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LLC Modeling
LLC Modeling
Reproduced from
2014 Texas Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar
SEM2100,
Topic 7
TI Literature Number: SLUP329
Abstract
Control loop modeling of power supplies is essential for efficient optimization of the power supply stability
requirements as well as meeting key line and load transient performance requirements. While this is
obvious to the power supply designer, it is equally obvious that a practical small signal model for the LLC
converter is glaringly missing from the designer’s tool box. This is compounded by the rise of demanding
efficiency requirements. In some cases the total efficiency of the power supply must be 96%, while
maintaining a high power factor and low total harmonic distortion. Requirements like this are putting
significant pressure on the DC-DC stage to deliver efficiency in excess of 96%. Resonant LLC converters
are a natural choice due to their ability to achieve these high efficiencies. Unfortunately, the absence of a
user friendly small signal model has made the topology significantly more difficult to work with.
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7-1
VIN
Gate
Q1 Drive
ILR(t) Q3
Transformer
LR LK
Gate NS ISEC(t)
Drive
Q2
ILM(t) LM NP
NS CO VCO(t)
VOUT(t)
esr
Q4
VCR(t) CR Gate
Drive
7-2
Figure 2 shows the first mode – resonance. In the DC output voltage is exactly equal to ½ the
this mode Q1 and Q2 are turned on and off at a input voltage. Q3 and Q4 have no dead time and
frequency equal to the resonant frequency of the therefore also operate at exactly 50% duty cycle.
system: 1 The net result is there are only 2 states used: 1 and
5. The operation of those states is highlighted in
2π ( L R + L K ) CR the table shown in Figure 2 as well as on the
In this same figure the input voltage is adjusted waveforms. Therefore, regulation is achieved by
so that when Q1 and Q2 are modulated in this way oscillating back and forth from state 1 to state 5.
VIN
VIN = 387.6 V
Gate
Q1 Drive LLC Resonant Tank Waveforms
4 ILR(t)
Current (A)
ILR(t) Q3
Transformer 2 ILM(t)
LR LK 0
Gate NS ISEC(t) -2
Drive
Q2 -4
ILM(t) LM NP
0 5 10 15 20 25
NS CO VCO(t) Time (µs)
VOUT(t)
300
esr VCR(t)
Voltage (V)
Q4 250
200
VCR(t) CR Gate
150
100
Drive
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs)
12.20
Mode State Sequence: 1 5 Voltage (V) 12.15
12.10
VOUT(t)
12.05
12.00
11.95
State Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 11.90
11.85
1 ON OFF OFF ON 11.80
0 5 10 15 20 25
2 ON OFF ON OFF Time (µs)
ISEC(t)
4 OFF ON OFF ON 40
5 OFF ON ON OFF 20
0
6 OFF ON OFF OFF
-20
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs)
1 5
Topic 7
7-3
The next mode discussed is below-resonance. VCR(t) becomes large enough to reverse bias the
This is illustrated in Figure 3. In this case the mode diodes on the secondary. Although Q3 and Q4 are
state sequence is 1→3→5→6. Conceptually the MOSFETs, it is important to remember that they
operation is similar to that of the resonant-mode. operate as ideal diodes and therefore shut off when
States 1 and 5 are identical to those used in the their VDS is less than 0 V. Once they shut off,
previous mode and represent the energy transfer current continues to flow through ILR(t). This
mechanism. The difference is states 3 and 6 are current subsequently results in a larger voltage
interleaved into the mode. These additional states movement on VCR(t). The increased peak-to-peak
appear in the mode when ILR(t)=ILM(t). When this voltage on VCR(t) is what forces the current ILR(t)
happens the voltage on the resonant capacitor to go to a larger peak value.
VIN
VIN= 370 V
Gate
Q1 Drive LLC Resonant Tank Waveforms
4 ILR(t)
Current (A)
ILR(t) Q3
Transformer 2 ILM(t)
LR LK 0
Gate NS ISEC(t) -2
Drive
Q2 -4
ILM(t) LM NP
0 5 10 15 20 25
NS CO VCO(t) Time (µs)
VOUT(t)
300
esr VCR(t)
Voltage (V)
Q4 250
200
VCR(t) CR Gate 150
Drive 100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs)
12.20
Mode State Sequence: 1 3 5 6 12.15 VOUT(t)
Voltage (V)
12.10
12.05
12.00
11.95
State Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 11.90
11.85
1 ON OFF OFF ON 11.80
0 5 10 15 20 25
2 ON OFF ON OFF Time (µs)
ISEC(t)
4 OFF ON OFF ON 40
5 OFF ON ON OFF 20
0
6 OFF ON OFF OFF
-20
0 5 10 15 20 25
1 3 5 6
Time (µs)
Figure 3 – Mode – Below resonance.
