731

731
THE USE OF ROBOTICS IN ASSESSMENT AND

MAINTENANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES
WORKING GROUP
B2.52
JUNE 2018
THE USE OF ROBOTICS IN
ASSESSMENT AND MAINTENANCE
OF OVERHEAD LINES
WG B2.52
Members
A. LEBLOND, Convenor CA C. PON, Secretary CA A. PHILLIPS US
A. CLAUDI DE D. ELIZONDO US C. ROZE FR
P. FLYNN IE N. KITANO JP P. ZACHOVAL AT
N. MAHATHO ZA S. MOMTAMBAULT CA A. DIEZ OSORIO ES
C.A. NASCIMENTO BR S. NEVE UK B. RATTRAY JP
M. OLTEAN RO L. WON-KYO KR
Corresponding Members
P.C. DEBENEST JP A. DREW US
D. ECCLES AU O.V. FRANCA LIMA BR
J.F. GOFFINET BE M. HANNON UK
F. LIRIOS AU
Associated Expert
L. CLOUTIER CA
Other Contributors
N. POULIOT CA J.F. ALLAN CA
Reviewers
A.J. ELIASSON IS D. LOUDON NO J. MCCORMACK AU
Dedication
This publication is dedzicated to the memory of Louis Cloutier who provided great advice for the completion of this document.
His invaluable contributions and wisdom will be sorely missed.
Copyright © 2018
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-433-7
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accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent
THE USE OF ROBOTICS IN ASSESSMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Strategic assets such as electricity transmission grids must be operated in a safe, predictable and reliable
way. To do so, best practices in the operation and maintenance of transmission networks must evolve
to respond to the changing context of pressured grid operators: operation and maintenance standards,
laws and regulations, increasing loads, commercial exchanges, etc.
Currently, live-line work is of paramount importance for most maintenance operations, and the need to
maintain system availability is a key factor in the introduction of robotics in this field. In order to
maintain or increase the reliability of ageing overhead transmission lines (OHTLs), new maintenance
techniques are becoming available to assess and diagnose the condition of various OHTL components.
Line inspection and maintenance already benefit from developments in mobile robotics, which can
reduce the potential risk to maintenance crews (e.g. live work), reach hardly accessible spans (e.g. river
crossings), perform tedious labor faster, and decrease costs.
This Technical Brochure presents a review of robotic technologies for the effective implementation,
assessment and maintenance of OHTLs.
State-of-the-Art of Robotic Technologies

Although some robotic technologies aimed at the assessment and maintenance of OHTLs were
developed in the 1990’s, most of them were developed after 2000.
This section aims at defining and classifying robots and robotic technologies with regard to the Terms
of Reference (TOR) of CIGRÉ WG B2.52, which are to:
Review the existing and developing robotic technologies for effective implementation, assessment and
maintenance of OHTLs in order to:
 Assist overhead line engineers to improve line reliability and restoring integrity;
 Assist asset managers in investing in further development and implementation of these
technologies.
Of course, many definitions and classifications of robots and robotics technologies already exist in the
literature. Agreement on these definitions and classifications within the robotics community has not yet
reached a consensus. In an effort to clarify important ideas that will establish a baseline of further
discussions, this section aims at specifying reference terminologies relevant to robotics related to the
assessment and maintenance of OHTLs.
Transmission Line Robotics

This Section seeks to provide an overview and an assessment of the future possibilities for transmission
line robotics. Four robot classifications are identified here:
1. Line Suspended Robots
2. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
3. Ground Based Robots
4. Other Types of Robots (e.g. climbing robots & insulator robots)
3
Line Suspended Robots

Line suspended robots are designed to serve as the extended eyes and arms of the transmission lineman.
Their basic design function is to perform visual inspection in transmission lines that cross difficult right
of ways, such as large rivers or mountainous areas. Also, they may perform a condition assessment of
steel core wires of aged ACSR conductors, detect and locate broken wires, measure the remaining cross-
section of steel wires as well as temporary repair of components.
Such robots or moving platforms are able to travel over the live or ground conductor of transmission
lines and many of them are able to pass through or cross over different obstacles.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Routine inspections and asset condition assessment in many cases are usually carried out using
helicopters with trained personnel to capture information for an intended purpose. Currently, electric
power utilities are interested in investigating the technology of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as
they give clear images and unique inspection view when they fly close to the transmission lines.
Robots of this type have achieved autonomous operation as they have been able to verify their own
position as they fly and wirelessly transmit images to ground. Development of this type of robot is very
active as more and more prototypes are being built and more players are expected to enter the market as
service providers of technology users.
Ground Based Robots

Ground based robots are designed to remotely capture and control energized conductors and execute
tasks that are far beyond human capability from a mechanical and electrical stress perspective. They
represent a mature technology, which has been used for more than 15 years, and could be used for
transmission structure repair and replacement, insulator replacement, etc.
Much of the development has focussed around robotics arms for the manipulation and control of
energised conductors.
Other Types of Robots

In spite of the recent developments in robots for inspection and maintenance of OHTLs, there are still
some components that remain mostly off-limits to robots. Towers, insulators and jumper lines are some
of the key components of the OHTL infrastructure that may require the use of specialized robots for
inspection and maintenance, when not easily accessible from ground-based or UAV systems. Therefore,
other types of robots have been developed for less-conventional works, such as tower/pole climbing,
insulator inspection and insulator cleaning.
Effective Implementation of Robotic Technologies

This section presents different maintenance activities regarding robotic technologies and practical
considerations for their proper selection.
Ensuring personnel safety when performing maintenance, inspections and/or upgrades on energized
transmission lines is the most important concern and can be significantly enhanced by the use of
robotics. Further benefits using robots becomes apparent for access to difficult-to-reach places, and
potential time savings that can be achieved.
Robotic technologies have already proven to be a valuable means of inspecting certain systems, and
robotic inspection is now considered to be a realistic approach for grid owners. A few major utilities
have already introduced robotics into their maintenance practices, and several are funding projects to do
so. Safety, efficiency, reliability and availability of equipment are the main factors driving this trend.
4
Maintenance tasks, including inspection and repairs, are identified as high-value applications in
transmission live-line work. The ability to perform maintenance and inspection services and upgrading
transmission lines without shutting down the transmission line (de-energizing the line) has many
economic, social and environmental benefits to the network owner.
Future Applications of Robotic Technologies

The future of robotic technologies applied to OHTLs is very promising. There is a wide range of
potential future applications of robotic technologies which are limited only by the needs of the industry
and imagination. Such applications could be for instance an autonomous UAV for inspection of OHTLs
or a UAV to measure compression connector condition.
Robotic technologies have the potential to revolutionize the way the power transmission system is
constructed and maintained. The opportunity is vast and undiscovered. However, a large number of gaps
exist ranging from financial to technical to regulatory. It remains important to continue to have a vision
for the future and make steady progress in attempting to reach it.
Conclusions
Inspection and maintenance activities are conducted to prevent degradation of an OHTL asset beyond a
desired performance level. The time to perform these required maintenance activities in order to achieve
a desired performance level of the OHTL is a critical question. Although failure of an OHTL is not
desirable, total elimination of this risk may not be economically justifiable. A transmission line is
regularly inspected in order to achieve updated information about the condition of the line as well as the
immediate surroundings. Various inspection techniques have been developed to enable the condition of
the OHTL to be assessed.
Condition assessment will enable transmission line asset owners to achieve greater efficiency when
planning OHTL refurbishments or more effectively to direct their maintenance activities, at a time when
systems are ageing and consents for new lines are becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. The
inspection should be performed so that the transmission line owner is provided with sufficient
information to plan the maintenance of the OHTL.
Personnel safety has always been of biggest concern and the practice of energized line work especially
in places difficult to reach or when time is critical means the use of robots to assist with maintenance,
inspections and/or upgrades on transmission lines can offer a major advantage.
As the robotic technologies presently under development become more mature and accepted by utilities
as routine tools, applications will emerge requiring the development of new technologies. The key
drivers in the emergence of these new robotic technologies will continue to be: improved safety,
increased reliability, increased availability and reduced costs.
5
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................. 3
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES .............................................................................................................................. 9
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ 11
2. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES .............................................................................. 13

2.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................................................................13
2.2 Robots and Robotic Technologies: Definitions and Classifications ..........................................................................................13

Definitions and Classifications ........................................................................................................................................14
Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................................................15
3. REVIEW OF EXISTING AND DEVELOPING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES ............................................ 17

3.1 Line Suspended Robots ..................................................................................................................................................................17
LineScout, Hydro-Québec (Canada) .............................................................................................................................18
LineVueTM, Kinectrics Inc (Canada) ................................................................................................................................19
Expliner, HiBot (Japan)....................................................................................................................................................21
AApe, Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)..............................................................................................................22
Power Line Inspection Robot (PLIR), University of KwaZulu-Natal and Eskom (South Africa), Transpower (New
Zealand) 24
EPRI Transmission Line Inspection Robot (Ti), EPRI (USA) ............................................................................................25
LineROVer, Hydro-Québec (Canada) ..........................................................................................................................26
Conductor Corrosion Assessment System (CCAS), Shannon Technology (Canada) ...............................................27
3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ...............................................................................................................................................28

Fixed-Wing Aircraft ........................................................................................................................................................29
Helicopter ..........................................................................................................................................................................31
Multicopter ........................................................................................................................................................................34
UAV type Selection ..........................................................................................................................................................40
3.3 Ground Based Robots ....................................................................................................................................................................40

Technology Description of Ground-Based Robots ......................................................................................................40
3.3.2 Robotic Pole Manipulator ...............................................................................................................................................46
3.4 Other Types of Robots ...................................................................................................................................................................46

Climbing Robots ................................................................................................................................................................46
Insulator Robots ...............................................................................................................................................................48
4. EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES............................................................ 51

4.1 Inspection of Overhead Lines Using Robots ...............................................................................................................................51
Main Tasks of Visual Inspection .....................................................................................................................................51
Main Tasks of Infrared Inspection .................................................................................................................................52
Main Tasks of Ultraviolet (Corona) Inspection .............................................................................................................52
Laser Scanning of Overhead Lines ................................................................................................................................52
Other Actions Performed in OHTL Inspection ..............................................................................................................53
Inspection Works Performed by Robots .......................................................................................................................53
4.2 Maintenance Work Using Robots .................................................................................................................................................53

Ground Wire Replacement on a Line ...........................................................................................................................54
Ice Removal from the Conductors ..................................................................................................................................54
Insulator Cleaning.............................................................................................................................................................54
6
Replacing Damaged Insulators on Power Lines ..........................................................................................................55

Installation of Aircraft Warning Spheres .....................................................................................................................55
Conductor Repair Clamp and Patch Rod Installation .................................................................................................56
Replacement of Energised Conductors .........................................................................................................................56
Repair or Replacement of Damaged Structures .........................................................................................................56
Bolted Assembly Installation and Retrieval, Checking and Correction of Damper Position ................................56
Installation Methods of Robots .......................................................................................................................................56
4.3 Practical Considerations for Selection of Robots .......................................................................................................................57
4.4 Potential Value of Robotics ...........................................................................................................................................................58
4.5 Economic Benefits ............................................................................................................................................................................59

Methodology to Evaluate the Benefits of Energized Work ......................................................................................59
Metrics Related to Power System Operations, Markets and Contracted Obligations ........................................60
Metrics related to utility crew operations ....................................................................................................................60
Metrics related to reliability ..........................................................................................................................................60
Metrics related to public image and customer satisfaction ......................................................................................61
4.6 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................................................61
5. ROADMAP FOR FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES ........................................ 63

5.1 Future Vision for Transmission Assests ..........................................................................................................................................63
5.2 Industry Drivers ................................................................................................................................................................................64
5.3 Future States ....................................................................................................................................................................................64

Future State 1: Autonomous Inspection .........................................................................................................................64
Future State 2: Automated Construction .......................................................................................................................64
Future State 3: Field Worker Support ..........................................................................................................................65
Future State 4: Remote Repair and Refurbishment ....................................................................................................65
5.4 Examples of Future Robotic Applications ....................................................................................................................................65

Robotic Toolbox to Support Specific Tasks Implemented by Field Personnel .......................................................65
Utilization of UAV’s to Aid in Structure Climbing ........................................................................................................66
UAV’s to Measure Compression Connector Condition................................................................................................66
Security Patrol UAV’s.......................................................................................................................................................66
Alerts and Alarms for Energized Work ........................................................................................................................66
Autonomous Line Crawling Inspections of Transmission Lines ....................................................................................67
Autonomous UAV Inspections of Transmission Lines ....................................................................................................67
5.5 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................................................67
6. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 69
7. REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 71
8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 77
APPENDIX A. ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT .............................................................. 79

A.1. Beihua University (China) ...........................................................................................................................................................79
A.2. Chinese University of Hong Kong (China) ...............................................................................................................................79
A.3. Hunan University (China) ............................................................................................................................................................80
A.4. KunShan Institute of Industrial Research (China).....................................................................................................................80
A.5. Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (China) ..............................................................................................................81

A.6. Shandong University of Science and Technology (China) ....................................................................................................82
A.7. Shanghai University (China).......................................................................................................................................................82
7
A.8. Sichuan University (China) ..........................................................................................................................................................82

A.9. Wuhan University (China) ..........................................................................................................................................................83
A.10. Xi’an Jiaotong University (China) ..............................................................................................................................................84
A.11. Korea Electric Power Research Institute (Korea) ....................................................................................................................84
A.12. Isfahan University of Technology (Iran) ...................................................................................................................................84
A.13. ETH Zurich (Switzerland).............................................................................................................................................................85
A.14. University of California (USA) ...................................................................................................................................................85
A.15. University of Georgia, Southern Company (USA) .................................................................................................................86
A.16. Terex-Ritz (Brazil)........................................................................................................................................................................87
A.17. Furnas (Brazil) ..............................................................................................................................................................................87
A.18. Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicações (Brazil) ..............................................................................88
A.19. Instituto Superior Tecnico (Portugal) .........................................................................................................................................88
A.20. Other works ..................................................................................................................................................................................89
A.21. List of References for Appendix A ...........................................................................................................................................90
8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1-1 LineScout Robot from Hydro-Québec
Figure 3.1-2 LineVueTM Robot from Kinectrics
Figure 3.1-3 Example of Reduced Data from LineVueTM Robot
Figure 3.1-4 Expliner Robot from HiBot
Figure 3.1-5 AApe Inspection Robots from SIACAS
Figure 3.1-6 Arm Swinging Robot from the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Figure 3.1-7 Power Line Inspection Robot (PLIR) from the University of KwaZulu-Natal
Figure 3.1-8 Close-up of Line Hardware taken by PLIR
Figure 3.1-9 PLIR Climbing a Jumper Cable on Transpower lines in New Zealand
Figure 3.1-10 Ti Robot and Example of Ti Bypass System
Figure 3.1-11 LineROVer Robot from Hydro-Québec
Figure 3.1-12 CCAS Robot from Shannon Technology
Figure 3.2-1 Example of Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Figure 3.2-2 AAI Aerosonde
Figure 3.2-3 Aerovironment Global Observer
Figure 3.2-4 UAR 45 Red Eléctrica de España
Figure 3.2-5 Mission Computers
Figure 3.2-6 Ground System Vehicle
Figure 3.2-8 Communication System
Figure 3.2-9 Hexacopter with Propeller Side Protection and Camera for Visual Inspections
Figure 3.2-10 Typical In-flight Inspection Image
Figure 3.2-11 IR and UV Image Overlay
Figure 3.2-12 Corona Discharges Due to Heavy Pollution (Overlaid UV and visible recording)
Figure 3.2-13 High Voltage AC-test of a Multicopter with Pre-discharge Between Phase Conductor and
Multicopter Housing
Figure 3.3-1 Two Three Phase Pick Robotic Arms in Operation
Figure 3.3-2 Single Pick Used to Sustain a Double Conductor
Figure 3.3-3 138 kV double dead-end structure replacement utilizing the LineMaster™ – Chicago, IL
Figure 3.3-4 138 kV tower upgrade utilizing the LineMaster™ – Chicago, IL
Figure 3.3-5 5000 lb capacity Single Lift Arm used on 230 kV structure in Delaware
Figure 3.3-6 LineWise Phase Lifter in Horizontal Orientation
Figure 3.4-1 CMU’s Tree-climbing Snake-like Robot
Figure 3.4-2 EPRI’s Snake-like Robot
Figure 3.4-3 Metallic Surface Climbing Robot from Helical Robotics
Figure 3.4-4 Tower-climbing Robot from International Climbing Machines
Figure 3.4-5 Anchor-Climber
Figure 3.4-6 Live-line Insulator Cleaning Robot (Korea Electric Power Research Institute)
Figure 3.4-7 Live-line Insulator Inspection Robot (Korea Electric Power Corporation)
Figure 3.4-8 Technology demonstrator of existing hand held hotstick operation of the LWNCI Tool and the
EPRI insulator crawling robot that is being investigated to replace the hand held operation
Figure 4.2-1 Brazilian Robot for Dismantling and Replacing Aircraft Warning Spheres
Figure 4.4-1 Prospective use of robotic technologies – Basic approach to asset management
Figure 5.0-1 Roadmap for future transmission line robotic technologies (Vision-Drivers-Future States-Gaps
9
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1-1 Range of CCAS Assessment (http://www.shannontechnology.com/data.htm)
Table 3.2-1 Types of UAV with Maintenance Activities
Table 3.2-2 Advantages of Gasoline Helicopters and Electrical Multicopters
Table 3.3-1 Factors Influencing Justification for Using Robots on Energized Transmission Lines
Table 3.3-2 Main Applications and Capabilities of the LineMaster™ Robotic Arm
Table 4.3-1 Topics to Consider for Using Robotic Technology
Table 8-1 List of abbreviations and acronyms used in this document
10
1. INTRODUCTION
Strategic assets such as electricity transmission grids must be operated in a safe, predictable and reliable
way. To do so, best practices in the operation and maintenance of transmission networks must evolve
to respond to the changing context of pressured grid operators: operation and maintenance standards,
laws and regulations, increasing loads, commercial exchanges, etc.
In order to maintain or increase the reliability of ageing Overhead Transmission Lines (OHTLs), new
maintenance techniques are becoming available to assess and diagnose the condition of various OHTL
components. Power line inspection and maintenance already benefit from developments in mobile
robotics, which can reduce the potential risk to maintenance crews (e.g. live work), reach difficult to
access spans (e.g. river crossings), perform tedious labor faster, and decrease costs.
Many of the robotic technologies described in this Technical Brochure (TB) were published in some
Proceedings of the Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI), which are relevant
to power line robot design, simulations, subsystems and peripheral work (image processing, control and
sensors).
Robotic technologies have already proved to be a valuable means of inspecting certain systems, and
robotic inspection is now considered to be a realistic approach for grid owners. A few major utilities
have already introduced robotics into their maintenance practices, and several are funding projects to
do so. Safety, efficiency, reliability and availability of equipment are the main factors driving this trend.
The expected increase in live-line work techniques has stimulated the development and use of robotic
devices to minimize risk to field personnel safety and maintain power system reliability. Currently,
live-line work is a must for most maintenance operations, and the need to maintain system availability
is a key factor in the introduction of robotic technologies.
This TB presents a review of robotic technologies for the effective implementation, assessment and
maintenance of OHTLs. Maintenance tasks, including inspection and repairs, are identified as high-
value applications in transmission live-line work. The ability to perform maintenance and inspection
services and upgrading transmission lines without de-energizing the transmission line has many
11
12
2. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES

