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CSEC Biology Manual
CSEC Biology Manual
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SECTION A (1/2)
LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
All living things are made up of CELLS. Thus, there are two types of organisms:
All living organisms have specific characteristics, listed in the table below:
Characteristic Description
GROWTH Permanent increase in size by increasing dry mass and number of cells.
RESPIRATION Release of energy through a molecule known as ATP for the metabolism1.
NUTRITION Taking in, utilization and storage nutrients from different sources.
EXCRETION Removal of metabolic waste, toxic products and excess in the body.
2 - Plants move by orienting their leaves and stems towards sunlight, or through the downward growth of
their roots. While plants can move their body parts or grow in a particular direction, they cannot direct
their bodies from one location to another. When an organism is able to move from one location to
another, this is termed LOCOMOTION (or WHOLE MOVEMENT).
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CLASSIFYING SPECIES
Artificial classification involves categorising by certain features of anatomy. For example, take into
account the organisms below. Find THREE categories to differentiate the ant and termite below.
List THREE anatomical/physical features that can separate A – E into TWO distinct categories.
1. Only one dorsal fin (A and D). B, C and E have two dorsal fins.
2. Only B has whiskers. The others do not have whiskers.
3. Only B and D have distinctly forked tailfins. A, C and E have more rounded tailfins.
4. C and E have striped tailfins, while the others do not.
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Unreliability of Artificial Classification
Reason Explanation
All organisms inherit Organisms can widely vary in appearance due to characteristics inherited
different genetic traits from parents. Humans, for example, vary widely in height, weight, skin
from their parents. colour, hair texture and many other features. Yet we are all the same species,
Homo sapiens.
Maturity causes Members of the same species change physical appearance during maturity.
changes in appearance. Examples include tadpoles turning into frogs and chicks shedding their
yellow feathers.
Males and females of a Different genders of the same species may have differing characteristics.
species may look Examples include lions, for which the females don’t have manes, and male
different. peacocks which have large, colourful feathers.
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
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TAXONOMY
According to the Whittaker model, each organism belongs to one of FIVE KINGDOMS:
ANIMALIA Multicellular, must feed on other organisms to Humans, corals, birds, snakes
obtain nutrition, no cell wall.
Later models of the taxonomy system have more than five kingdoms,
such as by splitting bacteria in two types of kingdoms.
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Organisms are arranged in the taxa that starts at a kingdom and ends at a species. Take the gray wolf,
Canis lupus, for example below.
NOTE: Viruses are not classed under any kingdom because they are not considered living organisms.
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EXERCISE: On this page, draw ONE member of each of the following phylums or classes, give their
binomial names and label TWO major defining characteristics for each.
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WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?
BIOTIC All organisms that either produce their own Plants, bacteria, animals
food or consume other organisms for food.
ABIOTIC The physical features of the environment, Water, sunlight, pH, salinity,
which will affect the types of numbers of the turbidity, climate
species populations living in the ecosystem.
Other definitions
Observe the diagram of the food chain:
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FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
A food chain represents THE FEEDING SEQUENCE OF ORGANISMS TO TRANSFER ENERGY.
There are three main categories of organisms in the food chain, stated below:
Category Description
AUTOTROPHS Organisms that produce food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to convert
(producers) materials such as oxygen and water into nutrients.
HETEROTROPHS Organisms that eat other organisms to gain their food. These obtain energy
(consumers) from other organisms on which they feed.
DECOMPOSERS Organisms that obtain nutrition by breaking down the dead remains of other
organisms and absorbing nutrients, releasing CO2 as a result.
Examples include: Bacteria and fungi
NOTE: Decomposers are not to be confused with CARRION FEEDERS, which are organisms such as
vultures, and DETRITIVORES, like earthworms that seek and consume already-dead organisms.
Energy moves from organism to organism in a food chain. While materials may be recycled, energy is
described as a unidirectional flow, as it cannot be directly returned to an organism or the Sun.
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Each stage in the food chain is known as a Imagine the solar energy the plants get is 100%.
TROPHIC level. Energy decreases through This means the plant uses 90% and can only
each successive trophic level. For example, the pass on 10% to the deer. Similarly, when the
deer will never get 100% of the energy from the tiger eats the deer, it only has 1% of the total
plants they eat. They only get about 10% energy and must compensate by EATING
because the other 90% energy is used for the MORE OFTEN OR METABOLIZING MORE
plants’ life processes (such as growth, SLOWLY.
excretion and reproduction).
NOTE: Most food chains are limited to four to six trophic level links because:
THERE WOULD BE TOO LITTLE ENERGY AVAILABLE TO SUSTAIN LIFE ON
HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS.
SOIL
Soil is described as an important ABIOTIC factor in an ecosystem, as it can affect the lives of plants and
thus affect the trophic levels above it because:
1. It can provide a suitable HABITAT for organisms such as earthworms and insects. A soil habitat
is known as EDAPHIC.
2. It can retain WATER and MINERALS for plant growth and development.
3. It helps provide ANCHORAGE for plants, preventing them from being uprooted.
The top layer of most soils is called HUMUS, which is comprised of the natural decay of materials such
as leaves and animal matter that have accumulated. It is the most fertile layer.
In soil water retention experiments, a fixed mass of soil sample is placed in filter paper folded over a
funnel. A recorded amount of water is then poured into the sample. After a certain amount of time, the
water drains through the soil and into a measuring cylinder below.
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FOOD WEBS
A food web is a combination of several food chains within a habitat or ecosystem.
Identify a(n):
- Autotroph: ALGAE
- Herbivore: TADPOLE
- Carnivore: FROG
- Omnivore: SMALL FISH
- Tertiary Consumer: KINGFISHER
- Predator/Prey: FROG AND SNAIL
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Category Description
PYRAMID OF Represents the number of a certain species at each trophic level in a habitat.
NUMBERS Usually, the shape of the pyramid will be broad at the base and narrow at the top.
However, there are cases where the base is the narrowest. For example, there may be
MANY producers (broad base) or just one (e.g. the only producer might be one tree).
PYRAMID OF Represents the total amount of food available in each trophic level at any one
BIOMASS time. In the following food chain: Grass Rabbit Fox: There is a higher mass of
grass than rabbits, so enough food can be available for the rabbits. Same with the
rabbits and foxes.
PYRAMID OF Represents the amount of energy retained at each trophic level, with only 10%
ENERGY being transferred to each successive level. The shape is the same as the pyramid of
biomass.
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ORGANISM RELATIONSHIPS
Predation
When one animal hunts and eats another animal, the hunter is known as the PREDATOR while the
hunted is known as the PREY. In such a relationship, the number of predators is almost always less than
the number of prey. A typical population size for a predator-prey relationship is depicted below.
Predators and prey are usually adapted to their roles. Predators will have certain characteristics such as
sharp teeth or the ability to engage their prey with stealth, while prey will be able to burrow, hide or run
away, or employ certain mechanics as CAMOUFLAGE to hide from predators.
Biological controls
In some cases, ecologists prefer to use a predator in order to control a pest population. This is usually
preferable to using agricultural chemicals. There are advantages and disadvantages to this.
Targets a specific pest. Can result in disruptions in the food web if the
control becomes a predator.
Does not result in air and land pollution, such Takes a long time to work properly, unlike using
as pesticides. chemical control.
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Is a long-term solution and less manual Research is expensive.
labour is required in the long run.
Symbiotic Relationships
There are THREE main relationships in an ecosystem that can be classified as symbiotic:
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MUTUALISM Both organisms
benefit from the
relationship.