Topic 7
7-4
The next mode discussed is above-resonance, through the opposite synchronous rectifier. This is
illustrated in Figure 4. In this case the mode state illustrated in the waveform plot in Figure 4 by the
sequence is 1→4→5→2. Like the previous two narrow shaded regions labeled as 4 and 2. As will
modes, states 1 and 5 are used as the primary be seen later, this difference in the energy transfer
energy transfer mechanism; however, in this mode, mechanism can have dramatic results on the
states 4 and 2 are also utilized. These two new overall small-signal response.
states now allow energy to transfer to the load
VIN = 410 V
VIN
Gate LLC Resonant Tank Waveforms
Q1 Drive 4 ILR(t)
Current (A)
2 ILM(t)
ILR(t) Q3
Transformer 0
LR LK -2
Gate NS ISEC(t)
-4
Drive
Q2 0 5 10 15 20 25
ILM(t) LM NP Time (µs)
NS CO VCO(t) 300
VCR(t)
Voltage (V)
VOUT(t) 250
200
esr 150
Q4
100
VCR(t) CR Gate
50
0
Drive 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs)
12.20
Mode State Sequence: 1 4 5 2 12.15 VOUT(t)
Voltage (V)
12.10
12.05
12.00
11.95
State Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 11.90
11.85
1 ON OFF OFF ON 11.80
0 5 10 15 20 25
2 ON OFF ON OFF Time (µs)
ISEC(t)
4 OFF ON OFF ON 40
5 OFF ON ON OFF 20
0
6 OFF ON OFF OFF
-20
0 5 10 15 20 25
1 4 5 2
Time (µs)
Topic 7
7-5
II. The Small Signal In power supplies, either the so-called state-
Modelling Process space-averaging method or circuit averaging
method, historically, best illustrates the averaging
Now that all the necessary ground work has
process.
been laid, the next step is to take the state-variables
along with the mode and the relevant operating A. Averaging
states and come up with a way to model the small-
signal dynamics. Figure 5 illustrates the modelling i. State Space Averaging
process. Essentially, an LLC converter is a non- In order to understand the state-space-
linear, time-varying system. That is just a averaging process, consider the simple constant
complicated way of saying that it is not possible to frequency, variable duty cycle buck converter
use traditional small signal modeling tools like the shown in Figure 6. In this same figure, 3 distinct
Bode plot. In order to do this the behavior of the operating states are explicitly drawn. For a system
actual system is approximated with a system that operating in continuous conduction mode (CCM)
is linear and time-invariant. This, in essence, is the only states 2 and 3 are used. The key system
goal of the modelling process as illustrated in waveforms are shown in Figure 7. Color is used to
Figure 5. highlight which state is operable at any given
VIN(t)
time. S1
S1 Open +
Plant VIN S2 C1
VE(t)
Controller
CE(t)
Non-linear, S2 Open – R1 IOUT
VREF(t) ∑ D(z) Time-varying
VOUT(t)
System esr1
IOUT(t)
S1
Operating Point
VIN(s)
? S1 Closed + S2 C1
S2 Open VIN – R1 IOUT
VE(s) CE(s)
Controller Plant esr1
VREF(s) ∑ D(z) G(s)
VOUT(s)
S1
IOUT(s)
S1 Open + S2 C1
Figure 5 – The small signal modeling process. S2 Closed VIN – R1 IOUT
esr1
In order to derive a system that is linear, time-
invariant and reasonably accurate the following
three steps must be completed:
(1) Calculate the steady-state operating point Figure 6: Buck converter.
(2) Average the differential equations of the state-
Topic 7
7-6
ii. Circuit Averaging
Likewise circuit averaging can also be applied
to achieve similar results as state space averaging.
In this case instead of averaging the system
differential equations, the averaging process is
applied to the “terminals” of a circuit “switch.”
Figure 8 shows a buck converter with the portion
of the circuit that is to be averaged highlighted.