2.1 BACKGROUND
Although some robotic technologies aimed at the assessment and maintenance of overhead transmission
lines were developed in the 1990’s most were developed after 2000. A few rigorous and extensive state-
of-the-art reviews have been published in recent years (Toussaint et al. 2009; Nayyerloo et al. 2009;
Katrasnik et al. 2010; Pagnano et al. 2013; Gonçalves and Carvalho 2013; Elizondo and Gentile 2010).
These references are considered good reviews of the topic for technologies initiated prior to 2009 aimed
at overhead transmission lines.
In 2010, the first international Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI) was
held in Montreal, Canada. The objective was to provide a forum for stakeholders interested in robotics
applications in the power industry to present and exchange ideas. The program covered robotics
solutions for construction, refurbishment, inspection and maintenance of power systems. A large
proportion of these papers pertained to robotics devices, technologies, systems and fields of research
related to the use of robotics in assessment and maintenance of overhead lines. The second CARPI
conference was held in Zurich, Switzerland in 2012. Most of the recent research and development
initiatives related to the Terms of Reference for CIGRÉ Working Group B2.52 can be found in the
proceedings of previous CARPI conferences.
Some related papers can also be found in more academic or other focused conferences and forums such
as CIGRÉ, IROS, ICRA, AIM, FSR, CLAWAR, etc. The IEEE Xplore database is also considered as
the reference for IEEE related publications.
These publications form the basis of information for this TB.
2.2 ROBOTS AND ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES: DEFINITIONS AND

CLASSIFICATIONS
This Section defines and classifies robots and robotic technologies with regard to the Terms of
Reference (TOR) of CIGRÉ WG B2.52, which are to:
Review the existing and developing robotic technologies for effective implementation, assessment and
maintenance of OHTLs in order to:
 Assist overhead line engineers to improve line reliability and restoring integrity;
 Assist asset managers in investing in further development and implementation of these
technologies.
Many definitions and classifications of robots and robotics technologies already exist in the literature.
Agreement on these definitions and classifications within the robotics community has not yet reached
a consensus. In an effort to clarify important ideas that will establish a baseline of further discussions,
this Section aims at specifying reference terminologies relevant to robotics related to the assessment
and maintenance of overhead lines.
Although the objective is to address classifications of robots, many aspects will not be addressed as
they are either i) too mathematical, ii) too specific to architecture description, iii) too specific to the way
they are operated, or iv) too specific to the area of application for which they were designed.
Another element of context is the fact that robots, or robotics, tend to be thought of as industrial robots
operating in a very structured environment. This infers that robots perform repetitive tasks. This
document aims at defining robotics, robot and robotic technologies in a broader perspective, to include
mobile applications to be used in an unstructured environment.
13
Definitions and Classifications
Some key organizations related to robotics define robots with a mix of definitions and classifications.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed standards concerning robots
prepared by ISO Technical Committee 184 Subcommittee 2 (ISO/TC 184/SC 2), "Robots and Robotic
Devices".
The scope of work of ISO/TC 184/SC 2 covers among other things, the standardization of definitions,
characterizations and terminology. The committee defines an industrial robot from the International
Federation of Robotics (IFR) Web site: http://www.ifr.org as:
"Industrial robot (ISO 8373): an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose,
manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use
in industrial automation applications.
- Reprogrammable: whose programmed motions or auxiliary functions may be changed without
physical alterations;
- Multipurpose: capable of being adapted to a different application with physical alterations;
- Physical alterations: alteration of the mechanical structure or control system except for changes of
programming cassettes, ROMs, etc.
- Axis: direction used to specify the robot motion in a linear or rotary mode.
The International Federation of Robotics (IFR) is considered one of the most important organizations
in the world with regard to robotics. The IFR defines a service robot (http://www.ifr.org) as:
"Service robot: A service robot is a robot which operates semi- or fully autonomously to perform
services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment, excluding manufacturing operations.
With this definition, manipulating industrial robots could also be regarded as service robots, provided
they are installed in non-manufacturing operations. Service robots may or may not be equipped with
an arm structure as is the industrial robot. Often, but not always, the service robots are mobile. In some
cases, service robots consist of a mobile platform on which one or several arms are attached and
controlled in the same mode as the arms of the industrial robot.
Because of their multitude of forms and structures as well as application areas, service robots are not
easy to define.
Since 2007 a working group of ISO is revising the ISO 8373 which finally will include an official
definition of service robots."
Examples of applications can be found in transportation, healthcare, rehabilitation, entertainment or
inspection. This would then put Overhead Line Robotics in the service robotic devices category.
The IEEE Robotics and Automation Society (RAS) is another important organization in the field of
robotics research. The society differentiates between the fields of robotics and automation (from IEEE
RAS Web site http://www.ieee-ras.org/society.html) as follows:
"Robotics: focuses on systems incorporating sensors and actuators that operate autonomously or semi-
autonomously in cooperation with humans. Robotics research emphasizes intelligence and adaptability
to cope with unstructured environments.
Automation: emphasizes efficiency, productivity, quality, and reliability, focusing on systems that
operate autonomously, often in structured environments over extended periods, and on the explicit
structuring of such environments."
14
Conclusions
It is generally accepted in the industry that if a technology has no autonomy or cannot be programmed,
it is not considered to be a robot.
"Because of their multitude of forms and structures as well as application areas, service robots are not
easy to define". This excerpt of the IFR's definition of mobile robots emphasizes the fact that no single
definition of a robot has yet been able to gain consensus within the robotic community. However, key
players like manufacturers, end-users, academicians and researchers generally agree that the definition
of a robot should include some or all of the following characteristics:
 Mechatronic system
 Several actuators/links
 Some level of computer/controller
 Some level of software (programmable)
 Some level of autonomy
Inspired by this distinction, it is proposed for this TB to include both Robots that include the five
characteristics listed above as well as Robotic Technologies, which could include only some of the five
characteristics. Also, since WG B2.52 Terms of Reference includes the review of existing and
developing robotic technologies for effective implementation, both levels of maturity are listed in the
TB.
15
16
3. REVIEW OF EXISTING AND DEVELOPING ROBOTIC

TECHNOLOGIES
Existing and developing robotic technologies for overhead electric power lines are divided into the
following categories:
i) Line Suspended Robots: Robots that are suspended from the line (ie. usually the conductor)
and designed to serve as the extended eyes and arms of the transmission lineman. Their basic
design function is to perform visual inspection. They may also perform a condition assessment
of steel core wires of aged ACSR conductors, detect and locate broken wires, measure the
remaining cross-section of steel wires as well as perform temporary repair of components.
ii) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Robots that are aerial-based are designed to perform
visual inspection. Routine inspections and asset condition assessment in many cases are usually
carried out using helicopters with trained personnel to capture information for an intended
purpose. The application of robots help address customer requirements for availability and
reliability. Such robots are increasing in interest to electric power utilities because they
automate the inspection of transmission line assets. Work can be performed while the
transmission lines are energized. Currently, electric power utilities are interested in
investigating the technology of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV’s) as they give clear images
and unique inspection view when they fly close to the transmission lines.
iii) Ground Based Robots: Robots that are designed to remotely capture and control energized
conductors and execute tasks that are far beyond human capability from a mechanical and
electrical stress perspective. They represent a mature technology which has been used for more
than 15 years for which there is a consolidated list of project references. For instance, they
could be used for transmission structure repair and replacement, insulator replacement,
replacing line spacers, etc.
iv) Other Types of Robots: In spite of the recent developments in robots for inspection and
maintenance of OHTL, there are still some components that remain mostly off-limits to robots.
Towers, insulators and jumper lines are some of the key components of the OHTL infrastructure
that may require the use of specialized robots for inspection and maintenance, when not easily
accessible from ground-based or UAV systems. Any other types of robots such as climbing
robots (i.e. pole-climbing), insulator cleaning robots, or insulator inspection robots are
presented here.
3.1 LINE SUSPENDED ROBOTS

A notable increase in the use of robotics applied to the inspection of transmission lines has occurred
over the last decade, especially with line suspended robots. This Section reviews existing robots by
providing a description of their main characteristics and references related to each technology. Some
state-of-the-art reviews already exist on this topic, such as in Toussaint et al. (2009). This provides a
detailed review of more than 70 references on mobile robots designed to move on transmission lines
and to cross obstacles. Other publications also present reviews on mobile robots applied to power lines,
such as in Nayyerloo et al. (2009), in Katrasnik et al. (2010), and more recently in Pagnano et al. (2013),
in Gonçalves et al. (2013) and in Elizondo and Gentile (2010). However, these reviews are not as
detailed as in Toussaint et al. (2009) and this Section will be complimentary. To avoid repetition of
information and to compile a comprehensive description of robots on transmission lines, this Section
will focus on developments after 2009, which are more relevant here.
The following technologies are described. These offer relatively advanced and mature platforms that
have already been applied to transmission lines.
17
 LineScout, Hydro-Québec (Canada)

 LineVueTM, Kinectrics Inc.(Canada)
 Expliner, HiBot (Japan)
 AApe, Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)
 Power Line Inspection Robot (PLIR), University of KwaZulu-Natal and Eskom (South Africa),
Transpower (New Zealand)
 Transmission Inspector (TI), EPRI (USA)
 LineROVer, Hydro-Québec (Canada)
 Conductor Corrosion Assessment System (CCAS), Shannon Technology (Canada)
The following academic institutions have developed or are developing robotic technologies at the time
of this brochure. Most are in the early stages of design or in the first phases of field testing. A short
description of each is provided in Appendix A.
 Beihua University (China)

 Chinese University of Hong Kong (China)
 Hunan University (China)
 KunShan Institute of Industrial Research (China)
 Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (China)
 Shandong University of Science and Technology (China)
 Shanghai University (China)
 Sichuan University (China)
 Wuhan University (China)
 Xi’an Jiaotong University (China)
 Korea Electric Power Research Institute (Korea)
 Isfahan University of Technology (Iran)
 ETH Zurich (Switzerland)
 University of California (USA)
 University of Georgia, Southern Company (USA)
 Terex-Ritz (Brazil)
 Furnas (Brazil)
 University of Sao Paulo (Brazil)
 Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicações (Brazil)
 Instituto Superior Tecnico (Portugal)
Prior to installing a robot on a live-line, a specific engineering analysis is usually carried out to establish
its effect on line tension, and also check for adequate clearances.
LineScout, Hydro-Québec (Canada)
LineScout is a patented mobile robot (Montambault et al. 2009) that can travel along a ground wire,
single conductors or bundled conductors. It is designed to navigate around obstacles up to 0.76 m in
diameter (Montambault & Pouliot 2008), such as warning spheres, spacer-dampers, and single- and
double-suspension clamps, but it cannot cross dead-end structures and jumper cables. A typical tele-
operated sequence for the robot to cross an obstacle is shown in Figure 3.1-1.
18
Figure 3.1-1 LineScout Robot from Hydro-Québec

(Left: Picture courtesy of Hydro-Québec; Right: Pouliot et al (2009), © 2009 IEEE)
Designed to work on live-lines of up to 765 kV, LineScout is equipped with a three-axis robotic arm to
reach the conductors of a typical transmission line bundle. One end of the arm is equipped with a
directional camera. The other end can hold a variety of tools for tasks such as i) high quality visual
inspection, ii) infrared inspection, iii) checking the condition of splices by measuring their electrical
resistance, iv) tightening and loosening bolted assemblies, and v) temporary repair of broken conductor
strands Hydro-Québec (2010). Recently, an ACSR corrosion detection sensor was developed and
implemented on the LineScout.
Several publications on the LineScout robot were published on different aspects such as the localization
and archiving of inspection data (Pouliot et al. 2012), field deployments (Montambault et al. 2012;
Pouliot & Montambault 2012), introduction of LIDAR (Laser Interferometry Detection And Ranging)
for obstacle detection (Pouliot et al. 2012; Richard et al. 2014), and reviews of the LineScout technology
for the inspection and maintenance of power lines (Montambault & Pouliot 2012; Pouliot et al. 2015).
In 2014, Hydro-Québec and National Grid signed a licensing agreement for LineScout, where National
Grid obtains the right to use this technology on the UK territory for a period of ten years, and the two
companies are working together to broaden their collaborative approach to strategic research and
development (Hydro-Québec 2014). The technology was also licensed to State Grid Corporation of
China in 2012.
There are 10 LineScout units in use in the world as of today. First deployed in 2006 on live-lines, it has
been deployed more than 70 times, on 8 transmission grids located in 6 countries.
LineVueTM, Kinectrics Inc (Canada)
LineVueTM is an in-situ condition assessment robot (Tsimberg & Pon 2012; Fletcher et al. 2015;
Guglielmini 2012) designed and built by Kinectrics, Inc. (Toronto, Canada) to inspect the steel core
wires of aged ACSR and ACSS conductors on energized or de-energized transmission lines. It can also
be used to inspect overhead steel ground wires (eg. shield wires, earth wires). LineVueTM, shown in
Figure 3.1-2, has the following two (2) main functions:
19
i) to detect corrosion pits and locate broken steel core wires as measured by Local Fault (LF) Channel
ii) to measure the remaining cross-sectional area of the steel core wires in engineering units as
measured by Loss-of-Metallic Area (LMA) Channel
Figure 3.1-2 LineVueTM Robot from Kinectrics

(Picture courtesy of Kinectrics, Inc.)
The robot can be installed i) using a bucket truck or crane, ii) by climbing the tower and hoisting by
rope or iii) by helicopter. It is remotely controlled from the ground and the data is sent via radio signal
to a laptop computer. An on-board camera permits the visual examination of the outer aluminum wires
in real time. The device is composed of a sensing head to measure and record data and a tug to transport
it along the conductor. The device weighs about 32 kg and has dimensions of 90 cm (length) x 35 cm
(width) x 53 cm (height). It can travel along the conductor or ground wire at speeds up to 40 m/minute.
It can inspect single conductors with overall diameters from 15 mm – 45 mm.
An example of the reduced data as they would appear in a report is shown in Figure 3.1-3. The green
areas indicate the steel wires have no corrosion. The yellow and red areas indicate that some degree of
corrosion is present on the steel wires.
LineVueTM was first used commercially in 2008. Since then it has been utilized on many transmission
projects in the United States, Canada, France, Belgium, Spain, Romania and Australia and demonstrated
in Scotland, Germany, Hungary and India. The technology has also been adapted for use on smaller
conductors (eg. 6 mm to 15 mm) typically installed on distribution lines.
The data from LineVueTM can be used for routine maintenance and inspection purposes to inspect
critical spans such as road, railway and river crossings and spans that cross over public areas. The data
can also be used as input to a Health Index as part of an overall Asset Management Program to optimize
the remaining useful life of ACSR and ACSS conductors.
20
Figure 3.1-3 Example of Reduced Data from LineVueTM Robot

(Top: LF Channel, Bottom: LMA Channel)
Expliner, HiBot (Japan)
HiBot Corporation was commissioned in 2005 by the Kansai Electric Power Company to develop a
robot to inspect overhead high-voltage transmission lines up to 500 kV. Together with J-Power Systems
Corporation and the Tokyo Institute of Technology, the Expliner robot shown in Figure 3.1-4 was
developed. Photographs of the first Expliner prototype are available in Debenest et al. 2008. This robot
can inspect the external conditions of conductors with sensors and detect internal corrosion of the steel
core wires by measuring the outer diameter of the conductors (Debenest & Guarnieri 2010). Expliner
can perform very detailed inspections of up to four conductors simultaneously by placing sensor units
around them to acquire images of the entire surface of the conductors using cameras and mirrors. The
Expliner robot can also be used to obtain detailed images of spacers, jumpers, insulator discs and other
components.
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Figure 3.1-4 Expliner Robot from HiBot

(Debenest et al. 2010, © 2010 IEEE)
One particular feature of this robot is their balance control mechanisms developed by HiBot to actively
control the position of its center of mass. This is accomplished by changing the posture of the robot to
enable it to overcome obstacles such as suspension clamps. This permits the robot to cover multiple
spans of multi-conductor transmission lines. The Expliner robot is composed of a T-shaped body made
of carbon fiber, connected to four active wheels on its top (V-shaped motorized pulleys and safety
hooks) and a 2 degree-of-freedom manipulator made of carbon fiber pipes. At the end of the
manipulator there is a counterweight which houses the batteries and electronics. Additional details on
the robot structure and mechanical design are provided in Debenest et al. 2010.
In 2014, Hitachi High-Technologies Corp. and Hitachi High-Tech Fine Systems Corp. entered the
overhead transmission line inspection equipment business through the acquisition of exclusive
distribution rights from HiBot Corporation, to start to build a framework for conducting development,
manufacture and sales activities of the Expliner robot (Hitachi 2014).
AApe, Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)
The Shenyang Institute of Automation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (SIACAS, founded in 1958)
worked on the development of inspection robots, called AApe, for 500 kV power transmission lines
(Wang et al. 2010a; Wang et al. 2010b; Song et al. 2011). Several prototypes of the AApe robots were
produced, such as the AApe-A1 (an inspection robot designed in 2003 for one span) and the AApe-A2
(an inspection robot developed in 2004 for large inclination angle lines). The AApe-B can operate on
overhead ground wires and navigate around different obstacles in remote and locally autonomous
control mode. The AApe-B1 and AApe-B2 versions were developed in 2005 and 2006, respectively.
The AApe-C1 version was an insulator detector and the AApe-C2 version were navigation robots and
were developed in 2007. The AApe-C2 version has a weight of 42 kg and can travel at 1.25 km/h. The
AApe-D version was introduced in a 2012 paper (Song et al. 2012) to repair broken conductor strands.
This mobile platform with specialized tools can travel along a conductor and cross obstacles to approach
the fault location. It can complete the task of returning a broken strand back to the conductor and
fastening the broken location with a specialized clamp. The various versions of the AApe robot are
shown in Figure 3.1-5.
22
Figure 3.1-5 AApe Inspection Robots from SIACAS