Predator-prey relationships involve the prey being hunted, killed and eaten by the predator. Parasitic
relationships do not involve the parasite killing the host, but harming and feeding off of them.
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NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection is a process that favours species that are BEST ADAPTED to their environments.
Species that that cannot adapt will either die out or have to migrate to another habitat, where they could
adapt. Natural selection is commonly known as “survival of the fittest”.
The above photograph is a popular example of The black moths were spotted by predators and
natural selection. Biston betularia (peppered eaten. White moths then reproduced and their
moth) had two variants: white and black. population size increased.
Before the industrial revolution in Britain, the However, the industrial revolution caused
white speckled moth was more abundant pollution which deposited black soot on the
because they were well CAMOUFLAGED on trunks. This time, the black moth was more
lichen tree trunks. well-camouflaged than the white moth.
Predators then ate the white moths, leaving the
black variant as the majority of the peppered
moth population.
COMPETITION
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good example of this is the Galapagos Island finches, discovered by Charles Darwin.
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FACTORS THAT RESULTED IN EVOLUTION IN DARWIN’S FINCHES
Factors Explanation
Geographical The finches had no natural predators. They were separated physically from each
isolation other, limiting competition. They learnt to occupy different habitats.
Diet, variation Short-beaked finches fed on fruits and nuts while long-beaked ones fed on
and behavioural worms. They did not have to compete for food as a result. They separated into
differences various groups and reproduced, amplifying these physical features.
Other species may separate due to being active at different times of day
(temporal), not being physically compatible (mechanical) or having different
mating rituals (behavioural).
Over time, this led to SPECIATION, which is the rise of a new and distinct species.
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INTERPRETING GRAPHS AND CONSTRUCTING TABLES
Ensure the following when constructing a table:
Observe the graph below and construct a table replicating its data.
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ECOLOGICAL STUDIES AND SAMPLING METHODS
Quadrats
It is difficult to survey all the different Most small ecological studies are carried out
organisms in an area, so various sampling using a QUADRAT. A quadrat is a square frame
methods are done to assess the biotic factors of a with a fixed dimension, commonly 1m each
chosen area. Ecological studies are done to: side. Within this frame is usually a series of
determine population counts over time wires or strings forming a grid, which can be
research species relationships labelled for further studies. The quadrat can be
assess damages from a disaster/disease used in two ways:
1. TRANSECT - A straight path is chosen and the quadrat is laid out in intervals along that track,
with the species being counted each time. Transects are especially useful for merging habitats
(ECOTONES), such as when a shoreline merges into a dense woodland. A transect can also be
useful in larger tree areas, because quadrats may too small for these.
2. RANDOM - The quadrat is tossed from a certain point in various directions. Eyes are closed to
prevent bias. Or the quadrat is laid down on random locations on the survey site. Sometimes these
sites can be decided by random numbers for coordinates.
After performing the survey with the quadrats, the species are counted and tallied. Certain factors can be
accounted for in the studied area:
Factor Description
SPECIES DENSITY Measured by counting the number of times a chosen species occurs within the
quadrats and calculating the average number per unit area .
SPECIES FREQUENCY Measured by counting how many times the species was recorded in the
quadrats, e.g. a species that has occurred 2 times in 10 quadrats has a 20%
frequency of occurrence.
COVER Measured by estimating the area each species covers in the entire quadrat,
e.g. if a quadrat measures 1m2 in area and a shrub takes up 0.5m2 of the
quadrat, it has taken up 50% cover.
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EXAMPLE QUESTION:
Ten quadrats of 1m2 are randomly placed along the same vegetation. X’s are recorded where the species is
present. The results are recorded as follows:
1. SWEEP NET - where a net is swung from side to side along a transect. The contents of the net are then
emptied into a container and counted. Dip nets can also be used to obtain organisms from water sources,
such as ponds.
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SECTION A (2/2)
HUMAN IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT / PHOTOSYNTHESIS
POPULATION GROWTH
The diagram below shows a typical growth curve for a stable population in an ecosystem.
The growth rate will decelerate, stop or decrease due to a number of factors:
Category Description
OVERCOMPETITION Population may be too large and unvaried and resources such as food, water
and shelter are limited.
INVASIVE SPECIES A new predator migrated into the habitat and reduces the population of many
organisms, e.g. lionfish in Caribbean marine habitats
ECOLOGICAL Natural disasters or human intervention and activity can disrupt the natural
DISRUPTION habitats of organisms, displacing them.
DISEASE If the population has little variation, a disease can wipe out a large subset of
them.
- Discovery of vaccines
- Discovery of antibiotics
- Awareness of communicable diseases
- Greater food availability and shelter
- Medical technology, such as X-rays and MRI’s
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RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
NON-RENEWABLE Are in finite supply and cannot be Fossil fuels, bauxite, gold
replenished in a short time.
One major problem with an expanding population is the increasing amount of waste produced, the limited
space available for disposal and the improper disposal of refuse. Waste can be classed as either:
1. REDUCE the amount of waste you create. Choosing biodegradable paper bags instead of plastic bags, or
switching off lights when not in use. Carpooling and public transport can also reduce the amount of fuel used.
2. REUSE waste materials by finding other purposes for them. Refilling water bottles at home, reusing bags
instead of throwing them away, repairing instead of buying new, using waste for creative purposes.
3. RECYCLE materials by breaking their structure down and transforming them into new materials. Throw
waste into respective recycling bins or take empty bottles to recycling factories.
Activity Effect
BLAST FISHING May destroy the reef structure, e.g. using dynamite or cyanide
OVERFISHING Disrupts marine and coral reef food webs (e.g. Caribbean monk seal).
This allows invasive species such as starfish to destroy coral reefs.
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NOTE: Sewage runoff from coastal communities and hotels also play a big role.
CARBON CYCLE
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Activity Consequence
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - Plants undergo this process and remove CO2 from atmosphere.
CONSUMPTION - When animals eat the plants, they gain carbon in their bodies.
RESPIRATION - When animals breathe, they exhale CO2.
DECOMPOSITION - When animals die, decomposers break them down, also releasing CO 2.
FOSSILIZATION - Decomposed material become fossil fuels after many years.
COMBUSTION - When fossil fuels are burnt, they release CO 2 into atmosphere.
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Water pollution usually results when untreated sewage and agricultural chemicals or pesticides leak or
run-off into natural water sources. When the NITRATES and PHOSPHATES in pesticides leak into
water ecosystems, they can speed up the growth of underwater plants such as algae. This is known as
EUTROPHICATION or ALGAL BLOOM, and can:
Agricultural chemicals can also lead to LEACHING, where the chemicals dissolve into the soil and
depletes its usable nutrients, making it unsuitable for plant growth.
Effect Detail
Habitat Loss The pollution can destroy the living areas of some organisms, causing
them to migrate.
Disease Animal and insect pests live and feed in garbage, such as flies and
rats. They can carry bacteria that cause cholera and leptospirosis.
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EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
Effect Reason
Soil erosion Without tree cover, the force of rain will be greater on the soil.
Without roots to hold the soil together, erosion is more likely.
Flooding Soil can quickly become compacted and waterlogged without tree
cover and roots, leading to flooding.
Habitat loss Many birds and insects live in trees. Cutting the trees down causes
these organisms to migrate.
Loss of aesthetic Trees and plants are used in parks and ‘green spaces’ in urban areas to
beautify the environment. Without them, cities look grey and drab.