S1 L1
V1 V2
I1 I2
+
C1
S2
– R1 IOUT
esr1
I3
7-7
be easily applied to the LLC converter. This stems Figure 11 shows a simple block diagram for a
from the fact that the LLC converter does not non-linear system. If the input to this system is
utilize a low-pass filter as much as it does a band- excited sinusoidally the output of the system has
pass filter. In the case of a band-pass filter both some significant non-linear effects; however, in
low and high frequencies are rejected; therefore it the case of a power supply it also has a dominant
becomes less obvious how to accomplish the linear response. This response is illustrated in
averaging. Fundamentally, a method is required Figure 12.
which captures the “average” behavior without
rejecting the necessary frequency components of
the system. Section iii describes this process. Control LLC Power Stage
Output
Effort f(x(t), u(t),t)
iii. Describing Functions
Describing functions are considered as a Figure 11 – Basic control system.
generic way to average the system’s states for each
mode without losing any critical information
contained in the system. A describing function A Fourier series expansion applied to the non-
operates by considering only specific frequency linear output of this system results in a very good
content of a given system. Any periodic approximation of the system behavior. Care must
continuous-time waveform can be represented by always be employed in using a method like this in
a summation of sine and cosine waves. Figure 10 that excellent correlation, as is shown in Figure
illustrates the Fourier series expansion of a square 12, does not always result. Fortunately for a power
wave. In the graph, the first three non-zero supply like the LLC converter it almost always
harmonics are shown. In this case it is the 1ST, 3RD does.
and 5TH. If these three waveforms are added 1.0
Control Effort
0.5
Voltage (mV)
1ST
0.0
3RD 0.0
-0.5 5TH
-0.5
-1.0 -1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (µs) Time (µs)
Composite Plot Raw Output
Describing Function Output
Topic 7
1.0
0.0
Figure 13 applies the Fourier series expansion
-0.5
to the actual state-variables of an LLC converter in
-1.0 the below-resonance operating mode. The wave
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (µs)
2.0 2.5 3.0 forms for this mode are shown as well as the
spectral content of each state-variable. From a
Figure 10 – Fourier series.
7-8
State Variable Spectral Content
LLC Resonant Tank Waveforms Some harmonics
may be significant
Current (A)
4 ILR(t) 10 1000
2 ILM(t)
1
Magnitude [A]
Magnitude [A]
0 100
-2
0.1 10
-4
0.01 1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs) 0.001 0.1
250 VCR(t) -1 1 3 5 7 9
11 13 15 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
200 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
150 Harmonic Harmonic
100
50 Output
0 1 100
0 5 10 15 20 25 10
0.1
Magnitude [A]
Magnitude [A]
Time (µs) 1
0.01 0.1
12.20
0.01
Voltage (V)
12.15 VOUT(t)
12.10 0.001 0.001
12.05 0.0001
12.00 0.0001
11.95 1E-05
11.90 1E-05 1E-06
11.85
11.80 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (µs) Harmonic Harmonic
60 Resonant Current Magnetizing Current Tesonant Capacitor Voltage Couput Capacitor Voltage
ISEC(t)
Current (A)
40
20 State Variable Harmonics Included
0
-20 ILR(t) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (µs) ILM(t) 1, 3, 5, 7
VCR(t) 0, 1, 3, 5, 7
VC_OUT(t) 0
practical standpoint, the spectral content is derived Each system state of the LLC converter is
using the discrete time Fourier transform rather modeled by a linear system defined by the
than the Fourier series. By examining the following equations. In this x(t) equation
magnitude of this content a designer can get a feel represents a vector of the system state-variables.
for which harmonics in the system are significant For completeness the output vector y(t) is also
and, therefore, must be included in the subsequent shown.
application of the Fourier series expansion in the x(t)
= A ⋅ x(t) + B ⋅ u(t)
describing function process. In this case it was y(t) = C ⋅ x(t) + D ⋅ u(t)
elected to use the harmonics shown in the figure.
The resulting model is capable of including an The actual system response, as has already
arbitrary number of harmonics for each state- been discussed, is actually non-linear and is
variable; however, this is limited to a more represented by the following equations:
practical set that, in the opinion of the author,
exceeds the requirements suggested by the data. x(t)
= f (x(t), u(t), t)
y(t) = g (x(t), u(t), t)
Topic 7
7-9
By applying a Fourier series expansion to the
entire operating mode the following equations
result: ∞
xss (t) = Xss
0
+ ∑ (Xssck ⋅ cos(k ⋅ ω s ⋅ t) + Xsssk ⋅ sin(k ⋅ ω s ⋅ t))
k =1
Q
ss 2 Ti
Fsk = ⋅ ∑ ∫T (Ai ⋅ x(t)ss + Bi ⋅ U 0 ) ⋅ sin(k ⋅ ω s ⋅ t) ⋅ dt
Ts i=1 i−1
Q
ss 2 Ti
Fck = ⋅ ∑ ∫T (Ai ⋅ x(t)ss + Bi ⋅ U 0 ) ⋅ cos(k ⋅ ω s ⋅ t) ⋅ dt
Ts i=1 i−1
xSS(t) is the steady-state value of the state Mathematically this can be accomplished by
variables, FskSS and FckSS are the sine and cosine taking the Taylor series expansion of the function
coefficients of the non-linear function f (x(t), u(t), t) for the red-line about its operating point:
in steady state, and k is the kTH harmonic of the ∂f(x 0 )
expansion. f(x) ≅ f(x 0 ) + (x − x 0 ) ⋅
∂x 0
B. Linearization Since the describing function applied in the
The next step in the small-signal modelling previous step was obtained in the form of an
process is to linearize the result. Linearization is equation, a Taylor series expansion is directly
illustrated in Figure 14. applied to this result.