(Wang et al. 2010a, © 2010 IEEE; Song et al. 2012, © 2012 IEEE)
The Chinese Academy of Sciences has also presented (Yang et al. 2010a; Yang et al. 2010b; Zhao et
al. 2013) an arm swinging inspection robot shown in Figure 3.1-6 to inspect high voltage transmission
lines. This robot has two multi-joint arms with a claw and a wheel on the top of each arm. The center
of mass is positioned with a counterweight box.
The Chinese Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the Northeastern University in China has
published papers on navigation, path planning and obstacle detection applied to transmission lines (Li
et al. 2013; Zuo et al. 2009; Fang & Wang 2010). A study on the estimation of battery state of charge
applied to a robot inspecting transmission lines is documented in Zhang et al. 2012.
Figure 3.1-6 Arm Swinging Robot from the Chinese Academy of Sciences
(Yang et al. 2010a, © 2010 IEEE)
23
Power Line Inspection Robot (PLIR), University of KwaZulu-Natal and Eskom (South
Africa), Transpower (New Zealand)
In collaboration with Eskom, the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa has been working since
2006 towards developing an alternative method of inspection to reduce the need to dispatch personnel
to inspect power lines. They designed an obstacle avoidance device called the Power Line Inspection
Robot (PLIR) (Rowell & Boje 2012) shown in Figure 3.1-7. PLIR is a light weight robot with 5
actuators (including grippers) and 4 drive actuators with a platform mass and payload of 10 kg each and
a traction force of 200 N (Lorimer & Boje 2012). The robot can navigate around obstacles up to 650 mm
in length and can climb jumper cables. PLIR uses four cameras to detect visible damage with levels of
detail shown in Figure 3.1-8. Work is underway to mount the CoroCAM multispectral camera to PLIR
for live-line inspections. The CoroCAM was developed in South Africa by the CSIR in collaboration
with Eskom. The PLIR was presented at the IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Exposition in
Chicago in April 2014 (University of KwaZulu-Natal 2014).
Figure 3.1-7 Power Line Inspection Robot (PLIR) from the University of KwaZulu-Natal
Figure 3.1-8 Close-up of Line Hardware taken by PLIR
In New Zealand, Transpower is the owner and operator of the National Grid and this robot technology
was demonstrated as a tool that could be used to help detect damage to transmission line conductors
(Transpower 2013; Walters 2013), as shown in Figure 3.1-9.
24
Figure 3.1-9 PLIR Climbing a Jumper Cable on Transpower lines in New Zealand – Overview (left
image); 8 steps of robot navigation on jumper loop (right image)
[Right: Lorimer, T. (2011). The Design and Construction of a Robotic Platform for Power Line
Inspection. Masters Dissertation. Durban, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal]
At the University of Cape Town in South Africa, Patel and Boje (2014) discussed the mechanical design
considerations, with focus on the optimal configuration and gripper design for the development of a
brachiating power line inspection robot. The paper by Boje (2014) describes the design, modeling and
control of the power supply for the PLIR platform that has been developed between Boje, the University
of KwaZulu-Natal and Eskom.
EPRI Transmission Line Inspection Robot (Ti), EPRI (USA)

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Transmission Line Inspection Robot (Ti) shown in Figure
3.1-10 is a fully autonomous robot permanently installed transmission line inspection system. Ti is
intended to identify high risk components that require maintenance, vegetation that needs to be trimmed
and encroachment on the right of way (ie. easement).
Ti traverses the shield wire of the transmission line and is powered by two “trucks” each containing a
set of rollers and a powered wheel between which the shield wire is pinched. During normal operation
the distance between the rollers and the powered wheel is not allowed to increase greater than the
diameter of the conductor by a lock mechanism. Bypass systems are installed on the shield wire at
each of the structures and on any obstacles, e.g. dampers, marker balls, that Ti needs to traverse.
As Ti approaches an obstacle the bypass hardware is identified and the wheel system is unlocked
allowing the distance between the rollers and powered wheel on the first truck to increase or decrease
until the first truck passes the obstacle. Once the first truck has passed the obstacle the roller/powered
wheel set on the second truck will be unlocked so that it can pass the obstacle.
Ti contains embedded algorithms to process the data from the various sensors and create alarms which
will notify utility information technology systems. Four redundant RF communication systems are used
to communicate and control Ti. An inspection protocol is loaded into Ti utilizing a remote server, e.g.
number of structures to inspect in a day and what inspection protocol to deploy. Once loaded into Ti
the inspection is implemented, Ti only reports anomalties found. A full dataset can be downloaded
from Ti via the RF links if requested.
25
Bypass system installed on suspension clamp Demonstration of Ti Robot showing sensors

Figure 3.1-10 Ti Robot and Example of Ti Bypass System
Three internal ballistic resistant Lithium Polymer Batteries are utilised to store energy for operation.
The robot recharges when inspection conditions are not optimal, e.g. at night, by contacting a grounded
plate on a local structure utilizing a mechanical arm. A circuit is then formed between the isolated
shield wire and the structure which enable charging of the batteries. Ti also has built-in solar panels
which are designed for a slow charge if an unforseen condition is encountered
A technology demonstrator unit was built and fully tested in 2012 and 2013 on a test loop at the EPRI
High Voltage Test Laboratory in Lenox, MA. In 2013/2014 a prototype unit was built and tested.
Testing was performed both at Lenox and on a real 138 kV test line in Ohio in 2014 and 2015, under
both energized and de-energized conditions. In 2015 the first commercial unit was built for deployment
in 2016 on the 138kV transmission line in Ohio, USA on 53 miles of a 138kV transmission line which
has been constructed “Robot Ready”, i.e. bypass system installed ready for receiving the Ti robot.
LineROVer, Hydro-Québec (Canada)
The LineROVer, shown in Figure 3.1-11, is the first technology developed by the Hydro-Québec’s
Research Institute (IREQ) for maintenance purposes on overhead transmission lines. It was first
deployed on a live-line in 2000 to visually inspect line components. This robot was initially designed
for deicing purpose after the famous ice storm that hit Hydro-Québec facilities in 1998 but because of
the difficulties and challenges to install it on a real conductor during icing events, it appeared later that
its capabilities are more relevant to line inspection. LineROVer technology was licensed to the
Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (SEPRI). Additional developments on the technology are
documented in Zhao et al. (2010).
Besides visual information, the mobile platform can i) perform infrared imaging, ii) measure the
electrical resistance of splices and iii) repair broken strands by installing temporary clamps. LineROVer
can de-ice ground wires and is a key tool in the cradle-block stringing method aiming at replacing
conductors and ground wires. Finally, an ACSR corrosion detection probe, called LineCore, was
developed and integrated to the LineROVer capabilities to assess power lines. As of 2015, 7
LineROVers are in use worldwide.
26
Figure 3.1-11 LineROVer Robot from Hydro-Québec

(Photo courtesy of IREQ, © Hydro-Québec)
Conductor Corrosion Assessment System (CCAS), Shannon Technology (Canada)
Shannon Technology has developed a Conductor Corrosion Assessment System (CCAS) robot
(https://www.youtube.com/user/SHANNONTECHNOLOGY) shown in Figure 3.1-12 for measuring
the remaining zinc on galvanized steel core wires of ACSR conductors. This robot travels along
transmission line conductors and collects data. Data are produced indicating the loss of zinc
galvanizing.
The CCAS process defines the condition of conductors by collecting data from scans taken at intervals
along the circuit totaling 10% of the length of the circuit. Each individual span tested is analyzed to
assess its condition profile using a four number system (see Table 3.1-1) and these profiles are combined
to provide an assessment of the circuit. The Grade relates the amount of zinc remaining on the steel
core to a corrosion reference model created for the conductor being tested.
Figure 3.1-12 CCAS Robot from Shannon Technology

(Photo from YouTube 2012a)
27
Table 3.1-1 Range of CCAS Assessment (http://www.shannontechnology.com/data.htm)
3.2 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES (UAVS)

Routine inspections and asset condition assessment in many cases are carried out using helicopters with
trained personnel to capture information for an intended purpose. As another tool to help meet customer
requirements for availability and reliability, the application of robots to automate the inspection of
transmission line assets is of increasing interest to electric power utilities, as this work is performed
while the transmission lines are energized. Currently, electric power utilities are interested in
investigating the technology of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as they give clear images and unique
inspection view when they fly close to the transmission lines. The current state of the art for UAVs can
be described as an autonomously controlled flying device that operates close to the transmission line
assets. Overall, the development of UAVs is in its infancy stage for transmission line asset
management. The focus of the majority of UAVs today is toward military applications. Robots of this
type have achieved autonomous operation as they have been able to verify their own position as they
fly and wirelessly transmit images to ground. The main applications include:
• Visual inspections by different types of cameras
 Live and ground conductors and other transmission line components,
• Power line corridor monitoring and high risk vegetation encroachment
 Algorithms developed for individual tree crown detection and delineation,
 Evaluation of machine learning techniques for object-based tree species classification,
 Algorithm developed for automatic power line detection from aerial imagery and LiDAR
point clouds.
The development of UAVs is very active as more and more prototypes are being built and more players
are expected to enter the market as service providers or technology users. For instance, electric utilities
have faced severe challenges related to the industry deregulation which has resulted in additional efforts
for the operations efficiency and cost reduction. This, among other conditions, has driven the
development of UAVs for the inspection of power transmission lines.
The limitations or barriers for UAVs, which prevent them from wide deployment are:
• Risk of sudden crash of the device,
• Unexpected environment changes like wind gusts,
• Invasion of privacy,
• Rules and regulations from aviation agencies,
 In some countries, before using a UAV, a flight plan approval is required with associated
time delay for approval process.
Currently, there are thousands of different models of UAVs. The intention of this Section is not to list
them all as it would be irrelevant to the reader. Instead, this Section deals with the following
classification of UAVs:
28
 Fixed-Wing Aircraft
 Helicopter
 Multicopter
A general description, operating range, and useful applications for overhead lines maintenance are given
for each UAV in order to provide an overview of each type.
Regulatory rules
In summary, every country has different rules for UAV flights. The legislation process is dynamic and
only general comments can be given here. For details, the relevant regulations of the country have to
be consulted.
Many countries are differentiating between hobby or sport activities, military activities and commercial
applications. The weight and height above ground are limited typically to 10 kg and 100 m above
ground, respectively. Special regulations apply in the vicinity of airports and residential areas. A fully
autonomous mode is only allowed under certain conditions and under the supervision of a human who
can visually observe the UAV and is able to override the autonomous flight at any time.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Most commercially available Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are fixed-wing aircraft and have
payload capacities ranging from 1 kg to more than 200 kg. The common characteristic of fixed-wing
aircraft is that it uses the speed of the aircraft to generate lift. The propulsion of the UAV is generated
by an electric or gas engine depending on the size of the aircraft, its payload and the operating range.
An example of a fixed-wing aircraft is shown in Figure 3.2-1.
Figure 3.2-1 Example of Fixed-Wing Aircraft
General Description
Fixed-wing aircraft consists of a main wing and one or two tail wings. The engine is usually located
behind the main wing or at the rear of the aircraft for Y-tail configurations. This design permits more
stability with crosswinds and better control at high operating speeds.
For long range operation autonomous flight is usually considered. Other solutions could be based on
video control of the aircraft or operation following prefixed reference (ie “way”) points and basic radar
signals. More elaborate control systems can be found in military applications but are much more
expensive than commercially available systems.
Take-off and landing techniques are influenced by the total weight and power of the aircraft.
29
For take-off, there are two main techniques:

1. A launch structure is fixed to another vehicle (eg. truck) or is assembled on the ground. The
plane is accelerated using an elastic element to obtain a high initial speed.
2. A runway is used in a manner similar to conventional commercial aircraft. This technique is
more common in heavy aerial robots.
For landing, there are three main techniques:

1. A special grip is used to capture the aircraft in flight without damaging the aircraft.
2. Parachutes that open when the aircraft is at the desired landing area.
3. A landing strip is used for heavy aircraft.
Landing is further complicated if the aircraft has to brake on the landing strip. The aircraft sensors and
control system must know its altitude and speed with respect to the ground with a high degree of
accuracy. The aircraft also needs a very sophisticated control unit in order to maintain the correct pitch
and roll.
A launch structure and reception grid is most commonly used for maintenance of OHTL.
Operating Range
Examples of fixed-wing aircraft are shown in Figure 3.2-2 and Figure 3.2-3. They can operate with a
wide range of cruising speeds. There are many commercial fixed-wing aircraft with cruising speeds
over 30 m/s and payloads over 10 kg. Maximizing speed is not normally a concern for maintenance
applications. The main characteristic of fixed-wing aircraft for maintenance applications is the
minimum cruising speed. This is typically 10 m/s. Some aircraft operate below 10 m/s but with a
smaller payload of about 2–3 kg.
Figure 3.2-2 AAI Aerosonde

(Cruise Speed 27 m/s, Payload 8 kg)
Figure 3.2-3 Aerovironment Global Observer

(Cruise speed 8.3 m/s, Payload 2 kg)
30
Useful Applications for Overhead Lines Maintenance

The main drawback of fixed-wing aircraft for transmission line maintenance applications is the
requirement of a minimum operating speed. This could be a disadvantage when performing line
inspections. Reduced accuracy is the main problem when detailed inspections are required of line
components. On the other hand, fixed-wing aircraft can operate in adverse weather conditions and can
travel to remote locations in a relatively short period of time.
Fixed-wing aircraft offers quick identification of the location of any failures along the inspected line.
Using a lightweight camera the operator can view the line and quickly assess the situation.
The range of surveillance at normal cruising speeds enables fixed-wing aircraft to be used for LIDAR
applications. LIDAR allows 3D models of the overhead line and surrounding environment to be
obtained. This feature is important for managing vegetation on the line right-of-way. Typically, flights
are made about 200 m above the line and at about 18 m/s.
Helicopter
This Section describes the use of unmanned helicopters as an alternative to conventional manned
helicopters in the maintenance of overhead lines.
A helicopter is a mechanical system with two rotors that provide the operation support and direction.
The position and relative size of these rotors can vary but it is common to use a principal rotor and a
secondary smaller rotor in the tail. An example of an unmanned helicopter for transmission line
maintenance is shown in Figure 3.2-4.
3.2.2.1 General Description

For maintenance of overhead lines, helicopters are used to obtain bigger payloads than that provided by
multicopters which are described in Section 3.2.3. On the other hand, multicopters generally provide
safer flights although they require more complicated control systems especially those powered by
gasoline.
31
The common configuration of helicopters powered by gasoline is to use a secondary tail rotor. For
lighter payloads, the use of multicopters powered by electrical motors is more practical.
As solid state technology evolves, the required payload continues to decrease. This trend is expected
to continue. This, together with advances in the design and manufacture of batteries, allows for smaller
and lighter electric helicopters to be used for more applications.
Components of Helicopter System
The helicopter system consists of two major subsystems:
1. Air-Based Subsystem is composed of:
i) Mechanical system with main rotor and tail rotor as found in conventional helicopters
ii) Flight control system (FCS) is based on an Inertial Navigation System (INS)
combined with a Global Positioning System (GPS) which allows autonomous
navigation of the helicopter
iii) Communication system that allows control of the helicopter from a ground station
and transfer of information from the helicopter by telemetry
iv) Stabilized imaging system that eliminates vibration caused by the mechanical system
and provides high resolution video
2. Ground-Based System shown in Figure 3.2-5 and Figure 3.2-6, is composed of a:
i) Vehicle equipped with communications hardware and mission computers that serve
as transport for the helicopter
ii) Communication system which allows control of the helicopter navigation system
and camera
iii) Mission computer enabling flight planning, tracking and possible modification
Figure 3.2-5 Mission Computers Figure 3.2-6 Ground System Vehicle
3.2.2.2 Operating Range

Unmanned helicopters (Figure 3.2-7) powered by gasoline permit large operating ranges. The maximum
takeoff weight is between 25 kg and 100 kg with a payload + fuel between 10 kg and 50 kg. This
requires an engine with a power between 8 hp and 25 hp. It is common to use a two-stroke engine with
a displacement between 50 cc and 125 cc.
The operating range is influenced by several factors such as altitude, payload required, temperature,
wind speed, etc. However, it is common to obtain ranges of autonomy between 1 and 2 hours.
For maintenance applications it is not important to fly at high speeds. That is the reason why the general
design focuses on maneuverability and stability of the helicopter during its flight. The typical operation
speed is between 8 m/s – 14 m/s.
32
The typical diameter of the main rotor is between 1.80 meters and 3.5 meters.
Unmanned helicopters are operated in two principal modes:

i) Manual mode: the helicopter is operated from the control unit using the information sent by
the helicopter (video and inertial position data). Carrying out the operation of the helicopter by
simple direct observation is not possible since the operation range is quite large and the
coordination of every input could be very complicated.
ii) Autonomous mode: the helicopter operates alone following previously recorded “way-points”.
It is common that the helicopter have additional security routings to avoid impacts. Magnetic
field sensors are used to determinate the proximity to live conductors and radar sensors to detect
obstacles.
The safety parameters for unmanned helicopters are very important. It is operating with a weight up to
100 kg of which 20 kg is highly flammable gasoline. Fully autonomous mode is not recommended near
populated or industrial areas.
The flight control system allows autonomous navigation using an Inertial Navigation System combined
with a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). Based on these sensors, a microprocessor
system provides the navigation solution and the automatic flight control according to a predetermined
path by “way-points”. All the control software operate on a real-time operating system.
The flight control system has a navigation module which is activated in the presence of magnetic fields.
This allows safe navigation if magnetic field levels exceed a threshold when close to power lines. The
system is able to detect magnetic field levels and activate a greater weight navigation inertial data during
this phase of flight.
A typical communication system shown in Figure 3.2-8 between the ground station and the helicopter
allows control of the helicopter during flight. This is done by:
i) sending commands
ii) monitoring status information (eg. Position, velocity, altitude) and telemetry data operation
(eg. Rpm, temperature, fuel levels, etc)
iii) sending video information from the image sensors and the control
33
GPS
Unmanned
Helicopter Telemetry
Camera
Image
Flight
control
Camera
control
Differential
GPS
Figure 3.2-8 Communication System - Ground Control Station
3.2.2.3 Useful Applications for Overhead Lines Maintenance