Conservation is the preservation of the Earth’s natural resources so that they are available for future
generations. Conservation is important for two main reasons - to ensure that our demand for natural
resources can continue to be met, and to maintain our quality of life.
Strategy Detail
Proper agricultural Using good practices such as crop rotation to keep soil fertile.
techniques
Banning ‘slash and burn’ practices that destroy soil.
Captive breeding Ensuring that endangered species are kept in sanctuaries and proper
breeding grounds, safe from poachers.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
NOTE: While photosynthesis only occurs at daytime, respiration must occur all the time.
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TESTING FOR STARCH
2. If glucose is formed faster than it is used up, the excess is converted to STARCH for storage. It
can occur even in the roots or underground storage organs. To test for starch, we add IODINE
and experience a BLUE-BLACK colour change.
3. In darkness, when photosynthesis stops, enzymes in the leaves change starch to SUCROSE,
which is transported to other parts of the plant. To destarch or remove starch from the leaves, one
can put the plants in darkness for about two days.
4. Why destarch before an experiment? This is because starch is an indicator in a leaf that
photosynthesis has already taken place. To correctly test to see if plants can experience
photosynthesis under certain conditions, one should get rid of this already-formed starch before
the experiment takes place, or results would be inaccurate.
Remember there are several requirements for photosynthesis. If ONE of these were absent,
photosynthesis will not occur and glucose will not be produced. Thus, no starch will be stored. These
factors that are required are called LIMITING FACTORS and they include:
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, water availability.
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Effects of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis increases as light
intensity increases, since higher
light intensity excites more electrons. However,
at a certain point all of the available electrons
are excited, and the maximum rate is reached.
This means the rate will stay constant even
when light intensity is increased past this point.
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EXTERNAL LEAF STRUCTURE
The diagram below shows the cross-sectional structures of a monocot and dicot leaf.
Many dicot leaves in particular have features that allow them to maximize photosynthesis and glucose
production for the plant. These include:
Dense network of veins Allows sufficient water to enter leaf for photosynthesis.
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INTERNAL LEAF STRUCTURE
The diagram below shows the cross-sectional structure of a dicot leaf.
Section Function/Adaptation
SPONGY MESOPHYLL Has many loose AIR SPACES to allow flow of gases and water.
Contains few chloroplasts.
LOWER EPIDERMIS Contains GUARD CELLS that open and close STOMATA to
allow gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
VASCULAR BUNDLE Contains the XYLEM and PHLOEM, which allow transport of
(vein) water and food respectively in leaf. Also contains the
CAMBIUM, which is the site of growth for stems.
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SECTION B (1/5) – NUTRITION
CELL STRUCTURE
CELL MEMBRANE Allows entry and exit of some substances. YES YES
Partially permeable.
NOTE: Plant cells store glucose as STARCH GRAINS in their cells while animals store it as
GLYCOGEN GRANULES.
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ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS AND TISSUES
CIRCULATORY Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the body. Heart, blood, arteries, veins
DIGESTIVE Breaks down food and delivers products to the Stomach, pancreas, small and large
blood. intestines, teeth
RESPIRATORY The intake and exchange of gases in the air. Lungs, ribcage, diaphragm
EXCRETORY Removes wastes and regulates water balance. Kidneys, nephrons, bladder
SPECIALIZATION
Specialized or differentiated cells have specific tasks in multicellular organisms and thus, they have
features and adaptations in order to assist in performing that task. Below are just a few examples:
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DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT The opposite of diffusion is Active Transport,
USES OF DIFFUSION
Location Description
Lungs The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the lungs and bloodstream.
Small intestine The movement of digested nutrients from the intestines to the blood.
Used in Description
Small intestine Used to transport sodium into the blood from the intestines.
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OSMOSIS is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF WATER MOLECULES FROM A HIGH TO LOW
Like diffusion, osmosis is a passive process, meaning it does not use ATP.
The water will move into the tubing,
causing it to swell. This is because
there is a lower concentration of water
in the tubing.
Cell B DILUTED Water flows into the Becomes more turgid and swells. Vacuole
SOLUTION cell from solution. expands as water comes in.
Cell C CONCENTRATED Water flows out of Becomes plasmolysed. Cell membrane and
SOLUTION the cell and into cytoplasm retracts from cell wall. Vacuole
solution. shrinks as water is lost.
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Osmosis Effects on Animal Cells
HYPERTONIC is
another word for a
concentrated solution.
HYPOTONIC for
diluted solutions.
The above diagrams show three sets of red blood cells, only found within animals.
The first diagram shows water moving out of the cell because it has been placed in a CONCENTRATED
solution. The cell shrivels and is said to be CRENATED.
The second diagram shows water moving in because it has been placed in a DILUTED solution. As a
result, the cell bursts. The reason why an animal cell bursts, but not a plant cell is because the plant’s
CELL WALL is strong enough to withstand the turgor pressure.
Importance of Osmosis
The table below will show several situations where osmosis is necessary.
Kidneys Helps balance the water level in the blood on cold and hot days. Regulates the
amount of water in the urine.
Fish Regulates how the salt and water balance in fish’s urine that allows them to
survive in either saltwater or freshwater.
Blood Helps regulate water, salt and glucose levels in the blood. Prevents red blood
cells from bursting or shrivelling.
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ENZYMES
Enzymes are used in ALL chemical reactions in living things; this includes respiration, photosynthesis,
movement, growth, excretion of toxins in the liver and more. They lower the ACTIVATION energy
required to initiate reactions and speed up reactions in the body. They are called biological catalysts.
The molecules that enzymes act upon are Enzymes are made of PROTEINS.
called SUBSTRATES. In the end, they turn
these substrates into PRODUCTS. So, for Enzymes are SPECIFIC for each chemical
example, when we eat, the enzyme reaction. In terms of the digestive system,
AMYLASE found in saliva is used to turn the this means that an enzyme can only react
substrate STARCH into a sugar called with ONE NUTRIENT, e.g. the enzyme
MALTOSE. pepsin in the stomach digests proteins,
but not fats or starch.
Certain enzymes also have to be within a pH to work (e.g. enzymes working in an acidic pH, as in the
stomach, may not work in the intestines).
EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES
Enzyme Produced by Substrate Product
* When hydrogen peroxide builds up in your body, it turns hair grey. Catalase breaks
down hydrogen peroxide.You produce less catalase as you get older, so more
hydrogen peroxide builds up and your hair turns grey faster. 40
FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME ACTIVITY
There are TWO main factors that affect enzyme activity and can denature an enzyme:
1. TEMPERATURE 2. pH (acidity)
Enzymes are easily DENATURED (or
destroyed) by HEAT. Our enzymes work best at
NORMAL BODY TEMP. (37oC).
DENATURATION EXPERIMENT
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BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet can be defined as A DIET THAT CONTAINS ALL THE REQUIRED NUTRIENTS IN
THE CORRECT PROPORTIONS.
When nutrients are lacking or in excess, this is termed MALNUTRITION This could lead to
nutritional deficiency diseases, or if in excess, could result in physiological diseases such as
DIABETES, HYPERTENSION and CORONARY HEART DISEASE.
Uses of water:
1. Acts as a SOLVENT to absorb, dissolve and
transport materials in the body.
2. To produce SWEAT to regulate body
temperature.
3. To produce URINE, to excrete urea and
excess water.
4. Allows new PROTOPLASM to be
synthesised in cells.
MACRONUTRIENTS
PROTEINS Used for growth Meat, eggs, red Proteins are made of
and cell repair. beans nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.
They are broken down into
AMINO ACIDS.
