Critical theory of society: basic features

'Critical theory'
● Classical Greek 'krinein' (separate, distinguish) and 'kritikè' refers to the human capacity for
judgment and discernment
● Critical questioning of the hidden assumptions all kinds of theories and existing
forms of thought ('common sense').
● Critical 'theory' has little in common with what is known as 'eternal philosophy,' but insists
that thinking must respond to new problems and the new possibilities for emancipation
arising from changing historical conditions.
Criticism = ancient history Socrates questioned people, Distinguish phenomena
Strengthen human judgment, make distinctions in reality by oneself
Contigent = what exists is not necessarily so, created through history, could also be different,
can change again
In interaction as a society we can contribute to cultural and social changes
Critical theory assumes that the language we use, the problems we face, are specific to our
own historical situation, arrived at through a long process, and therefore changeable again
Theory is important in letting society change with us

Modern criticism: Marx

Social theory as criticism of the existing order and 'midwife' of a revolutionary project
Modern idea of criticism is very much influenced by Marx.
BTW Marx's reputation grew considerably after his death. When he was first buried, his
grave was at the foot of a hill. Then the family tomb was moved to higher ground on that
same hill, generally considered a more prestigious part of the cemetery. Marx thus
experienced upward social mobility after his death - proverbial proof of the pervasive
influence of his work.
Strongly influenced dppr thinking hegel: thinking historicized, categories we use to think
about society are themselves historically produced and changeable
Marx: same society-changing role of theory
Any system that philosophers have developed sticks to an attempt to understand reality,
much less attention to role that theory has, in changing society and that is just what thinking
should be about
=critical theory = social theory that tries not only to understand social reality, but by
describing, understanding and explaining social reality, to help build a better society.
Critical social theory: principles
● Paradox of 'reason' or 'rationality' in an 'unreasonable' society (Adorno): 'utopian'
dimension of critical theory
● "Es gibt kein richtiges Leben im falschen" (Adorno)

● Clinging to theoretical possibility of a different society, but at the same time noting that the
road to it is blocked (vs. Marx) and most citizens do not care about it
Starting point co-building better society:
-paradox at work in our modern societies, we have with advent modernity, money economy,
state, science, technology, we have today the potential to shape a reality in which freedom
and equality for all is in principle possible
Problem: we do not succeed in this despite the potential
=Paradox of Reason: Measured by historical potentiality, the real existing society as we have
developed it is actually an unreal society
Aderno: When you start thinking it makes no sense to hold on to ideas of how people should
improve themselves = there is no possibility of living correctly in a society that is
unreasonable and structured in a correct and false way
Consciousness is co-programmed by suppressible structure in which they are socialized
● Critical theory is a "theory": it does not merely describe or interpret what
happening (like the empirical social sciences), but also asks what is 'possible' and 'desirable'
● As such, 'Critical Theory' has an important 'political' dimension: the
assumption (pretense?) of value freedom or 'neutrality' of the scientific (positivist) method is
rejected
● What should be paramount in scientific research (besides methodology,
accuracy, etc.) is therefore self-reflection and the pursuit of 'emancipation'. Cognitive
development cannot simply be separated from normative ideals
Categories science uses are also established in oppressive social order
If you want to break free from that you need a different form of thinking
Focused on critical existence and how we can contribute with thinking to empowerment of
everyone

Jürgen Habermas: 3 knowledge interests

● Knowledge interest : inherent connection between certain forms of scientific knowledge
and the human interests and norms that guide this knowledge (relationship between theory
and praxis).
1. Technical interest of the empirical analytical sciences aimed at the technical use of
nature , psyche or society and the verifiability of knowledge about it;
2. Practical importance of the historical hermeneutical sciences that orients man in
social life; the goal of knowledge is understanding as "verstehen
3. Emancipatory importance of critical theoretical science that aims at the liberation of
man; critical knowledge hereby aims at self-reflective insight aimed at social change.
● Dual task for critical theory: formulating a critique of
society and knowledge, as well as outlining the path to an ideal society

HABERMAS thus outlines from an epistemological perspective a critical theory in which