Unmanned helicopters are ideally suited for long distance aerial inspections with heavy sensor
equipment. This is the best platform to obtain very high resolution videos since distances about 20 – 50
meters provides high speed operation range. They can operate with a gyro-stabilized camera and a high
optical zoom factor system. It is possible to obtain high resolution images of many tower components
from the same position in the air. These images are telemetered to the ground control station for further
processing.
Multicopter
This Section describes the technology and application of multicopters, also called “quadro-“ “hexa”- or
“octo-“ copter according to the number of rotors or simply “UAV “or “copter”. Figure 3.2-9 shows a
typical multicopter with six rotors.
The definition of a multicopter is a flying platform with three or more rotors. In contrast to helicopters
or fixed-wing aircraft, multicopters normally have no mechanical moving parts other than the rotors.
They are capable of flying in every direction without a preferred direction like other aircraft. They are
controlled by varying the speeds of the rotors.
Multicopters have gained strong public and technical interest in different fields. Due to the availability
of powerful lightweight batteries, small and inexpensive sensors for flight stability/navigation and
effective brushless motors the development of multicopters is very dynamic. Multicopters are
controversial as far as the public is concerned. On one hand, they are regarded as dangerous (military
drones, spy attacks), however on the other hand they can provide unique usage to public participants,
such as hobby aviators/photographers, techno geeks, etc.
The application of multicopters for overhead transmission line inspections will evolve very fast in the
coming years. Today there are several pilot-projects worldwide to determine the opportunities for
applications.
34
General Description
Multicopters are not able to keep a self-stable flight attitude. Therefore they are equipped with
gyroscopes, acceleration sensors and magnetometers together with flight control circuits which keep
the copter in a stable flight-position. They are typically battery powered and use electric motors.
Gasoline-powered copters and hybrid drives are much less common because of their larger weight
compared to electric copters. The size of multicopters is in the range of centimeters to several meters in
diameter. Typical dimensions of multicopters suitable for overhead lines are in the range of about 0.5-
1.5 m. Smaller platforms are not able to carry the necessary payload. Greater platforms are difficult to
navigate between phase conductors. The number of rotors of a multicopter plays an important role
regarding flight safety. Three or four rotors are needed for stable flight but failure of one motor/propeller
will lead to a crash. With at least 5 or more rotors, one or two motor failures will prevent crashes.
Multicopters are at least remote-controlled with radio transmitters, often they are equipped with GNSS
navigation controls. Some advanced research platforms already have collision controls, automatic take-
off and landing procedures and LIDAR systems for 3D-mapping
Operating Range
Weights and dimensions

Flight time and payload with respect to total weight are reciprocal interacting factors for multicopters.
State-of-the-art flight times are between 20-60 minutes with payloads of 3 to 0.5 kg. Payload means all
equipment such as cameras, sensors, measuring hardware, etc., which is not needed for the flight
management. Typical speeds of 3-10m/s result in operating ranges of 4-35 km. For inspection flights,
this range will be reduced drastically due to the time needed for measuring and observation tasks. Also
crosswinds or headwinds and a return flight to the starting place and some spare energy for emergencies
will further decrease the net range.
Battery Technologies and Recharging Strategy
The onboard battery is normally a Li-ion or Li-polymer type. The capacity to weight ratio of these
batteries is progressing very quickly. This will lead to an increase in flight time and payload in the
future. To extend range and operating time, a change of batteries is a possible strategy and much faster
than recharging on site.
Robustness
Humidity and wind are the most severe challenges for multicopters. Typically they are not waterproof
although some multicopters can withstand light rain and humidity. The normal temperature range is
between -20°C and 40°C. The design must take into account a substantial loss of battery power in a
cold environment. Ultraviolet and solar radiation can lead to overheating of the electronics. As vibration
and mechanical shocks cannot be avoided during flight, the complete system has to be designed
accordingly. Wind can be a problem for multicopters if the wind speed is too high or wind gusts disturb
the precision of a stable position in the air. Manufacturers claim flight stability up to about 10m/s.
Special care should be taken on the protection of antennas, sensors and sensitive electronic parts.
Navigation
Three general modes of navigation are common for the operation of multicopters:
1. Manual (Radio-controlled) mode. In this mode the multicopter is controlled by a person with
a transmitter, typically from the ground. For this mode, some experience is needed in
controlling and positioning the multicopter. Even for professional pilots it is very difficult to
precisely position a multicopter in three dimensions at a height of 50-80m. This would be
typical for transmission lines. With the aid of first person view systems (FPV-systems) this can
be improved substantially. A basic FPV system consists of a camera and a video transmitter on
the multicopter with a video receiver and a real time display on the ground via a monitor or
35
video goggles. More advanced setups commonly add in specialized hardware including on-
screen displays with GPS navigation and flight data, stabilization systems, and autopilot
devices.
2. Semi-autonomous mode. In this mode GNSS-waypoint coordinates and flight routes are
programmed before the flight by means of suitable maps. With the exception of take-off and
landing, the flight procedure to the waypoints is automatic. At the defined waypoints, actions
can be initiated, e.g. photos taken or sensor recordings. The operator is able to interrupt the
autonomous mode at any time and the multicopter is always in sight. Also in this mode a trained
pilot is needed. Mode 1 and 2 are the only modes allowed for UAVs in many countries.
3. Fully autonomous mode. In this mode the complete flight is performed without human help
or interactions. A typical scenario with regard to overhead line maintenance is the take-off of
the multicopter at a defined place at a defined time or a start command by the operator. System
start, aircraft start, flight to the line, inspection of the line, and return to a defined place is
performed fully automatically. For this mode neither an operator nor supervision by humans is
needed. However knowledge for the flight planning and the analysis of the results is required.
As mentioned, this mode is not allowed in most countries or needs special permission by
authorities. Also special navigation aids and emergency procedures are necessary for this type
of flight.
Safety and Reliability

As for all aircraft, safety and reliability are extremely important factors. These factors mainly
distinguish the majority of hobby-models from industrial multicopters. The multicopter has to be
designed, tested and operated in a professional way. Robustness should be prioritized when selecting
components. Emergency procedures should be implemented in the flight management. This includes
automatic landing procedures in a safe environment, battery management and behavior in case of
disturbance of communication systems or internal failures. Another useful feature is a side-protection
of the propellers as a safety against human interaction and obstacles (Figure 3.2-9).
Figure 3.2-9 Exemple of Hexacopter with Propeller Side Protection and Camera for Visual
Inspections (Diameter about 1 meter)
Telecommunication Systems
As far as regulatory regulations are concerned, only weight, size and power consumption will limit the
operation of communication systems. For remote controlled operation and supervision of fully
36
autonomous flights, a reliable and redundant system is mandatory. For the transmission of inspection
data sent from the multicopter to the control station broadband links should be established with regard
to images or video data streaming.
Useful Applications for Overhead Lines Maintenance

This Section demonstrates the special requirements for multicopters used for overhead line maintenance
and shows the technical possibilities for inspection.
Video and Photo Inspection

Most applications of multicopters are visual inspection with photos or videos. A camera on board takes
images of the components of interest such as towers, insulators, conductors and accessories. Later these
images or videos are analyzed for damages and the need for maintenance. In some cases the inspection
is done on-line, meaning the components are observed during the flight, e.g. with video-goggles, giving
the opportunity to observe suspicious spots in detail.
The quality of the images is dependent on the camera, the distance to the line and to some extent the
weather (natural light) and the stability of flight (vibrations). Due to the size of multicopters, different
perspectives very near the line or tower can be chosen. For manual flight mode, the distances are
typically in the range of 5-20m due to limitations of the perspective and experience of the controller. In
connection with a high resolution camera and zooming possibilities this gives already acceptable results
in most cases (Figure 3.2-10).
Figure 3.2-10 Typical In-flight Inspection Image

(Left: Original recording, Right: Zoomed for analysis)
Multispectral Images
In addition to normal images, pictures (Figures 3.2-11 and 3.2-12) in the infrared (IR) and ultra-violet
(UV) spectrum can be taken. IR images are taken of insulators and conductors. Hot spots due to
pollution on the insulator surface or weak connectors on the wires can be detected. UV images will
reveal corona discharges which can originate from damaged conductor strands or from mechanical
damage to the insulators. Regarding the camera weight it is not a problem to find suitable and robust
IR-camera-modules. The use of multicopters with IR-modules is increasing in the field of PV-
maintenance showing polluted or damaged modules.
37
Overheating
Corona activity
Figure 3.2-11 IR and UV Image Overlay (Stolper et al. 2007)
Corona
Activity
Figure 3.2-12 Corona Discharges Due to Heavy Pollution

(Overlaid UV and visible recording) (Vasquez-Arnez et al. 2007)
Electromagnetic Field Tests

The first and most important constraint when flying near overhead lines is electromagnetic interference.
This is especially true when the UAV is getting closer and closer to the transmission line to get better
images. The onboard electronics, communication systems, antennas, sensors and cameras are subjected
to electric and magnetic fields with operating frequency and high amplitudes. Corona discharges
produce high frequency disturbances which can lead to RC-signal loss. Protection elements, grounding
and shielding strategies can prevent over-voltages and internal discharges. These are already
incorporated in the design of circuit boards. The geometric design should minimize corona effects at
the conductive housings and proper conductive mechanical connections of the multicopter can protect
the sensitive electronics.
38
The suitability for overhead line maintenance should be verified by a type test in a high voltage
laboratory. At least three kinds of tests should be applied:
1. Electric field test with operating frequency (no load, only voltage).
2. Magnetic field test with operating frequency (no high-voltage, only high current).
3. Transient field test (standard lightning impulse, full wave or chopped wave).
A typical test arrangement is a conductor (single or bundle) several meters above ground. The
multicopter is positioned near the line at a distance which represents the minimum approach to the line
in the field, for example one meter. All flight and recording systems should be running and monitored.
The multicopter itself does not need to fly but the motors should be running. It can be positioned and
fixed on a suitable insulator preventing crashes or damages in the case of test damages.
For the first test the voltage should be increased to the maximum phase to earth voltage, depending on
the lines which will be inspected. A small needle on the conductor just across from the multicopter will
produce corona interferences. For the second test the line should be energized by a high current (with
very low voltage), representing the maximum operating currents for the lines, which will be inspected,
typically 1-4 kA for transmission lines. In contrast to the first test, the multicopter will now be stressed
by magnetic fields. Both tests should be performed for at least one minute. The third test should be
performed with standard lightning impulses to demonstrate the withstand capability against transient
impulses. The amplitude is chosen according to the system basic insulation level voltages, in the range
of some hundred kV up to MV, depending on the system voltage. This test should be performed a few
times with alternating polarities. Figure 3.2-13 shows a test arrangement for test 1 where a pre-discharge
from the line to the multicopter has been provoked. This is an extreme test for the electronic systems.
The tests are passed when all critical systems are running without failure or interruption.
In practice the magnetic field tests often proved to be critical. Due to induced voltages, processor resets
or damages can occur. Also the “compass-sensor” the magnetometer, which is used in many
multicopters, measuring the magnetic earth-field direction, is influenced by this test, leading to
navigation and flight control errors.
Figure 3.2-13 High Voltage AC-test of a Multicopter with Pre-discharge Between Phase Conductor
and Multicopter Housing (Claudi et al. 2011)
39
UAV type Selection

A specific type of UAV must be used to suit the purpose. Table 3.2-1 lists the types of UAV with the
maintenance activities.
Table 3.2-1 Types of UAV with Maintenance Activities
Fixed-Wing Aircraft Helicopter Multicopter

Fast recognition in case of Intensive inspection in long
break-down section of OHTL Specific inspection in any
(75 towers per day). component of OHTL
LIDAR applications. RGB videos, corona inspection, (1 or 2 towers per day).

Topography and vegetation IR inspection. RGB videos, corona inspection,
managing IR inspection.
Pilot cable laying
There are two main types of unmanned UAV’s commonly used. They are gasoline-powered helicopters
and electric-powered multicopters. The advantages of each are listed in Table 3.2-2.
Table 3.2-2 Advantages of Gasoline Helicopters and Electrical Multicopters
Advantages of Gasoline Helicopters Advantages of Electrical Multicopters
Bigger payload Operation Costs
Stability in adverse weather conditions Fly next to the live conductors
Autonomy on range operation Easy operations control and safe operation
Fast for long stretches inspections Fast response time for punctual inspections
3.3 GROUND BASED ROBOTS

The significant increase in live-line work requirements within the OHTL Industry has stimulated the
development and use of robotic devices within the industry. The main benefits or aims of these devices
are to increase safety to field personnel and minimize the risk to power system reliability when
performing live-line work. This Section will review existing and developing robotic technologies with
respect to ground-based robots.
This review captures the technical features of ground-based robots. For ground-based robotics, the main
focus is on the capture and control of energised conductors and carrying out tasks to provide safe
working areas for line men as well as keeping the lines energised during the projects. The key
development area is additional capacity for the robotic devices.
Technology Description of Ground-Based Robots

Much of the development has focussed around robotics arms for the manipulation and control of
energised conductors. Examples of these are described in the following sections.
40
3.3.1.1 Three Phase Pick Robotic Arm (LinemasterTM)

The technology of ground-based robots is mature with more than 15 years of project experience around
the world and is protected by numerous patents (O’Connel & Devine 1996; Franciscus & Van Den
Brink 2009). The projects in which ground-based robots have been used include the replacement of
structures, change conductors, insulators, cross arms, structure arms in which the line and the load are
critical. Some of the factors that influence the justification to perform live work using robots for
energized transmission line work are listed in Table 3.3-1 (Elizondo et al. 2011; Elizondo et al. 2010a;
Elizondo et al. 2010b).
Table 3.3-1 Factors Influencing Justification for Using Robots on Energized Transmission Lines
Ref Factor Factor Description

1 Safety Safety considerations for the job. The historical records around
the world have shown that work under energized conditions have
proven to be as safe as de-energized work.
2 Maintenance Specific task to be executed (structure replacement, re-
activity conductoring, etc.)
3 Infrastructure The condition of the transmission infrastructure, for example :
condition corrosion.
4 Asset owner Energized work enables the work to be performed when needed
savings without an outage required, for an optimal use of mobilized
equipment and crews as jobs could be done in succession.
5 Reliability The impact of an outage on the overall system reliability.
Common metrics used are: congestion, unserved energy, loss of
load probability, cost of serving load, nodal and zonal locational
marginal prices (LMPs).
6 Public Image Energized work does not disrupt customer service
7 Switching Risk Prevents the risk of wrong switching due to grounding
requirements
Due to the factors listed in Table 3.3-1, the many benefits from using ground-based robots has prompted
an increase of energized work in transmission lines and substations.
Quanta Services has developed an innovative ground-based robot, which features a three phase pick
robotic arm (LinemasterTM) that has now been utilized in energized work around the world. There are
two versions of the robotic arm which is generally mounted to a truck (see Figure 3.3-1).
41
Figure 3.3-1 Two Three Phase Pick Robotic Arms in Operation © Quanta Services.
Quanta’s LineMaster™ robotic arm was developed to address specific live-line procedures, such as the
replacement of rotten poles utilizing the existing hole (especially in rock) and reframing and re-
insulating structures, which are typically difficult to execute with traditional live-line tools like
hotsticks.
The robotic arm can be defined as a ground-based, remotely-controlled device that is used to capture
and control energized transmission line conductors in a safe and efficient manner for voltages up to 500
kV. The remote control is implemented by a radio controller consisting of a portable transmitter and
two receivers. The control signal has a unique 16 bit digital code exchanged between transmitter and
receiver, which guarantees protection against other sources of radiation. Control of the insulated arm is
either via hydraulic power from a remote hydraulic power source, or may be directly powered by the
hydraulic tool ports of a line truck or aerial lift device.
The technology behind Quanta Energized Services’ robotic arm is protected by more than 50 patents
that document the details of the boom-mountable robotic arm, procedures for energized reconductor
work, and methods and apparatus for live conductor stringing and splicing, among other practices. A
number of patents are listed and can be found in O’Connel & Devine 1996; Franciscus & Van Den
Brink 2009. The robotic arm can be mounted to the truck boom or can also be mounted on crane type
vehicles.
3.3.1.2 Single Pick Robotic Arm

The Single Pick Robotic Arm was designed to handle higher conductor sizes and weights, and is used
to remotely capture and control a single phase at a time. Many of these technologies have been used
extensively within the USA and South Africa. See Figure 3.3-2.
42
Figure 3.3-2 Single Pick Used to Sustain a Double Conductor © Quanta Services.
A particular scenario for this kind of intervention is the emergency repair and support for conductors
when a new structure is not available in a timely manner.
3.3.1.3 Main Robotic Arm Applications and Capabilities
The main applications and capabilities of the LineMaster™ robotic arm are listed in Table 3.3-2.
Table 3.3-2 Main Applications and Capabilities of the LineMaster™ Robotic Arm
Ref Application Description

1 Transmission structure repair and replacement
2 Insulator replacement
3 Reconductoring
4 Replacing line spacers
5 Addition of circuits to structures
6 Selective substation repairs at energized base load generation plants,
including nuclear plants
7 Emergency repairs and support for conductors when a new structure is
not available in a timely manner
The LineMaster™ robotic arm can be utilized in a variety of transmission line configurations. The arm
can safely capture and support conductors weighing as little as 500 lbs per phase or as great as 2500 lbs
per phase (with the utilization of three phase arms). Quanta Energized Services has developed and uses
a Single Lift Arm which can safely capture and support transmission conductors, single or 2 bundle, up
to 5000 lbs. The arm can be configured to match the existing structure framing and then move the
conductors (through hydraulic forces) away from the structure for safe removal or re-framing of the
structure. All this can be accomplished while the line is energized. The Single Pick Robotic Arm can
be utilized up to 500kV.
Specific examples of projects in which the LineMaster™ robotic arm has been used are shown in
Figures 3.3-3, 3.3-4 and 3.3-5.
43
Figure 3.3-3 138 kV double dead-end structure replacement utilizing the LineMaster™ – Chicago,
IL. © Quanta Services.
Figure 3.3-4 138 kV tower upgrade utilizing the LineMaster™ – Chicago, IL. © Quanta Services
44
Figure 3.3-5 5000 lb capacity Single Lift Arm used on 230 kV structure in Delaware. © Quanta
Services.
3.3.1.4 Further Technology Development
Quanta Energized Services is currently working on a robotic device that will provide “tension” on a
wire; however, the hydraulic power supply is ground-based or “plugged” into an aerial lift device. This
technology will be used for dead-end insulator changes. Quanta Energized Services estimates that the
technology should be available soon.
3.3.1.5 Phase Lifter
The LineWise Hydraulic Phase Lifter (Diversified Product Development 2016) is another type of
ground based robotic device capable of energized work. The Phase Lifter, shown in Figure 3.3-6 is an
insulated crane attachment used to support up to three energized phases. It is adjustable to both
horizontal and vertical positions and capable of 1500lb vertical load and 225lb side load per phase. The
Phase Lifter has a max spacing of 14.5ft/29ft with the hydraulic articulation controlled by remote. The
folding arms allow for easier storage on the side of the crane while also giving the ability to lock in the
open and folded positions. The Phase Lifter has sealed fiberglass arms. Either industry standard “Line
Post Polymer” insulators or sealed fiberglass insulators can be attached to the Phase Lifter. The
insulators can be attached quickly with no tools required. The Phase Lifter is highly adjustable with
adapter links slotted to allow setting the Phase Lifter angle to ground level and a crane boom angle from
50-80° for both horizontal and vertical builds.
45
Figure 3.3-6 LineWise Phase Lifter in Horizontal Orientation
3.3.2 Robotic Pole Manipulator