LIPIDS (fats and oils) Helps store energy Olive oil, potato ‘Good’ fats are termed
for warmth and chips, butter, unsaturated (e.g. avocadoes)
insulation. avocadoes while ‘bad’ is saturated (e.g.
pizza, cake)
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MAIN VITAMINS AND MINERALS
CALCIUM Helps with bone Dairy products Same as above. Same as above.
and teeth
development.
NITROGEN For growth of shoots Usable in the nitrate form in the plant. Without it,
and leaves. plants have stunted growth and small leaves.
MAGNESIUM For chlorophyll Without it, plants’ leaves turn yellow and eventually
production. wither. This is called chlorosis.
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FOOD TESTS
Orange-yellow Blue-black
Starch Add a few drops of IODINE SOLUTION.
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THE ALIMENTARY CANAL:
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SECTION WHAT OCCURS THERE ENZYMES PRESENT
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STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN TOOTH
PREMOLAR AND Grinding food into PULP CAVITY Contains blood vessels and
MOLARS smaller pieces nerves
DENTAL HYGIENE
Teeth can rot when carbohydrates or sugars are left on the enamel. Bacteria feed on the sugars and
secrete ACIDS to digest it. These acids wear away the ENAMEL and cause toothaches. Keeping
teeth healthy involves using toothpastes high in FLUORIDE, FLOSSING regularly and avoiding
sugary foods at night before sleep.
FIBRE
Fibre (or roughage) is found in foods such as VEGETABLES, FRUITS AND WHOLEWHEAT.
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Most fibres are insoluble and cannot be fully broken down by the human digestive system. These are
used to move digested food through the gut (by the process of PERISTALSIS). Soluble fibre can
also make stools softer and easier to egest.
A lack of fibre and water in the diet may lead to a back-up of food in the intestines, leading to
the hardening of the faeces, a condition called CONSTIPATION.
DIARRHOEA, on the other hand is mostly caused by improper handling of food. Insects such as
FLIES can deposit disease-causing organisms called pathogens on the food. When a person ingests
the food, their body tries to get rid of it by producing excess water.
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FACTORS AFFECTING DIET
Factor Reason
Occupation Busy lifestyles encourage more purchasing of high-fat fast food.
Diseases Diabetics must consume less carbohydrates. Hypertension sufferers consume less salt.
Pregnancy Pregnant women must consume more minerals and proteins to aid in the development of the
fetus. They must also consume more food altogether.
ASSIMILATION
After the digested nutrients have been absorbed into the bloodstream from the villi in the small
intestine, they are then transported to cells in various parts of the body by the blood, so they can
be utilized. This process is called assimilation. Here are a few things that occur with assimilated
glucose and amino acids (simple proteins).
1. Glucose is used for RESPIRATION to release ATP. Excess glucose gets stored as FATS
or GLYCOGEN in the liver of humans, or STARCH grains in plant cells.
2. Amino acids are used for GROWTH and REPAIR of cells. They may be used to form
hormones and enzymes as well. Excess gets converted to UREA and are eventually
excreted by the kidneys.
NOTE: The hepatic portal vein transports nutrient-rich blood from the alimentary
canal to the liver. The hepatic vein transports blood from the liver to the heart.
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SECTION B (2/5)
RESPIRATION AND TRANSPORT
o Breathing or VENTILATION is the mechanism that moves air in and out of our lungs.
o Gaseous exchange is the process in which some of the oxygen in the air in our lungs diffuses
into the blood whilst some of the carbon dioxide in our blood diffuses into the air.
o Respiration is the release of energy due to the oxidation of glucose, if oxygen is available.
1. VENTILATION
2. GASEOUS EXCHANGE
It is important to note that you do NOT breathe in just oxygen and do NOT just breathe out just
carbon dioxide, but other gases as well. The main gases we inhale include:
NITROGEN 78 78
OXYGEN 21 16
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.04 4
WATER VAPOUR ~1 2–3
While the air is in our lungs, some of the oxygen DIFFUSES into the red blood cells in the blood
and some of the carbon dioxide in the blood cells diffuses into the lungs to be exhaled.
NOTE:
The While more
respiratory complex
tract is prone toorganisms
infection (low
by SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO) such as
mammals and
inhalation reptilesbodies.
of foreign have respiratory systems, gaseous exchange differs for other organisms
To filter the
Specialized cells called ___________ cells
such as:air, tiny hairs called ____________
inhaled
produce _____________ to act as a
act as a mechanical barrier against dust and
chemical barrier for microbes.
microbes.
INSECTS have tubes called SPIRACLES that carry air into the abdomen.
The alveoli have several adaptations for carrying out their function of gaseous exchange.
Adaptation Explanation
LARGE SURFACE There are roughly 600 million alveoli, which collectively occupy a large
AREA area suited to maximize gaseous exchange.
THIN WALLS Alveolar membranes are only one cell thick, allowing quick diffusion.
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CELLULAR RESPIRATION
There are TWO types of respiration:
AEROBIC ATP is released from glucose by oxygen Oxygen + Glucose -> Carbon dioxide
RESPIRATION (a process called OXIDATION), releasing
+ Water
carbon dioxide and water as excretory
products. 6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
OXYGEN DEBT
When one exercises vigorously until the point of anaerobic respiration, a chemical called
LACTIC ACID builds up in the muscles. This can lead to a burning sensation as well as
FATIGUE and MUSCLE CRAMPS.
During exercise, their heart rate also increases. This occurs to supply OXYGENATED BLOOD
to the muscles for respiration. However, the heart continues beating quickly even after exercise
finishes. Why?
Lactic acid must be dissipated from the muscle cells before the respiratory rate returns to
its resting phase.
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RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS
The experiment below is to show that organisms produce CO 2 when they respire.
2 Calcium hydroxide Tests for CO2; A negative result is needed (limewater remains
(limewater) clear), so as to ensure no CO2 transfers to Jar 3.
4 Calcium hydroxide Tests for CO2. Will test positive (cloudy white) if Jar 3’s
(limewater) specimen is respiring.
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Boil the peas in sample A to kill them.
Rinse both sets of peas in disinfectant.
Set up apparatus as shown.
Leave peas in flasks for three days.
Read temperatures after that point.
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Component Effect
Carbon
Binds to the haemoglobin and limits the uptake of oxygen into the red blood
monoxide cells.
Tobacco Contains tar, which would clog the alveoli and result in a decrease in rates of
gaseous exchange.
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TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS
Mammals have a double circulatory system, since the blood travels through the heart twice
on one complete journey around the body. This allows cells and tissues to have a rich
oxygenated blood supply and allows the blood to reach considerable distances due to the
changes in blood pressure in the heart chambers.
Type of Definition
Circulation
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REMEMBER: LORD
Left Oxygenated
Right Deoxygenated
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STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART
BLOOD PRESSURE
DIASTOLE Atria muscles contract and ventricles relax, refilling blood into them.
The usual human blood pressure is given as 120/80 mmHg and the heartbeat is regulated by the
PACEMAKER region of the heart. The pulse rate can be monitored by an EKG.
Excess sodium Kidneys must work harder to get rid of extra fluid caused by sodium.
* If arteries in the heart (coronary arteries) become clogged, bloodflow is restricted. If a blood
clot or thrombus forms, no oxygen can reach the cardiac muscles of the heart and the individual
can undergo CARDIAC ARREST or MYOCARDIAC INFARCTION.
