REVIEWERS GENERAL BILOGY 2
Organelles including nucleus, chloroplasts
Three Domains
• Archea (Archeabacteria) consists of
archeabacteria, bacteria which live in extreme
environments. The kingdom Archaea belongs
to this domain.
• Eubacteria consists of more typical bacteria
found in everyday life. The kingdom Eubacteria
belongs to this domain.
• Eukaryote encompasses most of the world's
visible living things. The kingdoms Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia fall under this
category
The Six Kingdoms
Under the three domains are six kingdoms in
taxonomy.
✓ Plantae : Plants are multicellular and most
don't move, although gametes of some
plants move using cilia or flagella.
are present, and cell walls are present.
Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis
(they all require sunlight).
✓ Animalia : Animals are multicellular, and
move with the aid of cilia, flagella, or
muscular organs based on contractile
proteins. They have organelles including a
nucleus, but no chloroplasts or cell walls.
Animals acquire nutrients by ingestion.
✓ Protista : the third kingdom, was
introduced by the German biologist Ernst
Haeckel in 1866 to classify micro-
organisms which are neither animals nor
plants. Since protists are quite irregular,
this kingdom is the least understood and
the genetic similarities between organisms
in this kingdom are largely unknown. For
example, some protists can exhibit
properties of both animals and plants.
✓ Fungi are organisms which obtain food by
absorbing materials in their bodies.
Mushrooms and moulds belong in this
kingdom. Originally, they were part of the
plant kingdom but were recategorized
when they were discovered not to
photosynthesise.
✓ Eubacteria are bacteria, made up of small
cells, which differ in appearance from the
organisms in the above kingdoms. They
lack a nucleus and cell organelles. They
have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
✓ Archae (or Archaebacteria) are bacteria
which live in extreme environments, such
as salt lakes or hot, acidic springs. Their cell
walls lack peptidoglycan.
# KINGDOM
1. Kingdom Plantae
The Kingdom Plantae contains about billion types of
plants species and it was very difficult to identify
different types of species. Many biologists contributed
in classifying different plants species in to their
separate kingdom.
Based on their classification, plants are divided into the
four main groups. These classifications was based on
The presence of vascular tissue.
The absence of vascular tissue.
 The presence of seeds.
The absence of seeds.
Vascular tissue helps in transporting substances
(water, minerals and sugars) through out the plant.
Seeds are structures, which contains an embryo that
helps in storing food.
Classification of Plant Kingdom
- Phyllum Bryophyta
• They are non-vascular land plants, which do
not contain any conducting tissues and are
often referred to as bryophytes.
• These plants are small, grow close to the
ground and include mosses and liver worts.
• They are very small in structure and are
considered as important members of our
ecosystem.
• The reproduction process is carried in their
spores. They are non flowering plant and are
found mainly growing on the ground, on other
plants and on rocks.
• They play a vital role in preventing soil erosion
EXAMPLE Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.
- Phyllum Pteridophytae
They are seedless vascular plants, which contain
vascular tissues but do not produce seeds.
They are involved in transportation of fluids.
The reproduction process is carried by spores e.g.:
horsetails, ferns and club mosses.
- Phyllum Angiosperms
• Angiosperms are flowering plants, which
develops the seeds within a protective
structure.
• The reproduction process is carried by
Angiosperm. They develop their seeds within
an ovary, which itself is embedded in a flower.
After the
• stage of fertilization, the flower falls and the
ovary bulges to become a fruit.
• Angiosperms in the class Dicotyledoneae
grows into two seed-leaves (cotyledons).
• An angiosperms leaf consists of a single,
branched, main vein, which originates from
the base of the leaf blade. In few plats, it may
also consist of four or more main veins
diverging from the same base. Phylum
angiosperms e.g.: trees, shrubs, vines and
flowers
- Phyllum Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants with
undeveloped seeds, which are present in an enclosed
structure.
• Monocot begins with a single seed-leaf. The
main veins of their leaves are usually parallel
and unbranched.
• Monocot plays an important role in providing
us with our primary sources of nutrition, which
includes grains, fruits, etc. Phylum
gymnosperms e.g: palms, carpet lawns.