This is a design concept postulated in the academic paper compiled by Turner & Wilson (2012).
This concept was developed for wooden poles up to 55ft length. This truck mounted concept was
identified and developed to eliminate injuries and near misses associated with the handling of power
poles near overhead lines and in congested, urban environments. At the time of this brochure this
concept was yet to be formally developed.
3.4 OTHER TYPES OF ROBOTS

In spite of the recent developments in robots for inspection and maintenance of OHTL, there are still
some components that remain mostly off-limits to robots. Towers, insulators and jumper lines are some
of the key components of the OHTL infrastructure that may require the use of robots for inspection and
maintenance, when not easily accessible from ground-based or airborne systems. Previous works in this
field have proved that instead of trying to develop an omni-potent robotic system able to overcome all
possible obstacles and perform a wide range of tasks, it is more realistic to restrict the scope of task and
focus on practical systems for specific environments. Therefore, this Section will describe machines
developed for less-conventional works, such as tower/pole climbing and insulator inspection.
Climbing Robots
Most of the work carried out in climbing robots has been aimed at pole-climbing. These ingenious
concepts may only be applicable to OHTLs in countries where poles (wood, concrete, composite or
steel) are utilized.
It is interesting to note that many of these robots employ the principle of snake-like locomotion,
developed first by Prof. Hirose in 1972. Among these, the Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) snake
46
robots developed by Shapiro (2007) display impressive mobility for climbing poles of varying
diameters and trees (Fig. 3.4-1).
Figure 3.4-1 CMU’s Tree-climbing Snake-like Robot (Shapiro 2007)
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) demonstrated the CMU snake robot and it was able not
only to climb vertical poles, but also to overcome insulator discs. A camera mounted in its front module
allows it to acquire images of the insulator discs, making it a potential tool for insulator disc inspection,
as shown in Figure 3.4-2. Although the snake robot successfully travelled over these components, it
was ultimately determined that the potential benefit compared to cost was not sufficient to justify the
development compared to other available technologies.
Figure 3.4-2 EPRI’s Snake-like Robot

(Left: Climbing a Pole, Right: Inspecting Insulators)
However, when it comes to high-voltage towers, snake-like robots no longer seem to be practical
options to overcome the large diameter of steel tube towers, or (more commonly) the complex structure
of lattice towers. For the former case, Helical Robotics has developed a series of untethered robots able
to climb metallic surfaces (Figure 3.4-3), employed mostly for maintenance of wind turbines.
International Climbing Machines has developed tethered robots that make use of vacuum to climb also
non-metallic towers (Figure 3.4-4).
47
Figure 3.4-3 Metallic Surface Climbing Robot Figure 3.4-4 Tower-climbing Robot from
from Helical Robotics International Climbing Machines
For lattice towers, there seems to be no robotic system available as a product. Among the research works
in this field, one promising robot is Prof. Hirose’s Anchor-Climber (Suzuki et al. 2008), which consists
of a group of swarm robots connected by tethers able to operate on metallic surfaces with a certain
degree of unevenness (Figure 3.4-5).
Figure 3.4-5 Anchor-Climber
Insulator Robots
One of the first attempts to develop a practical robot for insulator cleaning was Insulator Washer-I,
developed by Prof. Shigeo Hirose in 1995 (Hirose & Aoki 1995). Since that point, it took approximately
48
10 years until Korea Electric Power Research Institute developed a field robot for live line inspection
of insulators (Cho et al. 2006), although employing a different principle, as shown in Figure 3.4-6. This
robot was developed for 345kV power transmission lines live-line insulator dry cleaning with brushes.
Figure 3.4-6 Live-line Insulator Cleaning Robot (Korea Electric Power Research Institute)
Following the same direction, a few years later Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) developed
a robot for live line inspection of suspension insulator strings, as shown in Figure 3.4-7. The robot
measures the insulation resistance and the voltage distribution along the insulator (Park et al. 2010).
Figure 3.4-7 Live-line Insulator Inspection Robot (Korea Electric Power Corporation)
Following the development of a handheld hotstick operated tool, called the live-line working non-
ceramic insulator (LWNCI) tool, to assess the condition of composite insulators prior to live work, EPRI
has undertaken a project to replace the use of a hotstick with a robot. Hotstick based LWNCI tool
applied a high frequency high voltage across a 300mm section of the composite insulator hotstick and
measures the resonant and capacitive response (CIGRE Technical Brochure #545 2013). A “walking
beam” insulator crawling robot which can take the tool as a payload is being developed by EPRI to
operate under energized conditions, as shown in Figure 3.4-8. The objectives of the robot are to increase
the repeatability of the measurement, reduce the mechanical stress on field personnel and increase
safety. For further information, refer to CIGRE Technical Brochure #545.
49
Image of LWNCI Tool being utilized by hand Robot with LWNCI Tool as payload.
operated hotstick.
Figure 3.4-8 Technology demonstrator of existing hand held hotstick operation of the LWNCI Tool
and the EPRI insulator crawling robot that is being investigated to replace the hand held operation
50
4. EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF ROBOTIC

TECHNOLOGIES
As presented in Chapter 3, there are many types of robots for many different uses on overhead lines.
Most robots perform inspection and maintenance activities but sometimes they can be used for
refurbishing lines. Robots can assist overhead line engineers to improve line reliability and security.
The common tasks carried out by robots on overhead lines are:
- Inspection of line components
- Maintenance tasks
These tasks are presented in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 respectively. Traditionally, these tasks are executed
manually by highly qualified workers. Sometimes, for inspection and repairing, helicopters are used.
The benefit of using robots is apparent when work must be done in difficult-to-reach places or when
saving time is a major advantage.
Section 4.3 deals with some practical considerations for the proper selection of robots depending on the
issue being considered, such as mechanical, electrical, environmental, communication and
installation/removal issues. Section 4.4 presents the potential value of robotics considering the
prospective use of the robotic technologies with a basic approach to asset management. Section 4.5
deals with the economic benefits of robotic technologies to the network owner.
4.1 INSPECTION OF OVERHEAD LINES USING ROBOTS

The main objective of inspections of overhead lines is to evaluate the actual condition of the line and to
detect any electrical and mechanical failures including GIS location, the severity of the failure, and
recommendation for maintenance. Obviously, it is better to detect technical problems before failures
occur (early warnings). For this reason preventative maintenance is performed by all utilities.
Traditionally, inspections are performed visually or with the aid of an infrared and/or an ultraviolet
camera. The transmission network is inspected at intervals such as once a year, every three years,
depending on utility strategy. However, lines which are close to design life, routed through
environmentally sensitive areas, with known technical problems, etc. would be considered to be
inspected more often.
This inspection is performed visually by patrols travelling the line on the ground, using helicopters or
more recently, using robots.
Robots can perform not only visual inspection but also provide any geometric anomalies and vegetation
monitoring using LIDAR. In order to see the state of the elements of the line, some measurements can
be made as described below.
Main Tasks of Visual Inspection

The main tasks of visual inspection are:
 Foundations
 The physical appearance
 Drainage condition of site
 Lattice Towers
 Identification of towers
 Checking the structural integrity (on all sides of the structure: main legs, bracings,
plates, gussets, crossarms, earth wire peaks)
 Displacement of towers and visible deviations from verticality
 The condition of warning and numbering plates
51
 Analysis of corrosion protection (existence of, visible, unprotected or corrosion

protection degraded surfaces)
 Other defects that are considered necessary to be highlighted)
If the case of guyed towers the anchors system state will be evaluated. The physical appearance
of the OPGW junction boxes should be checked.
 Phase Conductors, Ground Wires and OHTL Fittings
 The condition of conductors and fittings (suspension clamps, connection clamps,
splices, line sleeves, spacers, vibration dampers, interphase spacers, warning
spheres)
 Detection of broken strands
 Insulation Strings
 The condition of insulators
 The condition of arcing devices, yokes and other fittings
 Detection of broken strings
 Pollution levels of discs
 Line Route
 Vegetation
 Constructions
 Crops / vines
 Crossings with transmission or distribution lines, telecommunications, railways,
roads
 Obstacles
 Landslides
 Floods
 Other important neighborhoods
 Measuring clearances
Main Tasks of Infrared Inspection

Infrared (IR) inspections enable the early detection of electrical and mechanical problems on heat-
emitting conductors and fittings. In this case, it is mandatory that the line is energized and loaded.
Infrared inspection can be done using an infrared camera mounted on a robot.
Main Tasks of Ultraviolet (Corona) Inspection

Corona is a partial electrical discharge in the vicinity of conductors or insulating material due to
ionization of the air. Corona inspection is done using an ultraviolet camera. Corona can cause:
 environmental problems, such as audible noise and radio interference

 damage the material of components
 accelerate corrosion of components (e.g. partial discharges)
 degradation of polymer insulators
 pitting in cements and metal caps of porcelain insulators
The undesired effects of corona are of importance to electrical utilities. Broken strands, loose hardware,
pollution, porcelain punctures on insulators, improper installation, damaged insulator and spark
discharges can be sources of corona.
Laser Scanning of Overhead Lines

A laser scanner may be mounted on a robot. The scanner measures the distance of a target with a laser.
52
Laser scanning of overhead electric lines is done using LIDAR technology. This technology is used in
robotics for the perception of the environment.
The result of scanning the line route is the detection of geometric anomalies, vegetation monitoring and
establishing clearance or sag problems.
Other Actions Performed in OHTL Inspection

Other detection techniques can be employed using robots. Robots are used for mounting of measuring
or detection sensors. The following are some measurements that can determine the condition of
components.
 Electrical resistance measurement - can determine the condition of joints or clamps,
 Current measurement - applying sensors which can determine the line load and can be
combined with other inspection data,
 Corrosion determination - assessment of the condition of conductors, fittings and structures can
be obtained using corrosion detection sensors for zinc coating or steel cross section
 Corona inspection measurement - can provide information on the presence of corona
 Conductor temperature measurement - can be used to assist in calculating sag
 Audible Noise - Audible noise can focus the attention of maintenance personnel on a potentially
defective component. Microphones can be included on robots.
Inspection Works Performed by Robots

Originally, inspections were the only tasks performed by robots and it is still currently the main use of
robotics. General inspections can be done by most kinds of robots however, it is not efficient to use a
ground based robots for this purpose. Line suspended robots and aerial robots are the best for this job.
 Line suspended robots may be equipped with different types of cameras, LIDAR system and
different types of sensors (eg. ammeter, corrosion sensors, noise sensors, micro-ohmmeter)
 UAVs may be also equipped with different types of cameras (eg. visual, infrared, ultraviolet, X
ray), LIDAR system or noise sensors
 The line-suspended robots described in Section 3 use different inspection techniques. They
inspect the line using not only a dedicated camera but also cameras to verify its own motion.
Some examples are shown in the following web links,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amiWZUOsbhY&lr=1&feature=mhum
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCJ0WL8XX-k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tcakf1LcOe0
 There are also robots dedicated to the inspection of specific components. LineVue is a robot for
assessing the condition of the steel core wires of ACSR conductors. For insulators, there is a
robot dedicated to live-line inspection of suspension insulator strings (Park 2006). The robot is
measuring the insulation resistance and the voltage distribution along the insulator. There are
other robots dedicated to live-line inspection of insulators or inspection of sleeves (Cho et al.
2006; Lee et al. 2011; Park et al. 2006).
4.2 MAINTENANCE WORK USING ROBOTS

Even though inspection tasks have a great potential, maintenance tasks will become increasingly
important for the future of robots on overhead lines. Some maintenance tasks are:
i) broken strand repair

ii) bolted assembly installation and retrieval
iii) line component manipulation
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iv) patch (repair) rod installation

v) reconductoring
vi) painting
vii) component replacement
viii) component repairing and cleaning
To perform such tasks, the robot must be capable of using feedback from a greater number of sensors
and have autonomous subsystems to allow the operator to focus on the maintenance task (Toussaint et
al. 2009).
In hard-to-reach locations such as spans crossing roads, rivers, railways, and electric distribution lines
and spans through mountains, a teleoperated robot is extremely useful for maintenance. Boom trucks
cannot be used in these instances. Working from helicopters can also have limitations.
Robots are also important for maintenance on live-lines. Generally speaking, the middle phase is often
more difficult to access under live conditions.
It is a future goal for robots to assist human workers in an increasing capacity. It is expected that robots
will eventually replace humans for many overhead line maintenance activities. Not only inspection but
some simple work is already performed by robots. These devices were described in Chapter 3.
Ground Wire Replacement on a Line

Ground wire replacement on overhead lines is a common maintenance activity using the cradle-block
stringing method. The robotic part of the work consists of mounting the pilot wire on the existing ground
wire. A motorized trolley is used to pull a series of specially designed pulleys on the existing ground
wire. The new ground wire is then pulled through the pulleys allowing the operations to be performed
on energized lines. The development of robots which had the ability to traverse obstacles was a good
step forward.
Ground wire replacement is already performed using LineRover and LineScout and also by using the
Traction machine (ABR 037) together with cradle block fiber optic cable replacers (Montambault &
Pouliot 2003; TESMEC 2008).
Ice Removal from the Conductors

Freezing rain and in-cloud icing have always been a concern for utilities. Overhead fibre optic ground
wire (OPGW) can get heavily loaded with ice. Under severe ice loads, the ground wire can get too close
to the conductors and cause short-circuits. The line may be damaged and it cannot be operated until the
sufficient clearance is re-established. The sag of phase conductors are also affected by ice and the
clearance can be significantly reduced. Finally, severe ice loading might lead to ground wires slipping
in clamps, or structural support or ground wire failure.
Ice storms can cause significant damage to transmission and distribution networks, creating flashovers.
Deicing by a robot was implemented for the first time using a LineROVer (Montambault & Pouliot
2003).
Insulator Cleaning
Polluted insulators and resulting flashovers when wetted are often a major cause of overhead line faults.
Spray washing can be used to clean glass and porcelain insulators under live conditions. Spray washing
can also be performed from an insulated bucket truck or from within the tower structure. Helicopter-
based spray washing can be used when access from the ground is difficult. In Brazil, a robotic device
was developed for this operation. It consists of a robotic arm mounted on a truck.
In addition to pollution, hoarfrost can cause flashovers for insulators. In Canada, a ground-based robot
called RODAV uses steam to remove hoarfrost from substation insulators and insulated devices.
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RODAV was designed for substation applications up to 330kV but it can be used also on overhead lines
for deicing and cleaning insulators (Montambault & Pouliot 2003).
A robot, called INCRO, has been used for cleaning insulators using brushes in Korea (Park et al. 2006).
The snake robot can be also a good option for cleaning polluted insulator strings.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDDvuggblMg&list=PLBBA3B1C5F6C07991&index=10
Replacing Damaged Insulators on Power Lines

Live-line maintenance generally involves the replacement of faulty or failed components that are no
longer fit for service. Damages on insulator strings can occur due to flashovers, pollution or aged
materials. The damaged insulators should be replaced. Sometimes the replacement of polluted insulators
is less costly than washing.
Ground-based robots, such as LinemasterTM, have insulated heavy-duty robotic arms that are mounted
on a boom truck or a crane. These robotic arms are capable of removing energized conductors from
their structures, continuing to support the energized conductors, and assuring safe working areas for
lineman while the lines remain energized during the replacement of insulator strings (Elizondo et al.
2010b).
Installation of Aircraft Warning Spheres

A big problem when replacing a ground wire under live conditions is the presence of aircraft warning
devices on the wire. The wire cannot be pulled out due to the spheres. They have to be dismantled.
Damaged warning devices should be replaced.
In Brazil a robot was developed for dismantling and replacing aircraft warning spheres. The robot is a
trolley type and its removal process is shown in Figure 4.2-1 (Campos Guilherme et al. 2002). A sphere
removal process (from the left to the right and from the top to the bottom): 1 the robot is positioned
near the sphere by the operator. 2 The operator sends a command to the robot to approach and grasp the
sphere. 3 The removal tool is coupled to the sphere and the unscrewing starts. 4 The sphere gradually
opens and becomes free. The three last operations are executed autonomously.
Figure 4.2-1 Brazilian Robot for Dismantling and Replacing Aircraft Warning Spheres
55
An automatic system was also developed in Italy to replace the warning spheres. The mounting of the
device is done using a helicopter and the correct positioning of the sphere is checked using a camera
(Mazza 2006).
Conductor Repair Clamp and Patch Rod Installation

Broken strands due to lightning strikes are commonly found on line conductors. In most cases, the
damage cannot be quantified reliably from the ground. The safest approach is to send a robot to gather
visual information to assess the remaining mechanical strength. Having reached the damaged area,
repairing the conductor would be the next logical step because the broken strand can unravel to the
point where the distance from an adjacent conductor is insufficient and flashover occurs. A tool for
temporary repair was designed for LineScout, allowing the teleoperated installation of a custom-made
clamp to secure the broken strands around the wire. This application is already in use (Pouliot &
Montambault 2012).
Replacement of Energised Conductors

The replacement of energised conductors is common for erecting and maintenance companies.
Reconductoring of lines using conductors having extended load capacity is necessary in wind farm areas
and in locations where the utilities intend to increase the load of the lines.
Robotic arms, such as Line Master, Three Phase Line Master and Single Pick, are capable of capturing
and removing energized conductors from their structures while assuring safe working space for lineman.
These robots can be used up to 500kV as described by Elizondo et al. 2011 (see Section 3.3).
Repair or Replacement of Damaged Structures