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BLOOD VESSELS – ARTERIES AND VEINS
ARTERIES VEINS
Transport of blood Away from the heart Into or towards the heart
Oxygenated or Oxygenated (except the Deoxygenated (except the
deoxygenated pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)
Outer wall thickness Thick and elastic muscle Thin muscular layer
Valves Absent Present
Lumen size Small (high pressure) Large (low pressure)
Pulse Present Absent
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BLOOD
PHAGOCYTES (or Engulfs bacteria and Large globular structure. Lobed nucleus.
macrophages) foreign bodies
(phagocytosis)
Blood is a fluid that contains specialised cells. Blood is therefore considered a type of TISSUE.
These are the main components of blood.
ANTIGENS
Antigens are described as foreign substances that stimulate an immune response in a host body.
It leads to the production of ANTIBODIES by lymphocytes, which will eventually travel to and
eradicate the threat. Each antibody is antigen-specific, for e.g. The influenza virus has certain
antigens attached to it. These are detected by the white blood cells. White blood cells then target
the virus with specific antibodies to get rid of it.
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NOTE: Allergens also produce an immune
response. However, allergens are non-parasitic and
usually non-living factors, such as pollen or food.
BLOOD CLOTTING
When a tissue is damaged or wounded:
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Aside from blood, another fluid flows
through our body called lymph. Lymph is
formed from proteins and tissue fluid
(located between capillaries and cells).
STROKE
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A stroke occurs when the brain becomes
deprived of oxygen. This is usually due to
a CAROTID artery being clogged
(which leads to the brain).
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TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
While humans have veins and arteries, the two main transport vessels in plants are known as the
XYLEM and PHLOEM. (which comprise the VASCULAR BUNDLE)
1. PHLOEM
The phloem transports organic nutrients
such as SUCROSE from leaves and storage
organs to other parts of the plant.
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TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is defined as
____________________________________
___________________________________.
Factor Reason
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PLANTS ADAPTING TO DRY ENVIRONMENTS
Adaptation Purpose
SMALLER LEAVES Reduces water loss by transpiration due to reduced surface area.
SUNKEN STOMATA Water vapour becomes trapped in sinks and less likely to escape leaf.
WAXY CUTICLE Prevents water loss along the upper epidermis of leaf.
SUCCULENT TISSUES Has many large vacuoles to store water and mineral sap.
Food storage is necessary in both plants and animals due to SCARCITY of resources during times of
drought or harsh climates. It also helps avoid continuous food intake.
Animal storage would include GLYCOGEN in the liver and FATS in ADIPOSE tissue.
Plant storage would include STARCHES, which can be found in roots, stems, leaves, fruits and
seeds. They may also be needed for the development of ENDOSPERMS in the seeds and for
stages of vegetative reproduction.
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SECTION B (3/5)
MOVEMENT AND GROWTH
There are three main functions of the skeleton: MOVEMENT, SUPPORT and PROTECTION.
JOINTS
Joints are located between bones. Most of them are used for movement. There are three types of joints to
learn at this level.
HINGE Only along one plane. Elbow (humerus and radius/ulna) and
knee (femur and tibia/fibula)
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BALL and Can move in full circles. Shoulder (scapula and humerus) and
SOCKET hips (pelvic girdle and femur)
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Both the shoulder and hip, in addition to having a
ball and socket joint, are known as SYNOVIAL
joints. These contain SYNOVIAL FLUID to aid in
lubricating and nourishing the joint.
BONE STRUCTURE
JOINT HEALTH
Due to the complex nature of ball and socket joints, they are usually the ones that are most subject to
disease and wear. Surgical replacement of the hips and shoulders is not uncommon if the joints become
worn enough that they cause severe pain when used.
Other diseases and problems are characterized by inflammation and/or degeneration, such as
ARTHRITIS.
Wearing SUITABLE FOOTWEAR and having GOOD POSTURE is essential to maintaining bone and
joint health. Wearing high heels everyday can put excess force on the feet and can wear away the
cartilage easily.
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MUSCLES
Muscle tissue is made of cells that are able to contract and relax. There are three main types of muscle
cells in the mammal:
SMOOTH Usually located around organs. Works Oesophagus, small and large
involuntarily. intestine, arteries
The purpose of muscles is to help carry loads and overcome RESISTANCE. The ability for muscles to
remain firm while resting and overcome resistance is called MUSCLE TONE.
During exercise, muscles continuously contract and relax. Muscle fibres become damaged during this
process. When they are repaired and reformed by PROTEINS, they become thicker and denser.
Therefore, muscular growth actually occurs after exercise during rest periods.
Question Features
How would they get They can absorb water through their roots via osmosis. They store large
food and water? amounts of water in their large vacuoles. They photosynthesize to get food.
How would they Plants rely on pollinating agents such as insects or wind. Seeds can also be
reproduce? dispersed far distances by wind, animals and water.
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EXTRA NOTES:
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GERMINATION AND DISPERSAL OF SEEDS
A seed contains an embryonic plant and a food
store enclosed in the seed coat or TESTA.
1. Warmth
2. Presence of moisture
3. Presence of oxygen
In a seed, the young root or RADICLE emerges first, followed by the shoot or EPICOTYL (plumule).
These then grow and branch as the young plant develops.
Seeds are displaced a distance away from their parent plants by a various set of mechanisms.
SELF or EXPLOSIVE Heavy seeds that are propelled a short distance by their parents.
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The COTYLEDONS become the first leaves of
the plant and the first means of the plant to
undergo PHOTOSYNTHESIS. They eventually
decrease in size and fall off when the first “true
leaves” appear from the EPICOTYL of the
seedling.
MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
Even though plants cannot undergo locomotion, they can move individual parts of themselves. The main
responses to stimuli in plants are related to growth. Growth-related mechanisms aid in the plant’s survival
and usually affect the direction of shoot and root growth. The two main environmental stimuli that
affect the growth of a plant are:
Plants must always grow towards sunlight to facilitate the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the leaves.
While animals usually use a system of nerves to relay the messages between receptors and effectors, a
plant is more likely to use HORMONES.
The hormone that is involved in shoot tip growth is called an AUXIN. Auxins are used to speed up cell
growth in particular sections of the shoot, usually the tip, a section called the MERISTEM. When sunlight
comes into contact with a shoot tip, the auxins spread to the shaded side of the shoot.
NOTE: If the tops of the stems are covered or cut off, the shoot will grow
vertically without bending. This is because auxin interaction only occurs at
the tip of the meristem.
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It is said that the roots have a POSITIVE
2. GRAVITY (GRAVITROPISM) response to gravity but the shoots have a
NEGATIVE response to gravity.
Plants always respond to gravity. Shoots will
always grow upward and roots will always grow
downward. No matter what direction or which
end a germinating seed were to be placed, the
radicle will always grow downwards due to the
influence of gravity.
How is animal growth different? Also note that movement for plants is
called GROWTH MOVEMENT,
While growth is irreversible for both, it only occurs in
which is mostly irreversible, while for
meristematic regions of a plant whereas all parts of an animals it is called WHOLE
animal’s body grows. Plants continue growing for their MOVEMENT, which is reversible.
entire life.
NOTE: Invertebrates such as earthworms, squids and jellyfish lack a bony skeleton but are still able to
experience locomotion through propulsion in their fluid-based bodies or a series of muscles. These type
of skeletons are called HYDROSTATIC skeletons.
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SECTION B (4/5)
EXCRETION AND RESPONSE
METABOLISM refers to the chemical reactions that occur in the body. Metabolism produces WASTE
products, which can be toxic to the body if allowed to accumulate. EXCRETION is the elimination of
these waste products of metabolism.