3 TYPES OF TREE
EXCURRENT – PINE TREE
COLUMNAR- COCONUT TREE
DELI QUESCENT – MANGO TREE
2. Kingdom Animalia
The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word
animalis which means 'having breath'. The major
group of animals are classified under the Kingdom
Animalia, also known as Metazoa. All the members
of this kingdom are multicellular, eukaryotes and lack
cell wall. They are heterotrophs, they depend on
other organisms directly or indirectly for food. Most of
the organisms are motile which means they can
move independently and spontaneously.
General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia are as
follows:
- Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and
heterotrophic organisms.
- They have multiple cells with mitochondria and
they depend on other organisms for food.
- Habitat : Most of the animals inhabit seas, fewer
are seen in fresh water and even fewer on land.
- There are around 9 to 10 million animal species
that inhabit the earth. Only 800,000 species are
identified.
- Biologists recognize 36 phyla in the animals
kingdom.
- Size : The sizes of animals ranges from a few celled
organism like the mesozoans to animals weighing
many tons like the blue whale.
- Animal Bodies : Bodies of animals are made of
cells organized into tissues which perform specific
functions. In most animals tissue are organized
into complex organs, which form organ systems.
- Cell Structure : The animal cell contains organelles
like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi complex,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes,
vacuoles, centrioles, cytoskeleton.
- Animals are made up of many organ systems, that
aids in performing specific functions that are
necessary for the survival of the organism.
- Organ systems are skeletal system, muscular
system, digestive system, respiratory
system, circulatory system, excretory system,
reproductive system, immune system and the
endocrine system.
-Body Symmetry : Most of the animals are bilaterally
symmetrical, while primitive animals are asymmetrical
and cnidarians and echinoderms are radially
symmetrical.
-Locomotion : Most animals have the ability to move,
they show rapid movement when compared to plants
and other organisms.
-Respiration : It is a gaseous exchange of taking in
oxygen and giving out carbon-dioxide. This process
takes place in organs of respiration like the lungs, gills,
book gills and book lungs and some animals skin is also
used for respiration.
-Digestion : Animals ingest food, and digestion takes
place in the internal cavity like the digestive system in
animals, in primitive animals vacuoles are for digestion.
-Nervous System : Sensory mechanism and the
coordination of the organ systems is carried on by the
nervous system. In animals the nervous system
comprises of nerve ganglions, or brain, spinal cords and
nerves.
-Circulatory System : The distribution of nutrients,
exchange of gases and removal of wastes takes place
in the circulatory system. This system comprises of the
heart, blood vessels and the blood.
-Excretory System : Removal of wastes from kidneys. -
-Skeletal System : support and protection is provided
by the skeletal system.
-Reproductive System : Most animals reproduce
sexually, by the fusion of haploid cells like the eggs and
the sperms.
-Glands of the endocrine system help in control and
coordination of the body system
Kingdom Animalia Classification
Kingdom Animalia has approximately 36 sub-divisions
known as 'phyla'. Below are the most common phyla
classified under traditional biological methodology.
o Phylum Porifera : They are primitive
organisms, most of them are salt-water
sponges. They do not have organs or nerve
cells or muscle cells. Approximately, 8,000
species exist today. Example: Sycon,
Euspongia, Spongilla.
o Phylum Coelentrata (Cnidaria) : This group is
composed of jelly-fish and other lower
aquaticz animals. Approximately, 15,000
species exist today. Example: Aurelia, Adamsia.
o Phylum Platyhelminthes : This group consists
of flat worms. They inhabit both marine and
fresh water habitats and they are mostly
endoparasites found in animals.
Example:Taenia (Tapeworm), Fascicola (Liver
fluke).
o Phylum Aschelmeinthes : It is a group of round
worms, most of them are parasites. This
phylum consists of about 80,000 parasitic
worms. E.g. Ascaris (Round worm), Wuchereria
(Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (hook worm).
o Phylum Annelida : They are present in aquatic,
terrestrial and are free-living or parasitic in
nature. This phylum comprises of segmented
worms. E.g. Nereis, Pheretima (earthworm),
Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech).
o Phylum Arthropoda : This is the largest phylum
which consists of insects. There are over 1
million species of insects existing today.
