋𝜋 model of the transistor.
The ac base current 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 flows
through the input impedance
of the base 𝛽𝛽𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ . With
Ohm's law, we can write:
𝑣𝑣in = 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝛽𝛽𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 through
the parallel connection of 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 and 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 . There fore, the ac output voltage
equals:
𝑣𝑣out = 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
Now we can divide 𝑣𝑣out by 𝑣𝑣in to get:
𝑣𝑣out 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = =
𝑣𝑣in 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝛽𝛽𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
which simplifies to:
𝑹𝑹𝐶𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 =
𝒓𝒓′𝑒𝑒
The Loading Effect of
Input Impedance
• Equation for Input Voltage

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑅2 ∥ 𝛽𝛽𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑅𝑅𝐺𝐺 𝑔𝑔
Swamped Amplifier
• The voltage gain of a CE amplifier changes with
the quiescent current, temperature variations,
and transistor replacement because these
quantities change 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ and 𝛽𝛽 .
AC Emitter Feedback
• One way to stabilize the voltage gain is to
leave some of the emitter resistance
unbypassed, as shown in shown Figure ,
producing ac emitter feedback. When ac
emitter current flows through the unbypassed
emitter resistance 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 , an ac voltage appears
across 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
Voltage Gain
The pervious Figure shows the ac-equivalent circuit with the T model of the transistor. Clearly, the ac
emitter current must flow through 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ and 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 . With Ohm's law, we can write:
• 𝑣𝑣in = 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ = 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏
In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 through the ac collector resistance.
Therefore, the ac output voltage equals:
𝑣𝑣out = 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐
Now we can divide 𝑣𝑣out by 𝑣𝑣in to get:
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 = = =
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏
• Since 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 ≈ 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 , we can simplify the equation to get:
𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 =
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
• When 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 is much greater than 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ , the foregoing equation simplifies to:
𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 =
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
• This says that the voltage gain equals the ac collector resistance divided by the feedback resistance. Since
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′ no longer appears in the equation for voltage gain, it no longer has an effect on the voltage gain.
Input Impedance of the Base
The negative feedback not only stabilizes the voltage gain, it also increases the input
impedance of the base. In the Figure shown before, the input impedance of the base is:
𝑍𝑍in( base) = 𝑣𝑣in /𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏

• Applying Ohm's law to the emitter diode, we can write:

𝑣𝑣in = 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
Substitute this equation into the preceding one to get:
𝑣𝑣in 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′
𝑍𝑍in(base) = =
𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏
• Since 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 ≈ 𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 , the foregoing equation becomes:
𝑍𝑍in(base) = 𝛽𝛽 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒′

• In a swamped amplifier, this simplifies to:

𝑍𝑍in( (base ) = 𝛽𝛽𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