NOTE: The removal of faeces or undigested food is considered EGESTION, not EXCRETION. Why?
Feces is not formed due to a metabolic process. It is a mixture
of undigested food, bacteria and dead tissues.
Urea Kidneys, skin Produced in the liver after removing nitrogen from proteins
(DEAMINATION) and is excreted in urine and sweat.
Water Kidneys, skin, Main constituent of urine and sweat. Expired air also contains
lungs water vapour.
Bilirubin Liver Formed from the breakdown of red blood cell haemoglobin.
Excreted via the faeces, even though faeces itself is egested.
1. The gaseous wastes (CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER VAPOUR) are removed through
STOMATA of leaves.
2. Some waste products collect in the LEAVES and BARK. When the leaves and bark are shed,
the wastes are eliminated.
3. Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies,
such as RESINS and TANNINS.
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KIDNEY STRUCTURE
They are reddish-brown bean-shaped organs situated towards the back of the abdominal cavity just above
the waist. Inside the kidney, it is divided into an outer area called the CORTEX and an inner layer called
the MEDULLA. The kidney narrows to form the renal pelvis and URETER.
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS
KIDNEY NEPHRONS
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To summarize:
1. Blood enters via RENAL ARTERY.
2. It enters the GLOMERULUS of the BOWMAN’S CAPSULE, which filters small molecules out.
3. The small molecules form a FILTRATE and passes down to the PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE, where only useful substances (e.g. glucose and amino acids) are reabsorbed.
4. The filtrate eventually reaches the COLLECTING DUCT, where only water, mineral salts and urea
remain. These make up URINE. It then passes into the URETER.
Sensors in the brain detect amount of water in the blood and responses are sent to balance it if there is too
much or too little. Water levels in the body may be affected by environment temperature and exercise.
These responses involve the hormone ADH, also called anti-diuretic hormone. It is secreted by the
PITUITARY gland in the brain. ADH makes the collecting duct’s walls more permeable to water. More
water can then pass back into the blood stream.
Hot day Secretes ADH More water reabsorbed into blood. More sweat. Concentrated urine.
Cold day Suppresses ADH Less water reabsorbed into blood. Less sweat. Diluted urine.
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THE SKIN AND HOMEOSTASIS
The skin is the largest organ of the human body. It acts as a natural barrier against outside bacteria and
particles. However, the skin plays a crucial role in regulating body temperature. Heat is produced within
the body as a result of metabolic activities. This heat has to be excreted somehow, or our metabolism
would be affected and even death could occur.
Blood vessels Become larger and move towards Become smaller and move away from
surface (VASODILATION). surface (VASOCONSTRICTION)
Sweat glands and muscles Releases sweat, which cools the Muscles vibrate rapidly (shivering) to
body upon evaporation. produce heat.
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HOMEOSTASIS AND REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL
Blood glucose level rises anytime sugary or starchy foods are digested and absorbed into the blood.
However, the glucose is then taken in by the body cells for RESPIRATION, allowing the level to drop.
The excess glucose is converted to GLYCOGEN and stored in the LIVER.
The hormone that allows this to happen is called INSULIN, which is secreted by the PANCREAS
from a region called the Islets of Langerhans, when blood glucose level is too high.
When blood glucose level is too low, regions of the pancreas secrete GLUCAGON which
converts GLYCOGEN back into GLUCOSE, to be re-released into the bloodstream.
The diagrams below show homeostasis in two NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms in the body.
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STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
A DETECTABLE change in the external environment that enacts a response in an organism is called a
STIMULUS. Stimuli could include changes in temperature, pressure against skin, light intensity and
sound level.
Most organisms are adapted to detect these stimuli through cells called RECEPTORS and respond to
them through EFFECTORS, e.g. skin receptors detect heat and pituitary gland (effector) responds by
secreting ADH.
RESPONSE IN INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates, such as snails, jellyfish and earthworms, tend to respond to the following.
Away from light To avoid being seen by predators. Also to avoid drying out.
Away from coldness To maintain their internal body temperatures and avoid freezing.
EXPERIMENT
Remove the moist tissue and drying agent and cover only ONE of the petri dishes with black paper.
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RESPONSE IN HUMANS
Responses in humans occur via two systems: the NERVOUS system and the ENDOCRINE system.
Section Consists of
NEURONE CELLS
Type Function
RELAY (intermediate) To connect the sensory and motor neurones in the spinal cord.
Nerves carry information via electrical IMPULSES along the AXON. The branching ends of the nerves
(called dendrites) do not touch. There is a tiny gap called a SYNAPSE between the nerve cells. A
chemical called a NEUROTRANSMITTER is released which connects these synapses and increases
conductivity to make the electrical impulse pass through.
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REFLEX ARCS (CRANIAL AND SPINAL)
Why are some actions automatic when others are not? If you have ever touched a hot object, you would
notice you would pull away immediately. These are done by reflex arcs. Reflex arcs are:
Usually, sensory information gets sent to the CEREBRUM to be filtered and analyzed and then returned
to the spinal cord and muscles. A reflex arc bypasses the brain process and the receptor sends a rapid
response directly to the spinal cord and THEN to an effector, which is usually a muscle or gland, which
acts immediately.
Cranial reflex arcs operate in the same manner, with the message being sent directly to the brain stem
and with no conscious thought involved. They occur involuntarily, as with all reflexes. An example
would be: BLINKING.
THE BRAIN
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Section Function
85
CEREBELLUM Movement and coordination
NOTE: The pancreas is known as BOTH an exocrine gland and endocrine gland because:
The pancreas secretes hormones such as insulin directly into the bloodstream, but also secretes
enzymes into the small intestine through its duct.
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heart + breathing rate, increases rate of digestion.
In order to see, an image must be formed on the retina of the eye after light enters the pupil and is focused
by the lens.
Bright The pupil CONSTRICTS. In the iris, radial muscles To limit light entering the eye,
relax and circular muscles contract. which would damage the retina
Dim The pupil DILATES. In the iris, the radial muscles To allow more light into the
contract and circular muscles relax. eye to form a clear image.
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Rods and cones are specialized receptors in the retina, at the back of the eye.
Rods enable vision in DIM LIGHT and mainly form outlines of images.
Cones enable vision in BRIGHT LIGHT and mainly form colours.
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ACCOMMODATION
The process of accommodation in the eye involves changing the shape of the lens in order to focus on
near and distant objects.
GLAUCOMA
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THE HUMAN EYE
SECTION FUNCTION
IRIS Changes the size of the pupil size to regulate how much light enters the eye.
RETINA Has photoreceptors called rods and cones that detect light and forms images.
LENS Can adjust thickness to focus light on the retina to create sharp images.
OPTIC NERVE Sends images from the retina to the brain via electrical impulses. No image or
photoreceptors are found here, so it is also called the BLIND SPOT.
SCLERA Serves as the outermost protective layer; the white of the eye.
VITREOUS HUMOUR Gel-like material that keeps the shape of the eye.
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NOTE: Rods detect shapes in dim light. Cones detect colour in bright light.
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SECTION B (5/5)
DISEASE AND DRUGS
Treatment
HEREDITARY A disease that is passed on from Somatic gene therapy Sickle cell anaemia,
parent to offspring through the and genetic screening. cystic fibrosis,
genes. haemophilia.
PHYSIOLOGICAL Results from the malfunction of Balanced diet. Regular Diabetes, coronary
or LIFESTYLE an organ, due to poor eating exercise. Reduction of heart disease, obesity.
habits, lack of exercise or substance abuse.
misuse of drugs.