science cannot be narrowed down to merely technically verifiable knowledge (as is proposed
within positivism). According to him, science, like any other form of knowing, is in any case
anchored in normative human interests.
This is particularly true of the social sciences (cf. next slide) The specific problem of the
social sciences lies in the fact that the researcher, with his activities, is himself part of the
reality he is about to investigate. Therefore, research cannot be neutral or disinterested.
Knowledge and interest are inseparable. Specific interests underlie certain sciences or
groups of sciences, according to Habermas. On this point he partly joins Marx in order to
then complement his insights. Marx knows only the technical action that manifests itself in
labor. The knowledge interest of this action is wanting to know how things are put together in
order to work them (forms the basis of the empirical- analytical sciences). In addition, there is
a practical knowledge interest, aimed at "SinnVerstehen" within intersubjective
communication. This knowledge interest belongs to' the hermeneutic-historical sciences. A
third group of sciences, called "systematic action sciences" by Habermas, goes back to the
emancipatory knowledge interest. This includes (ideally) economics, sociology and political
science, These sciences do not limit themselves, like the natural sciences, to the formulation
of lawful coherences. To the extent that social sciences align themselves with a limiting
natural science perspective, they deny their individuality, according to critical theory. Through
ideology criticism it can be made clear, that positivist knowledge within the social sciences
serves to confirm the existing social and political order. The emancipatory interest of
knowledge thus manifests itself in the self-reflection of the social sciences. By reflecting on
their own social position and knowledge interest, these sciences can become a "critically
oriented science."
In second generation : idea of critical social science also elaborated on the idea of
knowledge interests : that science can never be narrowed down only to value-free technically
verifiable knowledge that works with experiments, statistics, there are, according to him, very
different forms of knowledge and they depend on how that knowledge is used
Praxis: thinking is rooted in very concrete social circumstances and comes about in well-
defined contingencies, not memorizing the idea of theory and praxis but understanding that
scientific research, knowing is always connected with very specific ways of understanding
that reality:
-technical interest = we try to gather by neutral value-free observation all kinds of data, data
or facts about reality probren and translate them into theoretical laws , and we can use them
to control society
=allows us to ocntrol and manipulate all kinds of things we find important
-practical importance science: who are we as humans? In what ways do we give meaning to
the world? That type allows us to better understand how we interact as people, develop
understanding of ourselves in reltation to the situation
-when we do science, especially social laws, there is also something like an emancipatory
interest: that with thinking and science you don't alee nopboeren to

understand what laws are and who we are but science can also be an instrument that strives
for ind liberation of all, without exclusion.
Thanks relfexive theoretical knowledge should also give insight how we can organize societal
change

Critical Theory vs.

● 'Critical Theory' refers to a 'school' or group of Marx-influenced
sociologists, philosophers, historians, all of whom were directly or indirectly affiliated with the
Frankfurt-based Institut für Sozialforschung (founded 1924), such as Theodor Adorno, Max
Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Ernst Bloch
● The idea of 'critical theory' in a more general sense refers to all theoretical
currents that assume that 'theory' and 'thought' should be in the service of social and cultural
change (freedom, equality, fraternity, emancipation) and thus subject existing social relations
to 'critique'

Marx's legacy: critical analysis of the capitalist system

The legacy of Marx: doctrinaire Marxism or revisionism?
● After Marx's death (1883), international socialist movement becomes torn between rather
reformist and more radical wing
● Schism becomes official in 1919 with the founding of the Third International or
Comintern
Meanwhile Marx's ideas were already influential in sociology (e.g. Max Adler, leading figure
of the Second International).
● Within the Comintern, on the other hand, a dogmatic version of
Marxism prevailed, especially after Stalin's seizure of power in the Soviet Union
● Many young intellectuals with leftist sympathies opposed official
simplification of Marx's ideas
With the dismantling of communism in Eastern Europe and the collapse of Eastern European
countries and the collapse of Soviet communism in 1991, it has become commonplace for
commentators to claim that ideas originated by Karl Marx are key to the 19th century but no
longer useful sense of 21st E thinking. At the same time, many sociologists, philosophers,
economists and anthropologists continue to regard Marx as one of the key influences.
Marxism = is about different things: doctrinal Marxism;
Twin struggles in communist movement; radical political wing very much focused on
overturning existing eco and pol order and on the other hand slightly broader international
movement that saw speech marx as inspiration
Comintern= official organization communists And broader movement that was inspired

Emergence of Critical Theory: Institut für Sozialforschung ('Frankfurt School'), 1924

● With the phrase 'Critical Theory,' thinkers such as Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer,
Herbert Marcuse, et al. wanted to clearly distinguish their views from dogmatic-orthodox
party communism

● Although Marx's thinking inspired, it was not fully embraced. Rather critical testing against
changing social context (1930s and 1940s in Nazi Germany)
● Two main motives :
🞆 To provide a satisfactory explanation for the lack of revolution expected by Marxists
🞆 To develop convincing alternative to dominant style and method of the
social sciences, namely 'positivism .
Institut founded in 1924 by Felix Weil; in its first years was under the leadership of Carl
Grünberg. In 1932, under the leadership of Max Horkheimer (who took over from 1931, after
Grünberg was struck down by illness), the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung came into being as
the theoretical organ of the institute. In this journal, members of the institute formulated ideas
and held discussions around what would later be known as "Critical Theory."