Example: Apis (honeybee), Bombyx
(Silkworm), Laccifer (lainsect), Anopheles,
Culex and Aedes (mosquiotes), Locusta
(locust), Limulus (king crab).
o Phylum Mollusca : It is the second largest
phylum. They are terrestrial and aquatic.
Example: Pila (Apple snail), Octopus (devil
fish), Pinctada (pearl oyster), Aplysia (seahare),
Sepia (cuttle-fish), Dentalium (Tusk Shell),
Chaetopleura (Chiton).
o Phylum Echinodermata : This consists of sea
stars and sea urchins. There are about 6,000
species. Example: Ascarias (star fish), Echinus
(sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (sea
cucumber), Ophiura (brittle star).
o Phylum Chordata : Animals of this phylum
have a characteristic feature of presence of
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and
paired pharyngeal gill slits. Within this phylum
advanced group called vertebrates are include.
Exaple: Balanoglossus, Ascidia. All fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and
o mammals
3. KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include
microorganisms such as yeasts ,moulds and
mushrooms.These organisms are classified under
kingdom fungi. The organisms found in Kingdom fungi
contain a cell wall and are omni present. They are
classified as heterotrophs among the living Organisms.
Characteristics of Fungi
Following are the important characteristics of fungi:
o Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-
motile and heterotrophic organisms.
o They may be unicellular or filamentous.
o They reproduce by means of spores.
o Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alternation
of generation.
o Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot
perform photosynthesis.
o Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
o Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
o The nuclei of the fungi are very small.
o The fungi have no embryonic stage. They
develop from the spores.
o The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
o Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the
host.
o Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone
which leads to sexual reproduction in fungi.
o Examples include mushrooms, moulds and
yeast.
Classification of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi are classified based on different modes.
The different classification of fungi is as follows:
Based on Mode of nutrition
On the basis of nutrition, kingdom fungi can be
classified into 3 groups.
• Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition
by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and
Aspergillus.
• Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by
living on other living organisms (plants or
animals) and absorb nutrients from their host.
Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.
• Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an
interdependent relationship with other
species in which both are mutually benefited.
Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are
the symbiotic association between algae and
fungi. Here both algae and fungi are mutually
benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and
in reverse algae synthesis carbohydrates for
fungi. Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association
present between fungi and plants. Fungi
improve nutrient uptake by plants, whereas,
plants provides organic molecules like sugar to
the fungus.
Based on Spore Formation
Kingdom Fungi are classified into the following based
on the formation of spores:
• Zygomycetes (zycomycota)-BREAST– These
are formed by the fusion of two different cells.
The sexual spores are known as zygospores,
while the asexual spores are known as
sporangiospores. The hyphae are without the
septa. Example – Mucor.
• Ascomycetes (ASCOMYCOTA) -ascus-puffball
– They are also called sac fungi. They can be
coprophilous, decomposers, parasitic or
saprophytic. The sexual spores are called
ascospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by
conidiospores. Example – Saccharomyces
• Deutoromycota-athletes floot ringworms
• Basidomycota-Mushroom-Basidia
Uses of Fungi
Fungi are one of the most important groups of
organisms on the planet as they play a vital role in the
biosphere and have great economic importance on
account of both their benefits and harmful effects.
Following are some of the important uses of fungi:
✓ Recycling – They play a major role in recycling
the dead and decayed matter.
✓ Food – The mushrooms species which are
cultured are edible and are used as food by
humans.
✓ Medicines – There are many fungi that are
used to produce antibiotics and to control
diseases in humans and animals. Penicillin
antibiotic is derived from a common fungus
called Penicillium.
✓ Biocontrol Agents – Fungi are involved in
exploiting insects, other small worms and help
in controlling pests. Spores of fungi are used as
a spray on crops.
✓ Food spoilage – Fungi play a major role in
recycling organic material and are also
responsible for major spoilage and economic
losses of stored food.
Examples of Fungi
Following are the common examples of fungi:
• Yeast
• Mushrooms
• Moulds
• Truffles
Reproduction
SPORE FORMATION
BUDDING
In fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. The
sexual mode of reproduction is referred to as
teleomorph and the asexual mode of
reproduction is referred to as anamorph.