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PATHOGENS AND VECTORS
A VECTOR is an organism that can transmit a pathogen but is mostly unaffected by it.
Anopheles mosquito Protozoa Malaria High fever, headaches, low rbc count.
Adult Spraying pesticides. Electrical zappers. Sleep under net to prevent infection.
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WHAT ARE SOME IMPACTS OF DISEASES ON SOCIETY?
Factor
Explanation
Economy Impact of State-funded medical care. Reduced labour force. Quarantine can result
Household income Cost of privatized healthcare and medical bills. Reduced income from
unemployment.
Quality of living Emotional toll of illness, death and being quarantined for lengthy periods.
AIDS/HIV
Question Answer
Why is there no cure? HIV is very difficult to detect and produce a vaccine for.
Antibiotics useless against viruses. Virus mutates constantly.
How is HIV transmitted? Via the exchange of bodily fluids such as semen, vaginal fluids,
breast milk and blood transfusions.
How can HIV spread be Use of barrier contraception (condoms). Limiting sexual partners.
prevented or reduced? Regular HIV blood screening. Education on safe sex for young
people. Anti-HIV drugs for pregnant women.
NOTE: The drug AZT does not cure AIDS, only minimizes its
impact.
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WHAT IS A DRUG?
A drug may be beneficial the body or harmful to it depending on how we use it. Usually, problems arise
when people become addicted or dependent on a particular drug. Drugs can be classified in three social
categories:
1. PHARMACEUTICAL drugs (e.g. Penicillin, Quanine)
DRUG ABUSE
Drug abuse is the taking of drugs excessively; or not under a doctor’s prescription. Drug abuse can cause
either TOLERANCE, where the person has to keep on taking more and more of the drug to achieve the
same initial effect, or ADDICTION, where a person feels a strong urge to take the drug and experiences
WITHDRAWAL symptoms if they don’t. These symptoms include: nausea, trembling, depression, acute
anxiety attacks).
TYPES OF DRUGS
STIMULANT Increases blood pressure and heart rate Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine.
DEPRESSANT Decreases blood pressure, heart rate and Alcohol, codeine, benzodiazepine
reaction time.
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EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY
Category Effect
Loss of income from purchasing drugs and paraphernalia. Loss of employment. Cost of
Finances
rehab.
Reduced labour force. Rise of the black market and crime if drug trade is involved.
Economy
Isolation of certain crime-ridden areas.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL
Effect Description
Water balance Suppresses the release of ADH, allowing less water to be reabsorbed into
Social issues Loss of income. Domestic abuse and child neglect. Drunk driving.
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MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS
Although antibiotics are highly effective drugs against bacterial infections, their misuse has led to severe
problems in the health and medical industry.
• Patients who take antibiotics for too short a duration, for example, if they do not complete the full
course of the prescription, will run the risk of having ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT bacteria
develop in their bodies.
• When they take the same antibiotic next time, it will not be effective against the resistant bacteria.
• Some antibiotics also have ADDICTIVE, properties, which can make the user experience
WITHDRAWAL when the course of treatment ends.
Part Function
Cilia and mucus A mechanical and chemical barrier that filters microbes or traps them.
White blood cells (leucocytes) Engulfs foreign bodies or produces antibodies to attach to antigens of
microbes, of which effect can be boosted by vaccines.
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IMMUNITY AND IMMUNIZATION
Natural passive Occurs when a child pre-natally receives antibodies from its mother
through the placenta or through breast milk post-natally.
Naturally acquired Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen, which stimulates the
active production of antibodies. Can prevent a future infection.
BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
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SECTION C
REPRODUCTION, CONTINUITY AND VARIATION
DNA A nucleic acid that contain all genetic information. It stands for:
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
GENOTYPE The set of genetic code in the DNA, represented as letters, e.g. BB codes
for brown eyes while bb codes for blue eyes.
HOMOZYGOUS When the genotype code has two of the same alleles, e.g. BB, bb
HETEROZYGOUS When the genotype code has two different alleles, e.g. Bb
RECESSIVE Phenotypes are only expressed if both alleles are present, e.g. Brown (B)
is dominant to blue (b). If a person is Bb, their eye colour will be brown
despite carrying a blue gene.
GAMETE A sex cell that is used for fertilization, e.g. sperm and eggs.
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ZYGOTE A fertilized egg, which will divide to form an embryo and fetus.
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MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Mitosis and meiosis are both processes that are involved with replication or cell division. Cells usually
reproduce by splitting into two or more cells. There are, however, major differences between these two
processes.
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STAGES OF MITOSIS (excluding interphase)
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S
EXUAL REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
The purpose of reproduction is to carry on the species of the organisms across generations over time. If
a species cannot reproduce as fast as its population decreases, it will become extinct.
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There are two types of reproduction:
Type Description
ASEXUAL Involves one parent. Typically occurs in bacteria, protozoa, some plants and
animals, e.g. starfish, sea anemones and yeast. The offspring are identical to
their parents because they only obtain one set of chromosomes.
Diagrams of female reproductive system (above) and male reproductive system (below).
Section Description
PLACENTA Contains many blood vessels that collects nutrients, oxygen and antibodies
from the mother to be delivered to the fetus. *
UMBILICAL CORD Allows the transfer of materials from the placenta to the fetus.
AMNIOTIC SAC or Acts as a shock absorber to prevents the fetus from being injured by external
AMNION collisions and trauma.
* Unfortunately, there are some toxins and pathogens that can be transferred across the placenta, such as
nicotine and the rubella virus.
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CONTRACEPTION
NATURAL Rhythm method Pinpoint the time of ovulation and avoid intercourse
at this time. Least reliable method.
HORMONAL Birth control pill Contains sex hormones which suppress ovulation
MECHANICAL Intra-uterine devices A small piece of moulded plastic in the uterus which
(IUD’s) interferes with implantation
For individual families, the main purpose of contraception is to avoid financial strain and to increase
quality of life for all individuals. Too many children may lead to cases of neglect. For countries, family
planning is important to maintain a stable population and to avoid economic strain, such as from welfare.
Contraceptive Pills
2. Thickening the MUCUS around the CERVIX to prevent sperm from entering.
Male contraceptive pills are not yet on the market but are being researched. Listed below are several ways
in which they could work.
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OVULATION AND MENSTRUATION
Phase Description
Follicle Phase The follicle develops around the ovum after an increase of FSH.
Luteal Phase The decayed follicle (corpus luteum) secretes progesterone, which leads to
the thickening of the uterus wall for implantation.
Menstruation If pregnancy does not occur,progesterone level drops and the uterus wall
sheds.
Hormone Function
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Natural Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is a form of ASEXUAL reproduction found in plants. It can occur naturally and
usually involves the growth of a new part of a plant, usually a bud or stem, which eventually becomes
separated from the parent plant to form a new individual. In this way, several plants can be produced from
a single parent plant.
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS – STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
Most plants can reproduce sexually AND asexually. But some can only reproduce sexually and others can
only reproduce asexually. To recap, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of special cells called
GAMETES. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place in the flowers, which are the plants'
reproductive organs.
Sepals – Sepals are modified leaves
which enclose and protect the other
parts of the flower in the bud stage. All
the sepals together make up the
CALYX. They also help hold the flower
upright.
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POLLINATION
Flowering plants reproduce sexually by producing seeds. The seeds are formed from structures in the
flowers. The male sex cells of plants are inside POLLEN GRAINS. The egg cell is the female sex cell
and is found in the OVULES. When these two sex cells fuse, they form a ZYGOTE. But first:
Plants must transfer the pollen grains from an ANTHER to a STIGMA. This is called
POLLINATION. It usually occurs between flowers on diferent plants of the same species.