As a result of increasing demands for electric power supply and reliability, utilities may decide to invest
in larger and more robust transmission structures. Robotic arms can be very useful if the work must be
done in live conditions (Elizondo et al. 2011).
The arms are used in repairing existing poles when the steel structure is damaged or for replacement of
wood poles.
A particular case of this kind of intervention is the emergency repair and support for conductors when
a new structure is not available in a timely manner.
Bolted Assembly Installation and Retrieval, Checking and Correction of Damper

Position
LineScout has the ability to remotely install and remove bolts on clamps because a rotating tool has
been fitted to the end of its robotic arm. It has been used to retrieve vibration dampers that became loose
and made their way down the slope of a span. This permits replacement and installation of vibration
dampers, spacer-dampers, other bolted assembly, etc. (Pouliot & Montambault 2012).
Installation Methods of Robots

Obviously some types of robots (eg. ground based robots, UAVs) need no installation. The problem is
important for line suspended robots and some specialized robots.
The installation of robots can be done in different ways, depending on the robot’s design. Generally
installation is easy and can be done using classical Live Maintenance techniques (eg. bare hand, hot
stick), sometimes using an insulated aerial platform or even the helicopter. In all those cases health and
safety regulations should be followed.
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4.3 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF ROBOTS

Before robotic technology can be applied with confidence it is important that the user confirms that it
will operate under all conditions to a required performance level. Confirmation can be obtained through
testing or analysis depending on the issue being considered, such as mechanical, electrical,
environmental, communication and installation/removal issues.
Table 4.3-1 contains a list of many of the topics that need to be considered. It should be noted that
whether a specific topic needs to be evaluated depends on the type and application of the robotics
technology. For example, it should be verified that a line suspended robot can ascend a specific
inclination. This does not need to be considered for UAVs.
When developing or procuring a robotic or UAV technology, one approach is to develop a functional
specification which the technology should meet potentially based on Table 4.3-1. This functional
specification should include tests before the technology can be operated in the overhead transmission
line environment. This approach is very similar to the approaches that are used by most transmission
utilities when procuring transmission assets or services. Future standards (e.g. IEC or IEEE) may be
developed to support this process.
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Table 4.3-1 Topics to Consider for Using Robotic Technology
Line Suspended Common

Evaluation
Considerations Energized De-energized Other UAV
Method
Mechanical Considerations
Conductor Diameter Range X X Analysis
Traversing Splices X X Testing
Traversing Dampers X X Testing
Traversing Structures X X Testing
Conductor Inclination + X X Testing
Environmental Considerations
Operating Temperature Range X X X X Testing / Analysis
Operating Wind speed Range X X X Analysis

Operating Humidity Range Testing / Analysis
Electrical Considerations
Minimum Approach Distances X X X Analysis
Corona Performance X X X Testing
Corona Immunity X X X Testing
Local Arcing Immunity X X X Testing
Ability to withstand arc to robot X X Testing
Electric Field X X X Testing
Magnetic Field X X X Testing
Ability to withstand Switching and X X Testing
lightning surges
Communication Considerations
Comply with RF standards X X X X Analysis
Redundant /Failsafe X X X X Analysis
communications
Installation / Removal Considerations
Ability to install/remove energized X Demonstrate
Ability remove if some/all X X Demonstrate
electronics fail
4.4 POTENTIAL VALUE OF ROBOTICS

Robotic technologies must be seen as complementary to other existing means of access for grid
inspection and maintenance: ground patrol, tower climbing, boom truck, manned motorized trolley,
helicopter, airplane, etc. All these means of access help collect data and the value of that data must be
evaluated for each mean based on quantity, quality, accuracy, costs (equipment, specialized staff
required and maintenance), ease of deployment, environmental impact, etc. Based on such evaluations,
robotic platforms have found niche applications in asset management backed by a solid return of
experience.
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Delivering value means providing good solutions to major existing challenges. The assets are aging due
to several degradation mechanisms, and data collection is of paramount importance to assess the real
condition of these assets. Data collection implies using or developing sensors and means of access for
theses sensors. Robotics can play a crucial role, but other means must be utilized to maximize the value
shown in Figure 4.4-1 (Montambault & Pouliot 2014). Ultimately, what utilities seek is not data but
rather information on which to base their maintenance and investment decisions. Utilities also want
solutions that can be implemented from an operational perspective.
Figure 4.4-1 Prospective use of robotic technologies – Basic approach to asset management
(Montambault & Pouliot 2014)
4.5 ECONOMIC BENEFITS

The practice of energized line work consists of utilizing energized techniques and/or robots to perform
maintenance, inspections and/or upgrades on transmission lines while the transmission line is energized.
Techniques have been developed for humans to safely work on the high voltage transmission lines when
live/energized. The ability to perform maintenance and inspection services and upgrading transmission
lines without de-energizing the transmission line has many economic, social and environmental benefits
to the network owner. Extensive references of energized work on electric facilities have been
documented in the literature over the years (Wayman et al. 2001; White et al. 2003; Tyburski & Moore
2008; Ramos 2008; Belinchon & Fernández 2010; Maruyama 2000; Silcock 2010; Marwali &
Shahidephur 1999; Lindsey 2009; Ed 1999, Abdulrahman et al. 2000).
Methodology to Evaluate the Benefits of Energized Work

This Section describes a methodology to identify potential benefits of energized work in electric
facilities. The methodology is intended to help managers, maintenance planners and engineers to
quantify and evaluate benefits of energized work techniques as a viable option for performing
maintenance and construction of electric facilities. The methodology is applicable to traditional
regulated utilities and to utilities operating in unregulated electric markets administered by an
Independent System Operators (ISO) or Regional Transmission Organizations (RTO). Regardless of
the electric utility structure, the business units to be impacted are planning, operations, wholesale power
trading, reliability, maintenance, regulatory, public relations and customer service. Most benefits can
be assessed using historical or forecasted market, operations, and trading data. However, some benefits
59
such as maintaining or improving reliability, public image, and customer satisfaction are subjective and
can only be estimated based on judgment.
The data required to quantify and support the decision of energized work can be obtained from public
sources such as government entities, regulated electric utilities, ISO, RTO, and commercial third parties.
Rules and regulations governing regulated utilities and ISOs/RTOs administering electric markets play
a key role. For example, in government owned utilities, reliability violation and service quality penalties
may not be applicable; therefore, only economics associated with serving load may be used to assess
the economic benefits of energized work. On the other hand, for investor owned utilities, ISOs, and
RTOs operating in countries in which reliability and service quality standards are monitored and
enforced by federal and/or provincial bodies, reliability violation penalties could expose utilities, ISO,
and RTOs to substantial financial risks, and hence influence decisions towards energized work. In the
methodology, the metrics used to quantify/assess the benefits of energized work in electric facilities are
classified as a) impact on power system operations, markets, contractual obligations; b) impact on utility
crew operations; c) impact on reliability; and d) impact on public image and customer satisfaction.
The applicability of each metric is dependent on the specific project details and the type of utility and
ISO/RTO which administers the electric power facility. Some metrics may only be applicable to the US
electric market and other metrics may only be applicable to facilities administered by an ISO or RTO.
These metrics are defined next (Elizondo 2013).
Metrics Related to Power System Operations, Markets and Contracted Obligations

The following metrics are used to assess the impact on power system operations, markets and
contractual obligations.
1. Dispatch/production cost: change in commitment and dispatch will change the system
incremental cost or Locational Marginal Prices (LMP) which in turn will change cost of serving
load and utility and generator owner revenue.
2. Open Access Same-time Information System (OASIS) reservation, loss of revenue - impact on
the utility or RTO revenue from transmission capacity reservations on the transmission line in
question.
3. Congestion/Financial Transmission Rights (FTR) revenue loss: in unregulated electric markets,
availability of transmission and generation resources has a direct impact on day-ahead and real-
time congestion clearing price which in turn will directly impact FTR revenue and payments
for transmission interfaces which the transmission line in question is part of.
4. Cost of serving Import/Export obligations: availability of transmission and generation resources
has a direct impact on cost of serving power contractual obligations and potential revenue and
savings from economy power transactions.
5. Service Interruption Penalty: this penalty is imposed by local and state level governments for
customer power interruption if the power interruption exceeds a certain time limit.
Metrics related to utility crew operations

The following metrics are used to assess the impact on utility crew operations.
1. Improved work safety: more strict safety procedures and fewer tasks make energized work in
electric facilities to be potentially safer and more cost effective.
2. Manpower Cost: the difference in manpower cost when the work is performed energized vs.
de-energized. This metric considers maintenance coordination time, scheduling and preparation
time, labor to perform the actual work, and equipment usage.
3. Asset Owner Savings: energized work enables the work to be performed when needed without
an outage required, for an optimal use of mobilized equipment and crews as jobs could be done
in succession.
Metrics related to reliability

1. Reliability. This metric is used to assess the monetary value of risk associated with reduction
/degrading transmission system reliability caused by taking a line out of service to perform
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maintenance and or upgrades on a line. This metric provides the range of potential penalties
that an ISO, RTO, or utility could be expected to pay if the line outage causes service
interruption or a wide area disturbance.
Metrics related to public image and customer satisfaction

1. Public image and customer satisfaction. This metric is used to assess the impact of transmission
component outage on public image and customer satisfaction. Prolong outages and service
interruptions impacting thousands of customers will affect customer satisfaction and public
image which in turn will negatively affect the shares of the company in the stock market.
4.6 SUMMARY
This Chapter presented different maintenance activities regarding robotic technologies and practical
considerations for their proper selection. Many advantages of using robots appear when the work shall
be done in difficult-to-reach places or when saving time is a major advantage.
Robotic technologies have proven to be a valuable means of inspecting certain systems, and robotic
inspection is now considered to be a realistic approach for grid owners. A few major utilities have
already introduced robotics into their maintenance practices, and several are funding projects to do so.
Safety, efficiency, reliability and availability of equipment are the main factors driving this trend.
Maintenance tasks, including inspection and repairs, are identified as high-value applications in
transmission live-line work. The ability to perform maintenance and inspection services and upgrading
transmission lines without shutting down the transmission line (de-energizing the line) has many
61
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5. ROADMAP FOR FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTIC

TECHNOLOGIES
This Chapter will provide a roadmap to inform the future development and implementation of robotic
technologies for overhead transmission lines. The Section utilizes the roadmapping process of a) setting
a Vision, b) understanding the Drivers, c) defining Future States to meet that Vision, and d) listing the
Gaps to achieve those Future States. Figure 5.0-1 provides an illustration of the Roadmap.
Figure 5.0-1 Roadmap for future transmission line robotic technologies (Vision-Drivers-Future
States-Gaps)
5.1 FUTURE VISION FOR TRANSMISSION ASSESTS

Utility Company Executives in developing a research roadmap for the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) provided two core visions for the foreseeable future of the transmission system from
the asset perspective:
http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/CorporateDocuments/Roadmaps/PDU_Roadmap_2012-02.pdf
1. Extract the Maximum from Existing Assets
2. Construct High-Performance New Assets
Robotics has the potential to aid in achieving both of these visions for the overhead transmission line
system.
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5.2 INDUSTRY DRIVERS

The following 5 drivers provide the motivation to meet this Future Vision:
1. Safety of both workers and the public
2. Effective Use of Capital and Maintenance Budgets
3. High Level of Reliability for the Transmission System
4. Environmental and Societal Responsibility
5. Resiliency
5.3 FUTURE STATES

Four Future States have been developed for robotic systems with a 20 to 30 year view.
Future State 1: Autonomous Inspection

Line and structure crawling robots and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will perform inspections
autonomously with little or no intervention from humans. The inspection systems will:
 Deploy automatically either on a schedule, when triggered by conditions or after an event.
 Will be self-powered potentially harvesting energy from the transmission line environment.
 In the case of crawling robots, they will crawl along the transmission lines with little or no input
from humans, overcoming structures and hardware. This will enable entire lines to be inspected
(substation to substation).
 UAVs will be Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) which will not require a pilot to have visual contact
with the UAV at all time. Preferably the UAV should operate with no human input.
 Sensing technologies will provide relevant information which will enable maintenance actions
to be triggered for structures, conductors, hardware, insulators, foundations and the surrounding
right of way (including vegetation)
 Automated algorithms will process data from sensors to trigger alerts, alarms and even work
orders with no, or minimal, input from humans.
 Robots and UAVs will be extremely reliable and require little, or no, maintenance.
In order to reach this future state numerous gaps have to be overcome. These include but are not limited
to: a) Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) UAVs, b) power-harvesting c) autonomous decision making, d)
sensor and image processing, e) robust communications, f) minimal maintenance / self-diagnosing
systems.
Future State 2: Automated Construction

Line and structure crawling robots, together with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), will work together
in teams to clear rights of way (easements) and construct new overhead transmission lines with little or
no input from humans. The construction robots will
 Clear the required area
 Install foundations
 Attach and construct structure to foundations
 Install hardware and assemblies
 String conductors
 Fully document the constructed structure performing quality assurance tasks and automatically
documenting any discrepancies.
Although seemingly unlikely that the entire construction process will be completed by robots/UAVs, it
can be imagined that robots would complete one, or more of these tasks. Gaps to achieve this future
state are large. They include but are not limited to a) line designs developed for robotic construction, b)
robots that work together overcoming unknowns and obstacles, c) robots that have the appropriate
mechanical actuators to complete the specific tasks d) the ability to perform quality assurance checks.
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Future State 3: Field Worker Support

Robotic technologies can support the field worker in implementing tasks, either construction, inspection
or maintenance tasks. The robotic technologies will enable increased productivity, improved
ergonomics, increase consistency and reduce risk. The field worker support robots will
 Provide physical support of workers, e.g. exoskeletons
 Aid in live working by performing high risk tasks or tasks that place significant physical stress
on workers.
 Perform tele-operated or autonomous tasks in high risk situations.
 Perform repetitive tasks in an effective manner.
 Provide inspection access under energized conditions which are difficult to access.
This tool box of robots and UAVs has the potential to reduce risk and increase productivity. Examples
such as line of sight UAVs, phase lifters, insulator inspection robots are already being developed and
utilized.
Gaps to reach this future state fully include: a) user acceptance, b) development of specific use cases
and technologies to meet these use cases, and c) exoskeletal technologies which can support workers in
physically demanding situations.
Future State 4: Remote Repair and Refurbishment

Robotic technologies which can perform repair and refurbishment tasks with the following
requirements:
 Do not require transmission lines to be removed from service
 Do not require extensive work by humans to install and remove the robotic technology
 Perform tasks in high risk environments, e.g. at heights or energized.
 Can make autonomous decisions on whether to make repairs and what the best technique is.
 Document the repair and perform testing to verify its completeness.
In order to reach this future state numerous gaps have to be crossed. This includes but is not limited to:
a) transport robots or UAVs to transport the repair technology to the repair location, b) power-harvesting
which will enable multiple repairs without robot removal c) autonomous decision making, d) sensor
and image processing, e) robust communications, f) minimal maintenance systems.
5.4 EXAMPLES OF FUTURE ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS

There are a wide range of potential future applications of robotic technologies which are limited only
by the needs of the industry and imagination. The following sections will describe seven robotic system
concepts as examples. There are many more examples which one may envisage:
Robotic Toolbox to Support Specific Tasks Implemented by Field Personnel

Maintenance personnel perform numerous tasks on a day to day basis which may be “made easier” by
the application of a tool box of robotic technologies. In this concept robotic technologies which perform
singular (or a number of limited) operations in support of day to day tasks implemented by field
personnel. No single robot would be able to support all maintenance tasks, rather a tool box approach
is envisaged where the field personnel select’s the robot required to support / perform a very specific
task. Also the operator would most probably put the robot in place and may even perform some key
manual tasks to support the robot limiting the requirements for mobility and complexity
An example would be a small robot deployed to aid in replacing a single insulator disc on a transmission
line under energized conditions. The line person would place the small/lightweight robot on the
insulator string opposite the disc of interest and the robot would attach itself to discs above and below
65
the disc of interest. The mechanical load from the insulator string would be “taken up” by the robot
releasing the tension on the individual disc with the robot providing feedback to the operator when the
next step could be implemented. Upon receiving an indication from the robot that tension has been
removed from the individual disc, the operator then manually removes the cotter key and the disc of
interest. A replacement disc would be inserted and the robot would be instructed to reapply the line
tension to the disc. The operator would then remove the robot from the string after the robot confirms
that it has completed the task and disconnected from the insulator string.
Robots like this would reduce the physical stress that is required from the field personnel. The robot
would also have the potential to reduce the time to perform a task and consequently the risk. Since
they perform relatively simple/singular tasks the required training / expertise of the operator is reduced
increasing acceptance.
A range of singular tasks could be identified for both substation and transmission line personnel for
which robotic support technologies could be developed. Today some of these already exist, but a more
comprehensive toolbox could be developed.
Utilization of UAV’s to Aid in Structure Climbing

Climbing structures by field personnel is a potentially hazardous activity. In order to mitigate hazards
personnel are required in some countries, e.g. USA, to always be “clipped on” to the structure. In order
to aid in this a “hard point” is often installed by the “first worker up” to which all future workers safety
lines are attached. The “First Worker Up” has to clip on and off with two lanyards as he/she climbs to
install the “hard point”. This may be mitigated by a UAV which flies up to the top of the structure with
a pilot line for the safety lines to be installed.
UAV’s to Measure Compression Connector Condition

In order to effectively determine the condition of compression connectors (e.g. splice and dead-end
connections), physical contact needs to be made to measure the impedance of the connection, e.g. using
a micro-ohm-meter. This can be done under de-energized conditions, or using a hotstick mounted
device which uses the current flowing through the conductors as part of the measurement process. This
is an expensive, higher risk and often impossible activity as line trucks with buckets needs to be put in
place for workers to get access. Rather a UAV with an imbedded micro-ohm-meter could bond on to
the energized transmission conductor and make the measurement with the operator in a remote location.
Security Patrol UAV’s

Physical security has become an important issue with recent attacks on substations and transmission
lines in the United States. UAVS could be deployed at substations to regularly patrol the perimeter on
a random schedule utilizing automatic alarms from onboard infrared and visual cameras. This would
overcome the challenge of perpetrators identifying the location of permanently fixed cameras and
avoiding their field of view when committing crimes. In addition the UAV’s could be deployed if an
alarm is triggered allowing a unique perspective to security personnel as well as make the intruder
uncomfortable with an active presence.
Similarly BLOS UAVs could be used to inspect transmission lines on a regular and random basis for
security concerns.
Alerts and Alarms for Energized Work