• Vegetative reproduction in fungi –This takes
place by budding, fission and fragmentation.
• Asexual reproduction – This takes place with
the help of spores called conidia or zoospores, or
sporangiospores.

• Sexual reproduction – This occurs by
ascospores, basidiospores, and oospores.
4. KINGDOM PROTISTA
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic
organisms. Protists are unicellular, some are colonial or
multicellular, they do not have specialized tissue
organization. The simple cellular organization
distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes
Kingdom Protista Classification
Kingdom Protista are categorized into two taxons:
Protozoans
animal-like single-celled organisms. Protozoans are
classified on the way they move into four categories :
✓ Sacordinians : move using pseudopod.
✓ Zooflagellates : move using flagella.
✓ Ciliaphorans : move using cilia.
✓ Sporozoans : forms spores.
Characteristics of Protista
The primary feature of all protists is that they are
eukaryotic organisms. This means that they have a
membrane-enclosed nucleus. Other characteristic
features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:
• These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or
in areas with moisture.
• Most protist species are unicellular organisms,
however, there are a few multicellular protists
such as kelp. Some species of kelp grow so
large that they exceed over 100 feet in height.
(Giant Kelp).
• Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these
species have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
• They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in
nature. An autotrophic organism can create its
own food and survive. A heterotrophic
organism, on the other hand, has to derive
nutrition from other organisms such as plants
or animals to survive.
• Symbiosis is observed in the members of this
class. For instance, kelp (seaweed) is a
multicellular protist that provides otters,
protection from predators amidst its thick
kelp. In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that
tend to feed on kelp.
• Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species
such as Trypanosoma protozoa can cause
sleeping sickness in humans.
• Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and
flagella. A few organisms belonging to the
kingdom Protista have pseudopodia that help
them to move.
• Protista reproduces by asexual means. The
sexual method of reproduction is extremely
rare and occurs only during times of stress.
Mode of Reproduction
Protists have diverse modes of reproduction, and the
specific method used depends on the species. Some
common modes of reproduction in protists include:
● Asexual reproduction: In this mode, protists
reproduce without the involvement of gametes. They
may divide through binary fission, budding, or
multiple fission. Binary fission involves the splitting of
a single parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
Budding involves the outgrowth of a new daughter
cell from the parent cell, which eventually breaks off
and becomes a new individual. Multiple fission
involves the splitting of a parent cell into many
daughter cells simultaneously.
● Sexual reproduction: In this mode, protists
produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. The
zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid
daughter cells, which grow into new individuals.
Sexual reproduction is less common in protists than
asexual reproduction.
● Conjugation: Some protists undergo
conjugation, which involves the exchange of genetic
material between two individuals. During conjugation,
two individuals temporarily fuse together, and their
nuclei exchange genetic material. The fused
individuals then separate and each undergoes mitosis
to produce new daughter cells.
● Spore formation: Some protists produce
spores that can survive in harsh environmental
conditions until conditions become more favorable for
growth. The spores are usually produced through
meiosis, and they can be dispersed by wind or other
means to colonize new environments.
Classification of Protista
● Chrysophytes: This group comprises of the
diatoms and golden algae (desmids). We find them in
fresh water as well as in marine environments. They
are microscopic. These organisms float passively in
water currents (plankton).
● Dianoflagellates: These organisms are usually
marine and photosynthetic. They have an appearance
of various colours like yellow, green, brown, blue or
red. Their colour is influenced and decided by the main
pigments present in their cells. The cell wall has stiff
cellulose plates on its outer surface. These organisms
usually have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and
the other transversely in a furrow between the wall
plates.
● Euglenoids: These are mostly freshwater
organisms. We can find them in stagnant water. They
do not have a cell wall. Rather, they are built with a
protein-rich layer, pellicle that makes their body
flexible. They have two flagella. One is short and the
other is a long one. The two flagella join with each
other at a swelling called paraflagellar body. Euglena is
a connecting link between animals and plants.
Nutrition in Euglena is mixotrophic, when the light is
available it is photosynthetic, in darkness, it is
saprophytic absorbing food from surrounding water.