Pollination between two different flowering plants of same species is called CROSS-
POLLINATION.
Pollination within the same flowering plant is called SELF-POLLINATION.
Cross-pollination takes place in one of two main ways. Some flowers use the wind to transfer pollen –
they are wind-pollinated flowers. Others use insects to transfer the pollen – they are insect-pollinated
flowers.
CROSS-POLLINATION
Continued in-breeding or self-pollination results in the production of offspring that are weaker and less
adaptable to changes in the environment. Cross-pollination is necessary for species survival.
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FERTILIZATION AND DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
An EMBRYO is formed.
NOTE: It is called double fertilization because another pollen grain nucleus fuses with another
nucleus (called the ENDOSPERM nucleus) to form a food storage for the seed called the
endosperm.
The endosperm mainly contains LIPIDS and PROTEINS (and some sugars).
Ovary Fruit
Ovule Seed
Zygote Embryo
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MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
Characteristics, such as the colour of our eyes or skin, height and blood type are passed on to us
by our parents. They are referred to as GENETIC characteristics. It was only until the 19th century
an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments with garden peas to
give an explanation of the mechanism of heredity. Monohybrid inheritance refers to the study
of the passing down of only one genetic characteristic.
For Mendel's experiments, he carefully selected several varieties of garden peas that differed in
easily observable characteristics, such as height, flower colour and seed colour.
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In his experiments, Mendel noticed that his F1 plants always resulted in the same tall height,
while the other "dwarf" trait seemed to disappear or "recede". Mendel then noticed the dwarf
characteristic reappeared in the F2 generation only. Mendel called the trait that appeared
unchanged in the F1 hybrid a DOMINANT trait and the other a RECESSIVE trait.
CODOMINANCE Two alleles are equally dominant and Red and white camellia flowers
thus, produces a combined phenotype. produce red-and-white spotted.
INCOMPLETE Where one allele is not completely Red and white snapdragons
DOMINANCE expressed in the phenotype. produce pink.
Diploid organisms will have two copies of Usually letters are used to represent alleles:
each gene in each cell. These copies are capital letters for dominant alleles and
called ALLELES. The alleles may be the common letters for recessive alleles. For
same or they may be different. example, the allele for tallness in pea plants
may be designated "T" while the allele for
dwarfness may be designated "t".
If both alleles are the same (e.g. TT), the organism is said to be HOMOZYGOUS
If they are different (e.g. Tt), the organism is said to be HETEROZYGOUS.
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SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX-LINKED (X-LINKED) DISEASES
Among the 46 chromosomes that humans have, one pair typically codes for a person’s
sex or gender. A male’s sex genotype is XY while a female’s is XX.
The egg cell always has an X chromosomes, while the sperm cell can carry either an X or
a Y chromosome.
Some diseases, such as HAEMOPHILIA and genetic COLOUR BLINDNESS. are more
prevalent in males than in females. This is because these diseases only are carried in the X
chromosome. Since males only have one X chromosome, they have a higher chance of getting the
disease from childbirth. For instance, if the a normal healthy gene is X H and the haemophilia gene
is Xh, the Punnett square below will show how a male has a higher chance of getting the disease.
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SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
In a population, there may be more than two alleles for a given trait. If a gene exists in more than two
alleles, it is said to have multiple alleles. The occurrence of blood groups is an example of multiple
alleles. There are four blood groups in human populations: A, B, AB and O.
The alleles for A group, B group and O group may be designated IA, IB and IO respectively.
o IA and IB are co-dominant, therefore individuals with these two alleles will have an AB blood
group.
o The only way blood type O can be obtained is if both genes are IO
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EXAMPLE QUESTION:
In the diagrams below, show how a father of
blood type B and a mother of blood type A
can produce a child of blood type O.
VARIATION
Variation can also seen within organisms of the same species. A number of factors contribute to variation
such as genetic exchange during sexual reproduction, sunlight exposure, diet, water, fertilizer.
GENETIC Mostly occurs through sexual A brother and sister will both be
VARIATION reproduction. Because there are two genetically different because they
sets of DNA that cross-over and would have different random
recombine during meiosis and fuse assortments of genes from their
through fertilization, new genotypes mother and father.
and phenotypes are produced in the
offspring.*
ENVIRONMENTA Occurs through factors external to Two plants of similar genes can
L VARIATION genetics, such as lifestyle, diet and still grow at different rates if
surrounding environment. planted in two different soils and
given different amounts of water.
*The only way genetic variation can occur through asexual reproduction is via MUTATIONS.
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Variation of characteristics can also occur in two other categories.
CONTINUOUS Occurs due to the influence of Height, body mass, skin colour
many alleles, can have possibilities
across a spectrum.
DISCONTINUOUS Occurs due to one or a few alleles Eye colour, ability to roll tongue,
typically. Only a distinct few presence of widow’s peak, blood
possibilities of phenotype. type
Recall the case of the peppered moth, where only the moths of certain colours survived based on their
environment (black moths survived in the soot, white moths survived on light-coloured lichen on trees).
This was the process of natural selection, where organisms survived based on their ability to ADAPT
TO THEIR SURROUNDINGS.
Artificial selection involves the selective breeding of organisms in order to preserve or attain favourable
genotypes or traits. Organisms are selected to mate based on desirable traits, e.g. breeding cows to
produce more milk, chickens to produce larger eggs, or crops to resist disease and have higher yields.
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MUTATION
Mutations occur when the chromosomal set of an organism changes unexpectedly, or there is some
alteration to a genotype. It is VERY important to remember that mutations are RANDOM, though
substances called MUTAGENS (e.g. radioactive exposure) can increase the risk of mutations.
Condition Description
Down’s Syndrome Occurs when one of the chromosomes divides one extra time, forming a total
of 47.
Sickle Cell Anaemia Recessive mutation that produces abnormal haemoglobin and thus changes
the shape of red blood cells. O2 is thus not able to be transported properly.
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GENETIC ENGINEERING
It is a controversial process that has caused many ethical debates, mainly due to religious consequences or
the wide possibility of situations that can occur due to mishaps. However, genetic engineering has
ensured great steps in biotechnology, medicine and agriculture.
Field Examples
Medicine and The production of insulin using recombined DNA in E. coli bacteria.
Biotechnology
Gene therapy for inherited disorders. Research of stem cell techniques.
Agriculture The production of Golden Rice (which produces beta-carotene and Vitamin A).
The production of crops that produce their own pesticides and crops that grow
faster and resist harsh weather conditions. The “Flavr-Savr” tomato, which had
a longer shelf-life than regular tomatoes.
Factor Explanation
Social & Ethical Changing the genome of an organism can be seen as ‘playing God’. The
chances of producing ‘designer babies’. The impact of ‘cloning humans’. The
risk of biological weapons.
Physiological It is possible for ALLERGENS can be transferred from one food crop to
another through genetic engineering. Another concern is that pregnant women
eating GMO products may endanger their offspring.
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INSULIN PRODUCTION WITH RECOMBINANT DNA
Method Done by selecting two animals to breed DNA is transferred from one organism to
to pass on their genes that code for their another using plasmids and enzymes.
desirable traits.
Trait selection Expressions for traits are selected but Individual genes are transferred from one
usually not individual alleles. organism to another. Very specific.
Timespan May take a few generations to achieve Achieves results as soon as the process is
optimum results. done. Much faster.
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