When performing energized work, personnel are required to keep specific clearances (minimum
approach distances (MAD)) from energized conductors and from grounded vehicles at the work site.
A potential application would be UAV’s utilizing Augmented Reality which would be positioned above
66
the worksite taking high quality pictrometery which utilizes multiple images to create point cloud maps.
Using the created 3D images distances could be measured and if any humans are identified to be too
close to an energized conductor, alarms would be triggered. Similarly if personnel or public are in close
proximity to high risk grounded structures or vehicles alarms could be sounded. The concept is similar
to the yellow line that is drawn on the field during televised American Football Games.
Autonomous Line Crawling Inspections of Transmission Lines

A robot which can autonomously traverse a transmission line with no input from an operator and report
only when it identifies high risk conditions is envisaged. The robot would travel along either the shield
or phase conductors traversing structures as they are designed today with no additional installed
hardware. Power would be harvested from sources such as the electric or magnetic field or solar
radiation or vibration. A range of inspection technologies ranging from visual, to infrared, ultraviolet,
eddy current, radio frequency interference (RFI) and LiDAR would be included.
Images and sensor data would be automatically processed and alarms generated for subject matter
experts to make a more detailed analysis. All of the inspection data would be stored in a central database
which could be queried and visualized by all the stakeholders, e.g. vegetation managers, operators,
maintenance personnel, line designers, etc.
The technology challenges are significant ranging from mobility to automatic image analysis to
autonomous decision making.
Autonomous UAV Inspections of Transmission Lines

A beyond line of sight (BLOS) UAV would fly along a transmission line controlled either by an operator
or be on a pre-programmed route which could range from 10 to 100s of kilometers. The UAV would
contain visual, infrared, ultraviolet, LIDAR and RFI sensing systems. The route for the UAV would
be preprogrammed with the location of structures so that images could be automatically collected and
processed. Image processing would automatically identify conditions in each of the images and flag
them for an operator to evaluate in more detail. The results would be automatically integrated in to an
“inspection database” and work management system for visualization by all the utility stakeholders.
It appears that military “drones” with many of these features have been successfully deployed. However
regulations need to be addressed and issues such as security, privacy, public acceptance and safety have
to be addressed.
5.5 SUMMARY
Robotic technologies have the potential to revolutionize the way the power transmission system is
constructed and maintained. The opportunity is vast and undiscovered. However a large number of
gaps exist ranging from financial to technical to regulatory. It remains important to continue to have a
vision for the future and make steady progress in attempting to reach it.
67
68
6. CONCLUSION
This TB presented a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of robotic technologies applied to OHTLs.
The expected increase in live-line work approaches and the need to optimise inspection and
maintenance work have stimulated the development and use of robotic devices to minimize risk to field
personnel safety and maintain power system reliability. Four main classifications of robots are
presented: ground-based, those suspended from the line, UAVs and other types of robots.
Ground-based robots are designed to remotely capture and control energized conductors and execute
tasks that are far beyond human capability from a mechanical and electrical stress perspective. Robots
suspended from the line are designed to serve as the extended eyes and arms of the transmission lineman
and their basic design function is to perform visual inspections. Development of UAVs, which are
designed to perform visual inspections, is very active as more and more prototypes are being built and
more players are expected to enter the market as service providers or technology users. Other types of
robots are very useful for less-conventional works on specific systems, such as tower/pole climbing and
insulator inspection.
Personnel safety has always been of biggest concern and the practice of energized line work especially
in difficult to reach places or when time is critical means the use of robots to assist with maintenance,
inspections and/or upgrades on transmission lines can offer a major advantage.
The future of robotic technologies applied to OHTLs is very promising. As the robotic technologies
presently under development become more mature and accepted by utilities as routine tools,
applications will emerge requiring the development of new technologies. The key drivers in the
emergence of these new robotic technologies will continue to be: improved safety, increased reliability,
increased availability and reduced costs.
The key benefits that robotic technologies will provide include:
 Life extension of ageing overhead lines
 Increasing power-flow through existing overhead lines
 Aiding the construction of new overhead lines
69
70
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8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Table 8-1 presents a list of abbreviations and acronyms used in this document.
Table 8-1 List of abbreviations and acronyms used in this document
Acronym Phrase
ACSR Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced
ACSS Aluminium Conductor Steel Supported
AIM Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics
BLOS Beyond Line Of Sight
CARPI Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry
CCAS Conductor Corrosion Assessment System
CLAWAR International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and Support Technologies for Mobile Machines
CMU Carnegie Mellon University
CPqD Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicacoes
CSCL Complex Systems Control Laboratory
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ESMO International Conference on Transmission & Distribution Construction, Operation & Live-Line Maintenance
ETH Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule
FCS Flight Control System
FPV First Person View
FSR Conference on Field and Service Robotics
FTR Financial Transmission Rights
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
ICRA International Conference on Robotics and Automation
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IFR International Federation of Robotics
IR InfraRed
IREQ Hydro-Québec’s Research Institute
IROS International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
ISO International Standards Organization
Independent System Operators
IST Instituto Superior Técnico
KEPCO Korea Electric Power Corporation
LF Local Fault
LIDAR Laser Interferometry Detection And Ranging
LMA Loss of Metallic Area
LMP Locational Marginal Prices
LWNCI Live-line Working Non-Ceramic Insulator
MAD Minimum Approach Distance
OASIS Open Access Same-time Information System
OHL OverHead Line
OHTL OverHead Transmission Line
PLIR Power Line Inspection Robot
RAS Robotics and Automation Society
RF / RFI Radio Frequency / Radio Frequency Interference
RTO Regional Transmission Organization
SC Study Committee
SEPRI Shandong Electric Power Research Institute
SIACAS Shenyang Institute of Automation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
TC Technical Committee
Ti Transmission Line Inspection Robot
TOR Terms of Reference
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UV Ultra-Violet
WG Working Group
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78
APPENDIX A. ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES UNDER

DEVELOPMENT
This Appendix reviews some robotic technologies that have been or are being developed at different
academic institutions. For various reasons, many of them may never be commercially available and
will stay at the development stage with different versions of the prototype. Most of the following
academic institutions are from China. However, this does not mean that only China is developing new
robotic technologies. Nevertheless, China seems to be very active in this field.
The following robotic platforms are mostly in the academic field and are in the early stages of design
or are in the first phases of field testing. The list of references associated with these robotic platforms
appears at the end of Appendix A. Those platforms are from the following organizations:
A.1. Beihua University (China)

Beihua University presented in [1] a robot with pitch and yaw balance mechanisms according to the
variation of position of the centre of mass of the robot when navigating over obstacles along a power
line. The robot, shown in Figure A-1, is composed of a trunk and three booms where chains drive the
wheels in contact with the power line. Two navigation strategies to fulfill continuous inspection of the
power line were analyzed such as “boom rising” (in front of an smaller obstacle the robot sequentially
raises each of the three booms to a specific height and then put it down to the original location), and
“boom rotating” (in front of a bigger obstacle, the robot sequentially raises a boom and rotate it to a
specific angle, then pass through the obstacle and rotate backwards making the boom back to the power
line).
Figure A-1 Robot from the Beihua University

(Jiang Shengyuan et al. [1], 2009, © 2009 IEEE)
A.2. Chinese University of Hong Kong (China)

The papers in [2] and [3] present an inspection robot for power transmission lines called the Linebot.
This robot is composed of various mechanisms as shown in Figure A-2 and has 11 degrees of freedom.
It weighs 40 kg and can reach a continuous speed of 0.5 m/s. Different motion patterns are possible
with Linebot in order to cross an obstacle in a continuous manner, to move like an inchworm, or to
move in the lunge-stretch way.
79
Figure A-2 Linebot prototype from the Chinese University of Hong Kong
(Wang et al. [2], 2013, © 2013 IEEE)
A.3. Hunan University (China)

Hunan University developed a deicing robot able to clear obstacles up to 0.5 m in diameter and most
series of adjacent obstacles such as warning spheres, spacer-dampers and single-suspension clamps.
This robot shown in Figure A-3, with features detailed in [4], [5], [6] and [7] can reach a speed of 0.5
m/s, and its weight is 75 kg.
Figure A-3 Deicing robot prototype from Hunan University

(Yang et al. [7], 2013, © 2013 Springer-Verlag)
A.4. KunShan Institute of Industrial Research (China)

Wang et al. proposes in their multiple papers [8], [9], [10], [11], [12] and [13] a mobile robot, shown in
Figure A-4, based on line-walking mechanism for the inspection of power lines. This mechanism
enables the center of gravity of the robot on the hip joint, minimizes the driving torque of the hip, and
keeps the robot stable during motion. The obstacle-navigation cycle of this inspection robot is composed
of a single-support phase and a double-support phase. The center of gravity of the robot is adjusted to
shift to the other leg to start a new single-support phase. Wheels and line-walking mechanism are
combined to roll on non-obstacle section efficiently and to surmount obstacles with the articulated legs.
80
Figure A-4 Walking robot on line from the KunShan Institute of Industrial Research
(Wang et al. [12], 2010, © 2010 IEEE)
For a power line with ascending angles of 30 degrees and to cross specific obstacles like vibration
dampers fixed on the line, a mobile robot using mechanisms of wheels and grippers is presented in [14],
as shown in Figure A-5.
Figure A-5 Mechanism design composed of wheels and grippers

(Zhao et al. [14], 2011, © 2011 IEEE)
A.5. Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (China)

In 2012, the Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (SEPRI) completed a LineScout technology
transfer from IREQ, and the robot was then tested on a 500 kV transmission line in China. In addition,
SEPRI is working on a self-developed mobile robot for inspection of overhead transmission lines where
this robot was presented in [15], and shown in Figure A-6. This robot, composed of three arms (where
each arm has two degrees of freedom), weights 30 kg and can reach a speed of 1 m/s. The robot can
directly roll over splices and dampers, and cross over a spacer or a suspension clamp within 1.5 minute.
Figure A-6 Mobile robot from SEPRI

(Guo et al. [15], 2014, © 2014 IEEE)
81
A.6. Shandong University of Science and Technology (China)

The Shandong University of Science and Technology in China proposes in [16] a mechanical structure
and a control system for a new crawler robot for power transmission line inspections. This robot is
composed of three arms and a balance mechanism joined together through a base, as shown in Figure
A-7. A control strategy based on an expert control system is detailed in [17] for controlling the robot to
cross obstacles along power transmission lines.
Figure A-7 Three arms robot from the Shandong University of Science and Technology
(Wang et al. [16] 2010, © 2010 IEEE, [17], 2012 © 2012 IEEE)
A.7. Shanghai University (China)

The Shanghai University has developed a mobile robot [18], [19] applied to overhead ground wires of
power transmission lines. The two locomotion modes possible for the robot to navigate on the line are
to roll with the wheels, or to crawl with the multi-joint arms (using two arms designed to imitate the
monkey’s behavior by up-down arms). This robot is capable of clearing obstacles such as crimp
connection pipes, anchor clamps, and torsion towers. Presented in Figure A-8, the robot prototype is
composed of two arms where each arm has 4 degrees of freedom, and the robot is equipped with a total
of 13 motors.
Figure A-8 Robot with two multi-joint arms from the Shanghai University
(Jian et al. [19], 2009, © 2009 IEEE)
A.8. Sichuan University (China)

The Sichuan University worked on a modified robot structure [20] from the original mechanical concept
of Expliner. This robot has a self-balance dual-arm mechanism, as shown in Figure A-9, with the
82
capability of avoiding dampers, spacers, suspension clamps and strain clamps, spanning between lines
and climbing on much steep cable. This robot is dedicated to the inspection of single cable, double
bundle cables and four bundle cables whether the cables are powered on or not. The climbing
mechanism uses a dual-arm structure to track the power line. The self-balance mechanism employs a 2
degree-of-freedom manipulator structure with a counter-weight box (about 25 kg, containing the
electronics and battery) to adjust the center of mass of the robot to go over the obstacles on power lines.
Figure A-9 Robot with a self-balance mechanism from the Sichuan University
(Dian Songyi et al. [20], 2012, © 2012 IEEE)
A.9. Wuhan University (China)

The Wuhan University has developed different types of power line robots since 2001. Various
publications were released in [21], [22], [23], [24] and [25] regarding different aspects of their three
inspection robots for power lines (applied to 220 kV single conductor, 220 kV – 500 kV bundled
conductor, and the ground line), and a deicing robot [26]. A control method is proposed for line grasping
based on hand-eye visual servo in [27]. The mechanism of a snake-like robot intended to the obstacle
navigation on power lines is also included in [28], as presented in Figure A-10 with the other robots of
the Wuhan University.
Figure A-10 Robots developed at the Wuhan University

(Wu et al. [25], 2010, © 2010 IEEE, Wang et al. [28], 2013)
83
A.10. Xi’an Jiaotong University (China)

In 2012, a new robot architecture in [29], and presented in Figure A-11, was analyzed at the Xi’an
Jiaotong University in China where they built a prototype. The robot has a weight of 70 kg, and its
frame is composed of three arms and a total of 13 motors. When the robots moves along the conductor,
with no obstacle the wheel in each arm (motors are synchronously controlled) drives the robot forward.
In presence of an obstacle, the frame adjusts the robot configuration to make each individual arm to
leave off line, to bypass the obstacle, and then to re-grip on line.
Figure A-11 Three arms robot from the Xi’an Jiaotong University
(Yang et al. [29], 2012, © 2012 IEEE)
A.11. Korea Electric Power Research Institute (Korea)

The Korea Electric Power Research Institute (KEPRI) developed a robot [30] to inspect line sleeves
(used to connect two ACSR cables) on power transmission lines to prevent power failures. This robot,
shown in Figure A-12, is composed of a moving part with two caterpillar mechanisms, and an inspection
part that consists of permanent magnets, Hall sensor and magnet circuit to detect magnetic flux which
penetrates steel sleeve cross-section.
Figure A-12 Line sleeve inspection device from KEPRI

(Lee et al. [30], 2011, © 2011 WASET)
A.12. Isfahan University of Technology (Iran)

The Isfahan University of Technology detailed in [31] a power line inspection robot combining active
and passive mechanisms that can be used to move on ground wires and to pass over various obstacles
on ground cables of 63 kV in Iran such as clamps, warning balls and mast tips. The active mechanisms
contain four vertical rollers and three horizontal rollers. The passive mechanisms include a set of spring
84
dampers installed in each joint of robot arms. Balance masses, which include the control systems,
batteries and cameras, are used to increase the stability of robot during moving on the cable. This robot,
shown in Figure A-13, has a weight of approximately 60 kg and can move along ground wires with
maximum speed of 20 m/min.
Figure A-13 Robot with vertical and horizontal rollers from the Isfahan Univ. of Technology
(Mostashfi et al. [31], 2013, © 2013 WASET)
A.13. ETH Zurich (Switzerland)

Bühringer et al. [32] from ETH Zurich developed a teleoperated robot to move on the ground cables.
The prototype, presented in Figure A-14, allows to move on the topmost ground cable of high-voltage
power lines and to passively roll over mast tops and smaller obstacles. The robot consists of a frame
(chassis of 6.7 kg) with two motorized rubber-coated rollers in a horizontal position to take the weight,
and four motorized rollers in vertical position pressed onto the wire by springs to guarantee slip-less
propulsion. The robot has a mass of 58 kg, and can be controlled at distances up to 16 km. The payload
arm, with camera, electronics and batteries, is mounted at a very low level to increase the stability.
Figure A-14 Robot with vertical and horizontal rollers from ETH Zurich
(Bühringer et al. [32], 2010, © 2010 Emerald Group Publishing Limited)
A.14. University of California (USA)

Morozovsky et al. presented in [33] and [34] a cable-locomoting robot called SkySweeper with few
actuators but offering multiple modes of locomotion. The SkySweeper robot comprises two links of
equal length which are pivotally connected with a rotary series elastic actuator. An actuated clamp,
which can hold on to a cable, is located at the end of each link. The clamp can be in one of the three
positions: open (the clamp is completely open), rolling, (the clamp is partially closed and may passively
85
roll along the cable), or pivoting (the clamp is fully closed and may only pivot on the cable). The robot
is shown in Figure A-15.
Figure A-15 SkySweeper robot from the University of California

(Picture from [34], 2013, © 2013 robotee.com)
A.15. University of Georgia, Southern Company (USA)

The University of Georgia Complex Systems Control Laboratory (CSCL) in collaboration with the
Southern Company worked on the design of a robotic device for power line inspection and cleaning
[35]. The robot prototype, presented in Figure A-16, uses V-grooved wheels to grip the line and to pass
obstacles. It is equipped with a video camera for line inspection, and a scrub brush to clean the line.
This device is remotely controlled from a laptop, has been tested in the lab, and proven mechanical
feasibility.
Figure A-16 Wheeled robot for cleaning power lines from CSCL and Southern Company
(Abbasi et al. [35], 2014, © 2014 IEEE)
86
A.16. Terex-Ritz (Brazil)

Ritz has developed a robot, presented during the 2011 ESMO conference and shown in Figure A-17,
intended for the installation and removal of daylight warning spheres on transmission lines. This robot
is equipped with a remote control unit operated from ground. To install a daylight warning sphere, the
robot drives a sphere toward its installation position on the line, and closes a bracket to attach the sphere.
During the removal operation for replacement or maintenance purposes, the robot opens the bracket and
drives the sphere back to the structure. The robot has an approximate weight of 31 kg (the battery itself
is 18 kg) and can reach a displacement speed of 2.5 km/h [36].
Figure A-17 Ritz robot for daylight warning spheres
A.17. Furnas (Brazil)

Furnas presented a paper in 2012 [37] regarding the design of a robot that will move on the ground wire
of transmission lines. They investigated the idea of a robot prototype using a combustion engine, then
with an electric motor, as shown in Figure A-18. Another robot concept was presented in [38].
Figure A-18 Prototypes developed at FURNAS

(Fonseca et al. [37], 2012, © 2012 IEEE)
University of Sao Paulo (Brazil)

An unmanned monitoring robot system, shown in Figure A-19, was developed at the University of Sao
Paulo (USP) in Brazil that moves on a steel cable and uses an infrared camera to detect hot spots in
87
substations [39]. The control room is located around 200 m away from the robot controlled with
microcomputer software.
Figure A-19 Mobile robot for hot spot monitoring in substations from USP
(Pinto et al. [39], 2008, © 2008 IEEE)
A.18. Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicações (Brazil)