● Slime Moulds : Slime moulds are saprophytic
protists. Their body is capable of moving through
decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation
called Plasmodium which may grow and spread over
several feet. During unfavourable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true
walls. The spores are dispersed by air currents. They
are extremely resistant to changes in the atmosphere.
They are capable of surviving for many years, even
under adverse conditions.
● Protozoans: All protozoans are heterotrophs
and live as predators or parasites. They are believed to
be primitive relatives of animals. There are four major
groups of protozoan:
- Flagellated Protozoans: They possess flagella
for locomotion. They may be free-living aquatics,
parasites, commensals or symbionts. Zooflagellates are
generally uninucleate, occasionally multinucleate.
- Amoebid Protozoans: They develop
pseudopodia which are temporary protoplasmic
outgrowths. These are used for locomotion and
engulfing food articles. Sarcodines are mostly free-
living, found in fresh water, sea water and on damp
soil.
- Sporozoans: All sporozoans are endoparasites.
Some sporozoans
Examples:
● Euglena - is a genus of unicellular, freshwater
organisms that are very common in ponds and small
bodies of water, especially if they are rich in nutrients
and consequently high in algae (aka ‘pond scum’). As
noted below, Euglena itself is sometimes
photosynthetic and is a component of the green sludge
in such ponds. But at other times it is non-
photosynthetic and is a component of the diverse
group of organisms that are eating the green sludge or
perhaps eating the other things that eat the green
sludge.
● Algae - singular alga, members of a group of
predominantly aquatic photosynthetic organisms of
the kingdom Protista. Algae have many types of life
cycles, and they range in size from microscopic
Micromonas species to giant kelps that reach 60
metres (200 feet) in length. Their photosynthetic
pigments are more varied than those of plants, and
their cells have features not found among plants and
animals.
● Amoeba - Amoeba is a unicellular organism
that has the ability to change its shape. They are usually
found in water bodies such as ponds, lakes and slow-
moving rivers. Sometimes, these unicellular organisms
can also make their way inside the human body and
cause various illnesses.
● Plasmodium - is a genus of protozoans which
fall under the subclass Coccidia. Plasmodium usually
infects the red blood cells in humans and other
mammals. This genus is also known to affect birds,
causing Avian Malaria. In humans, plasmodium causes
malaria, however, it requires a vector. The female
anopheles mosquito fulfills the purpose of a vector,
transmitting the organism to the host through its bite.
● Slime Molds - is not a plant or animal. It’s not
a fungus, though it sometimes resembles one. Slime
mold, in fact, is a soil-dwelling amoeba, a brainless,
single-celled organism, often containing multiple
nuclei
5. KINGDOM Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and
harsh conditions, they are known as extremophiles.
These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is
made up of different lipids, and their ribosomes are
similar to that of eukaryotes. Archaebacteria are of
three major groups of bacteria based on their habitat
i.e., thermophiles, halophiles and methanogens.
• Some extremophiles live in boiling water like
geysers of Yellowstone National Park and in
volcanoes. These are known as 'thermophiles'.
• Some extremophiles live in extremely salty
water, the salt loving bacteria are known as
'halophiles'.
• Some bacteria are present in the guts of
ruminants and are responsible for production
of methane gas from their dung. These
bacteria are known as 'methanogens'.
• they live in extreme environments (like hot
springs or salty lakes)
• normal environments (like soil and ocean
water).
• all are unicellular (each individual is only one
cell).
• some have a flagella that aids in their
locomotion.
• most don’t need oxygen to survive.
• can produce ATP (energy) from sunlight.
• can survive enormous temperature extremes,
high doses of RADIATION
# Eubacteria are true bacteria. The characteristic
feature is the presence of rigid cell wall and if present
a motile flagelllum that aids in locomotion. These
organisms are characterized based on their nutrition
and their shapes.
Classification Based on Shape
Bacteria can be classified in four groups based on
shape : Spherical or round shaped bacteria are called
cocci, Rod-shaped are bacilli, Comma-shaped bacteria
are vibrio and spiral shaped bacteria are vibrio and
spiral shaped bacteria and spirilla.
Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition
Autotrophic Bacteria : Bacteria which prepare their
own food are autotrophic. (Example : Cyanobacteria)
Heterotrophic Bacteria : Bacteria which are dependent
on other organisms for their food are
heterotrophic.(Example: Escherichia coli)
• Autotrophic bacteria can be Chemosynthetic
or Photosynthetic. Chemosynthetic bacteria
are those which prepare their food with the
help of inorganic substrates. Photosynthetic
bacteria are autotrophic bacteria which
prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.
• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) - They have
chlorophyll similar to plants and hence they
are photosynthetic autotrophs. The marine
and terrestrial and they may be unicellular,
colonial or filamentous. The colonies are
surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They can
also fix atmospheric nitrogen. Example:
Nostoc and Anaebena. Cyanobacteria, Cocci
shaped bacteria - Streptococcus, Bacilli
shaped bacteria - E.coli, Vibrio shaped - Vibrio
cholera (cholera), Spiral shaped bacteria -
Treponema pallidum (syphilis).
• Chemosynthetic Autotrophs : These
organisms oxidise substances like nitrites,
nitrates, ammonia etc. The help in recycling
substances like nitrogen, sulphur, iron etc.
• Heterotrophic Bacteria : Heterotrophic
bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic.
Parasitic bacteria are those which depend on
the host for nutrition and cause harm to the
host. Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead and
decaying matter. Symbiotic - it is a type where
the bacteria are in mutual relation with other
organisms. Symbiosis is of two types
mutualism and commensalism. Mutualism is
where the bacteria and the other organism
are benefited due to the relationship.
Commensalism is a relationship where the
bacteria is benefited while the other organism
is not affected by the relationship.
Classification Based on Gram's Staining
Gram's staining is a test on cell walls developed by
Hans Christian Gram. This method helps classifying
bacteria into Gram positive bacteria and Gram
negative bacteria.
✓ Gram Positive Bacteria - The bacteria's cell
wall is made up of protein-sugar complex that
takes on purple color during gram staining. E.g.
Mycobacterium;
✓ Gram Negative Bacteria - The gram negative
bacteria has an extra layer of lipid on the
outside of the cell wall and appear pink during
the Gram staining procedure. E.g. E.coli
(coliforms)
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are the known to be the smallest living
cells. They completely lack cell wall and can survive
without oxygen. Most of the mycoplasma are
pathogenic in nature in animals and plants.
Economic Importance of Bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Lactococcus
have been used in fermentation process for thousands
of years. The ability of the bacteria to degrade variety
of organic compounds has been used in waste
management processing and biorememdiation. In pest
control, bacteria can be used in the place of pesticides
as these pesticides are regarded environmentally
friendly. Example: Bacillus thuringenesis.
1.3 Phylum chordate-Classification
Characteristics of Chordates : All chordates have a
number of structures in common:
A notochord (noto = the back; chord = string) is
present in all embryos, and may be present or
absent/reduced in adults. This is the structure for
which the phylum was named. A dorsal, hollow,
ectodermal nerve cord (compare with Annelida and
Arthropoda which have ventral, solid, mesodermal
nerve cords) typically forms by an infolding of the
ectoderm tissue, which then "pinches off" and
becomes surrounded by mesoderm. Spinal bifida is the
failure of the nervous system to close.
The pharangeal slits (pharynx = throat) originally
functioned in filter feeding: water is taken into the
mouth and let out via the pharangeal slits. The slits
filter out food particles and keep them in the animal's
body so they can be put into the digestive tract. In fish,
these have become modified as gills, and in humans as
our ears and eustachian tubes.
A postanal tail (post = behind, after; anal refers to the
anus) is present and extends behind the anus in many
taxa, thus the anus isn't at posterior tip of body. In
humans, the tail is present during embryonic
development, but is subsequently resorbed. Phylum
Chordate is divided into three Sub-Phyla
Sub-phylum: 1. Urochordata
Sub-phylum: 2. Cephalochordata
Sub-phylum: 3. Vertebrata
The first two sub phyla are called lower chordates or
PROTOCHORDATES. They are usually called Acrania
group. The vertebrata sub-phylum is called CRANIATA
group

EXAMPLE
o SPHERICAL
o ROD-LIKE
o SPIRAL