A corrosion detection robot in [40] was developed by the Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em
Telecomunicações (CPqD) in Brazil. This robot, presented in Figure A-20, can be installed on an
energized power line using a hot stick, and it is controlled by the ground-based operator using a labtop
(1 km radio range). The sensor [41] carried by the robot detects the thickness of the zinc layer over the
steel wires that make the core of the ACSR conductors. The weight of the robot is 17.8 kg and can reach
a speed of 0.5 m/s.
Figure A-20 Corrosion detection robot for energized power lines

(Barbosa et al. [40], 2014, © 2014 IEEE)
A.19. Instituto Superior Tecnico (Portugal)

A robot prototype for the inspection of power lines called RIOL, shown in Figure A-21, was developed
at the Instituto Superior Tecnico (IST) and Institute for Systems and Robotics in Portugal [42] and [43].
This robot combines wheels with an articulated structure composed of 5 degrees of freedom in order to
overcome the common obstacles on power lines. The weight of the robot is around 40 kg.
88
Figure A-21 RIOL robot from IST

(Sequeira [42], 2010, © 2010 IEEE)
A.20. Other works

Other studies on robots applied to transmission power lines were published from the Kookmin
University [44] and the Pusan National University [45], [46] in Korea, the Universiti Tenaga Nasional
[47] in Malaysia, the VIT University [48] in India, the Center for Engineering and Industrial
Development (CIDESI) [49] in Mexico, the Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU) in Brazil [50],
the Capital Normal University [51] and the Shenyang Aerospace University [52] in China (see the
prototype shown in Figure A-22, and the University of Maine (USA) [53].
Figure A-22 Robot from Shenyang Aerospace University

(Changlong Ye et al. [52], 2014, © 2014 IEEE)
89
A.21. List of References for Appendix A
[1] Jiang Shengyuan, Ren Limin, Lv Xiangyan, Li Jianyong, Jiao Hongzhang, "Development of
Suspending Attitude Self-balance Mechanism for Boom-orientated Line Inspection Robot", Proc.
of the IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), pp.2741-2745,
2009.
[2] Chengjiang Wang, Linji Ye, Wang Zhao, Gaolin Wu, Yongquan Chen, Huihuan Qian,
Yangsheng Xu, "Design of the Linebot for power transmission lines inspection," Proc. of the
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), pp. 2593-2598, 2013.
[3] Chao Chen, Gaolin Wu, Qian Wang, Xingzhe Hou, Chengjiang Wang, Ye Linji, Wang Zhao,
Yuping Wang, "Design of the gripper for power lines inspection robot," Proc. of the 11th World
Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation (WCICA), pp. 3340-3344, 2014.
[4] Shuning Wei, Yaonan Wang, Yiming Yang, Feng Yin, Wenming Cao, Yong Tang, "Applying Q-
learning Algorithm to Study Line-Grasping Control Policy for Transmission Line Deicing
Robot", Proc. of the International Conference on Intelligent System Design and Engineering
Application (ISDEA), pp. 382-387, 2010.
[5] Wang Liang, Sun Wei, "Design of Transmission Line Deicing Robot Hybrid Power System",
Proc. of the International Conference on E-Product E-Service and E-Entertainment (ICEEE), pp
1-4, 2010.
[6] Shuning Wei, Yaonan Wang, Yi Zuo, "Wavelet neural networks robust control of farm
transmission line deicing robot manipulators," Computer Standards & Interfaces Journal, Vol.
34, Issue 3, pp. 327-333, 2012.
[7] Yimin Yang, Yaonan Wang, Xiaofang Yuan, Youhui Chen, Lei Tan, "Neural network-based
self-learning control for power transmission line deicing robot", Neural Computing &
Applications, Springer-Verlag, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 969-986, 2013.
[8] Ludan Wang, Sheng Cheng, Haojun Guan, and Jianwei Zhang, "Design, Modeling and Control
of a Line-Walking Robot for Inspection of Power Transmission Lines", Proc. of the IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), pp. 1990-1995, 2009.
[9] Ludan Wang, Sheng Cheng, Jianwei Zhang, "Development of a Line-Walking Mechanism for
Power Transmission Line Inspection Purpose", Proc. of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference
on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), pp. 3323-3328, 2009.
[10] Ludan Wang, Fei Liu, Shaoqiang Xu, Sheng Cheng, Jianwei Zhang, "Design and Analysis of a
Line-walking Robot for Power Transmission Line Inspection", Proc. of the IEEE International
Conference on Information and Automation (ICIA), pp. 1398-1403, 2010.
[11] Ludan Wang, Fei Liu, Zhen Wang, Shaoqiang Xu, Sheng Cheng, Jianwei Zhang, "Development
of a Practical Power Transmission Line Inspection Robot Based on a Novel Line Walking
Mechanism", Proc. of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
(IROS), pp. 222-227, 2010.
[12] Ludan Wang, Fei Liu, Zhen Wang, Shaoqiang Xu, Sheng Cheng, Jianwei Zhang, "Development
of a Novel Power Transmission Line Inspection Robot", Proc. of the 1st International
Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI), pp. 1-6, 2010.
[13] Ludan Wang, Fei Liu, Zhen Wang, Shaoqiang Xu, Jianwei Zhang and Sheng Cheng, "Analysis
and Control of a Biped Line-Walking Robot for Inspection of Power Transmission Lines", Proc.
of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), pp. 5863-5868, 2011.
[14] Guangzhi Zhao, Ludan Wang, Sheng Cheng, Jianwei Zhang, "Design and Realization of a
Mobile Robot for Power Transmission Lines Inspection", Proc. of the IEEE International
Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), pp. 1509-1514, 2011.
90
[15] Guo Rui, Zhang Feng, Cao Lei, Yong Jun, "A Mobile Robot for Inspection of Overhead
Transmission Lines," Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the
[16] Jidai Wang, Aiqin Sun, Candong Zheng, Jihong Wang, "Research on a New Crawler Type
Inspection Robot for Power Transmission Lines", Proc. of the 1st International Conference on
Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI), pp. 1-5, 2010.
[17] Jidai Wang, Aiqin Sun, Wei Su, Jihong Wang, Hao Liu, "Development of an Expert Control
Strategy for Controlling Obstacle Crossing of a High-voltage Transmission Line Inspection
Robot", Proc. of the 18th International Conference on Automation & Computing (ICAC), pp. 1-
5, 2012.
[18] Zheng Li, Yi Ruan, Feng Zhang, "A New Posture Plan for the Inspection Robot Capable of
Clearing Obstacles in Power Transmission Line Maintenance", Proc. of the Asia-Pacific Power
and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), pp. 1-4, 2009.
[19] Jin Jian, Zhang Guoxian, Zhang Tingyu, "Design of a mobile robot for the innovation in power
line inspection and maintenance", Proc. of the ASME/IFToMM International Conference on
Reconfigurable Mechanisms and Robots (ReMAR), pp. 444-449, 2009.
[20] Dian Songyi, Wen Xuefeng, Dong Hang, and Weng Tao, "Development of a Self-balance Dual-
arm Robot for Inspection of High-voltage Power Transmission Lines". Proc. of the IEEE
International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), pp. 2482-2487, 2012.
[21] Gongping Wu, Xianjin Xu, Hua Xiao, Jinchun Dai, Xiaohui Xiao, Zhenglie Huang, and Liping
Ruan, "A Novel Self-navigated Inspection Robot along High-Voltage Power Transmission Line
and Its Application", Proc. of the First International Conference on Intelligent Robotics and
Applications (ICIRA), Part II, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 5315, pp. 1145-1154,
2008.
[22] Xiao-hui Xiao, Gong-ping Wu, E Du, San-ping Li, "Impacts of flexible obstructive working
environment on dynamic performances of inspection robot for power transmission line", Journal
of Central South University of Tecchnol., pp. 869-876, 2008.
[23] Gongping Wu, Tuo Zheng, Hua Xiao, Cheng Li, "Navigation, Location and Non-collision
Obstacles Overcoming for High-Voltage Power Transmission-Line Inspection Robot", Proc. of
the IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), pp. 2014-2020,
2009.
[24] Gongping Wu, Tuo Zheng, Zhenglie Huang, Huan Liu, Cheng Li, "Navigation Strategy for Local
Autonomous Obstacles-Overcoming based on Magnetic Density Detection for Inspection Robot
of Single Split High Voltage Transmission Line", Proc. of the 8th World Congress on Intelligent
Control and Automation (WCICA), pp. 6555-6561, 2010.
[25] Gongping Wu, Hua Xiao, Xiaohui Xiao, Zhenglie Huang, Yingsong Li, "Transmission Line
Inspection Robot and Deicing Robot: Key Technologies, Prototypes and Applications", Proc. of
the 1st International Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI), pp. 1-6,
2010.
[26] Bai Yucheng, Wu Gongping, Xiao hua, Yan yu, Li Yingsong, Fu Xingwei, "Overhead High-
Voltage Transmission Line Deicing Robot System and Experiment Study," Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Intelligent Robotics and Applications, Vol. 6425, pp 227-239, 2010.
[27] Wei Wang, Gong-ping Wu, Yu-cheng Bai, Hua Xiao, Zhi-yong Yang, Yu Yan, Yuan He, Xian-
jin Xu, Fan Su,"Hand-eye-vision based control for an inspection robot’s autonomous line
grasping," Journal of Central South University, Springer, Vol. 21, Issue 6, pp. 2216-2227, June
2014.
91
[28] Wang Wei, Bai Yu-cheng, Wu Gong-ping, Li Shui-xia, Chen Qian, "The Mechanism of a Snake-
Like Robot’s Clamping Obstacle Navigation on High Voltage Transmission Lines", International
Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, Vol. 10, pp. 1-14, 2013.
[29] Dewei Yang, Zuren Feng, Xiang Zhang, "A Novel Tribrachiation Robot for Power Line
Inspection and its Inverse Kinematics Analysis", Proc. of the IEEE/ASME International
Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), pp. 502-507, 2012.
[30] Jae-Kyung Lee, Nam-Joon Jung, Byung-Hak Cho, "Development of Transmission Line Sleeve
Inspection Robot," Proc. of the World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
(WASET), Vol. 5, 2011.
[31] A. Mostashfi, A. Fakhari, M. A. Badri, "A Novel Design of Inspection Robot for High-Voltage
Power Lines", World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology (WASET), Vol. 76, pp.
749-755, 2013.
[32] Maleachi Bühringer, Jan Berchtold, Melanie Büchel, Claus Dold, Michael Bütikofer, Mevina
Feuerstein, Wolfgang Fischer, Christian Bermes, Roland Siegwart, "Cable-crawler - robot for the
inspection of high-voltage power lines that can passively roll over mast tops", Industrial Robot:
An International Journal, Vol. 37, Number 3, pp. 256-262, 2010.
[33] Morozovsky, N., Bewley, T., "SkySweeper: A low DOF, dynamic high wire robot," Proc. of the
IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), pp. 2339-2344,
2013.
[34] Robotee, "Power Line Inspection Robot SKYSWEEPER 11109", August 9, 2013.
URL: http://www.robotee.com/index.php/power-line-inspection-robot-skysweeper-11109
[35] Farshid Abbasi, Rebecca Miller, Javad Mohammadpour, Zion Tse, Drew McGuire, "Wheeled
Robot for Cleaning Power Lines," Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics
for the Power Industry (CARPI), pp. 1-6, 2014.
[36] TEREX RITZ, "Robot for Warning Spheres", online technical brochure, 2013.
[37] Alisson Fonseca, Ricardo Abdo and João Alberto, "Robot for Inspection of Transmission Lines",
Proc. of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI),
pp. 83-87, 2012.
[38] De Oliveira, J.A., Fonseca, A., "New concept for development of project for robot in inspection
of transmission lines," Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the
Power Industry (CARPI), pp.1-6, 2014.
[39] Pinto, J.K.C., Masuda, M., Magrini, L.C., Jardini, J.A., Garbelloti, M.V., “Mobile robot for hot
spot monitoring in electric power substation”, Proc. of the IEEE/PES Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exposition, pp. 1-5, 2008.
[40] Celio Fonseca Barbosa, Flávio Eduardo Nallin, "Corrosion Detection Robot for Energized Power
Lines," Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry
(CARPI), pp. 1-6, 2014.
[41] Fonseca Barbosa, C., "An eddy current sensor for conductor inspection on energized power
lines," Proc of the 3rd International Conference on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry
(CARPI), pp. 1-5, 2014.
[42] Sequeira, J., "Longitudinal Dynamics Modeling of the RIOL Robot", Proc. of the 1st
[43] Sequeira, J., "Reachability analysis of the RIOL robot," Proc. of the 1st International Conference
on Applied Robotics for the Power Industry (CARPI), pp.1-5, 2010.
92
[44] Jun Young Lee, Moon Young Kim, Chang Hwan Kim, Hong Jae Yim, "Design of the Link
Structure of an Inspection Robot to Pass an Obstacle on a Four conductor Transmission Line",
Proc. of the IEEE/SICE International Symposium on System Integration (SII), pp. 384-389, 2012.
[45] SunSin Han, JangMyung Lee, "Path-selection control of a power line inspection robot using
sensor fusion," Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and
Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), pp. 8-13, 2008.
[46] Hyunuk Ha, Sunsin Han, Jangmyung Lee, "Fault Detection on Transmission Lines Using a
Microphone Array and an Infrared Thermal Imaging Camera," IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 61, No.1, pp. 267-275, Jan. 2012.
[47] M.F. Abdul Jalal, K.S. Mohamed Sahari, A. Anuar, A.D. Mohd Arshad, M.S. Idris, "Conceptual
design for transmission line inspection robot", Proc. of the 4th International Conference on
Energy and Environment (ICEE), pp. 1-4, 2013.
[48] Narrendar R.C, S. Denis Ashok, "Dynamic Modelling and Obstacle Avoidance for Cable
Maneuvering Robot – In application to Transmission line Inspection robots," International
Journal of Engineering Development and Research (IJEDR), Vol. 2, Issue 4, 2014.
[49] Luis G. García-Valdovinos, Arturo Velarde-Sánchez, Luis del Llano-Vizcaya, Tomás Salgado-
Jiménez, Fernando Hernández-Rosales, Felipe Martínez-Soto, "Dynamic Model and Simulation
of an Inspection Robot for Power Transmission Lines: Preliminary Results," Proc. of the 1st
[50] Rogério Sales Gonçalves, João Carlos Mendes Carvalho, "A mobile robot to be applied in high-
voltage power lines," Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering,
Vol. 37, Issue 1, pp. 349-359, January 2015.
[51] Liyan Zhang, Shouyin He, "Mobile robot for overhead powerline inspection and a controlling
method for obstacle avoidance," Proc. of the International Conference on Electric Information
and Control Engineering (ICEICE), pp.512-515, 2011.
[52] Changlong Ye, Guojing Ma, Yi Yang, "Development of a mobile robot for transmission line,"
Proc. of the 11th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation (WCICA), pp. 2832-
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[53] Brendan Gates, "A Power Line Inspector Device", Thesis, University of Maine, Honors College,
124 p., 05-01-2013.
93

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THE USE OF ROBOTICS IN ASSESSMENT AND

State-of-the-Art of Robotic Technologies

Transmission Line Robotics

Line Suspended Robots

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Ground Based Robots

Other Types of Robots

Effective Implementation of Robotic Technologies

Future Applications of Robotic Technologies

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES .............................................................................................................................. 9

2. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES .............................................................................. 13

2.2 Robots and Robotic Technologies: Definitions and Classifications ..........................................................................................13

3. REVIEW OF EXISTING AND DEVELOPING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES ............................................ 17

3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ...............................................................................................................................................28

3.3 Ground Based Robots ....................................................................................................................................................................40

3.4 Other Types of Robots ...................................................................................................................................................................46

4. EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES............................................................ 51

4.2 Maintenance Work Using Robots .................................................................................................................................................53

Replacing Damaged Insulators on Power Lines ..........................................................................................................55

4.3 Practical Considerations for Selection of Robots .......................................................................................................................57

4.4 Potential Value of Robotics ...........................................................................................................................................................58

4.5 Economic Benefits ............................................................................................................................................................................59

4.6 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................................................61

5. ROADMAP FOR FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES ........................................ 63

5.2 Industry Drivers ................................................................................................................................................................................64

5.3 Future States ....................................................................................................................................................................................64

5.4 Examples of Future Robotic Applications ....................................................................................................................................65

5.5 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................................................67

8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 77

APPENDIX A. ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES UNDER DEVELOPMENT .............................................................. 79

A.5. Shandong Electric Power Research Institute (China) ..............................................................................................................81

A.8. Sichuan University (China) ..........................................................................................................................................................82

2. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES

2.2 ROBOTS AND ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES: DEFINITIONS AND

Definitions and Classifications

3. REVIEW OF EXISTING AND DEVELOPING ROBOTIC

3.1 LINE SUSPENDED ROBOTS

 LineScout, Hydro-Québec (Canada)

 Beihua University (China)

LineScout, Hydro-Québec (Canada)

Figure 3.1-1 LineScout Robot from Hydro-Québec

LineVueTM, Kinectrics Inc (Canada)

Figure 3.1-2 LineVueTM Robot from Kinectrics

Figure 3.1-3 Example of Reduced Data from LineVueTM Robot

Expliner, HiBot (Japan)

Figure 3.1-4 Expliner Robot from HiBot

AApe, Chinese Academy of Sciences (China)

Figure 3.1-5 AApe Inspection Robots from SIACAS

Figure 3.1-8 Close-up of Line Hardware taken by PLIR

EPRI Transmission Line Inspection Robot (Ti), EPRI (USA)

Bypass system installed on suspension clamp Demonstration of Ti Robot showing sensors

LineROVer, Hydro-Québec (Canada)

Figure 3.1-11 LineROVer Robot from Hydro-Québec

Conductor Corrosion Assessment System (CCAS), Shannon Technology (Canada)

Figure 3.1-12 CCAS Robot from Shannon Technology

Table 3.1-1 Range of CCAS Assessment (http://www.shannontechnology.com/data.htm)

3.2 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES (UAVS)

Figure 3.2-1 Example of Fixed-Wing Aircraft

For take-off, there are two main techniques:

For landing, there are three main techniques:

Figure 3.2-2 AAI Aerosonde

Figure 3.2-3 Aerovironment Global Observer

Useful Applications for Overhead Lines Maintenance