Model Linearization
f(x 0 )
f(x 0 ) + (x x 0 ) + O((x x 0 )2 )
x0
The last piece of the puzzle required to obtain
a meaningful result is the steady-state operating
0.8
Function
Linearized Function steady state solution. The LLC converter is, by
nature, a 4TH order system and, to-date, this author
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Input Vector
system. Those attributes are: simulator that is both very fast and extremely
f(x1 + x 2 ) = f(x1 ) + f(x 2 ) accurate.
a ⋅ f(x) = a ⋅ f(a ⋅ x)
7-10
Each system state in the LLC converter is Figure 16 compares the model with physical
approximated as a linear differential equation. lab measurements of an actual LLC converter.
Using linear algebra and the matrix-exponential
function, a closed form solution to the differential LLC Small Signal Model
110
equations in each state is obtained. Taking the
final values of the state-variables and making 105
Gain (dB)
in a given mode obtains a lightning-fast, highly 95
x n (t i ) = (e A ⋅ t
- I) ⋅ A-1 ⋅ B ⋅ U + e A ⋅ t 75
⋅ x n (t i-1 ) 10 100 1000 104 105
Frequency (Hz)
180
Phase (°)
substantiate the accuracy of the resulting model. 0
Figure 15 compares the model with an independent -45
circuit simulation of an LLC converter with a high -90
Q in the resonant tank. -135
-180
LLC Small Signal Model 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz)
110
105
100
Figure 16 – Model vs. measurement.
In both cases the correlation is excellent and
Gain (dB)
95
7-11
Plant Response rejection. Stability all by itself is trivial. LLC
converters are open-loop stable so they always
90
Q start out stable. It is only after messing with them
and doing things to improve the reference tracking
80
and disturbance rejection that they become
Gain (dB)
7-12
the same locations as the dominant plant poles and Compensation
Gain (dB)
Compensation 0 fbw
140
-50
120
Gain (dB)
80 Phase
180
135
60
90
10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) 45 Om
Phase (°)
Phase 0
180
-45
135
-90
Compensation
90
-135 Plant
45 Loop
Phase (°)
-180
0 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz)
-45
7-13
The values of the compensation parameters Table 10 summarizes the resulting performance
are summarized in Table 9. metrics for these new compensation choices.
Notice that there is little to no impact to the φm or
Symbol Value Description
fbw, however, there is a substantial improvement to
G0 0 dB The low frequency gain of the
gm. The relevance of this improvement is shown in
compensator. Sometimes called the
DC gain. the subsequent sections.
Qz 1.35 The compensator zero quality factor.
fz 4 kHz The position of the compensator’s
complex zero pair. Symbol Value Description
fp 15 kHz Extra compensator pole gm 20 dB Gain margin. This is the amount of
gain change necessary to make the
Table 9 – Compensation choices system unstable when the phase is
with an extra pole. exactly equal to 0 °.
φm 90 ° Phase margin. This is the amount
Figure 20 shows the resulting Bode plot. of phase change necessary to make
Compensation the system unstable when the gain is
exactly equal to 0 dB.
fbw 3 kHz Bandwidth. This is the frequency of
50 the system where the gain equals 0
dB. This is a figure of merit of the
system’s ability to reject disturbances.
Gain (dB)
gm
0 fbw
Table 10 – Performance metrics
-50 with G0 = 9.5 dB.
D. Performance Considerations
10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz)
The previous section only focused on
eliminating the DC error inherent to the LLC
Phase
180 converter without any serious consideration to
135 how well it rejects system disturbances. While fbw
90 is a very useful metric, it is inadequate in its ability
45 Om to quantify the benefits of one compensation
Phase (°)
7-14
i. Output Impedance, ZOUT(s)
Using the compensation choices summarized
in Table 9 as a starting point, Figure 21 graphs the
resulting compensation and ZOUT(S).
Compensation ZOUT(s)
100 0.1
Open Loop
Closed Loop
0.01 ZC_OUT(s)
50
Impedance (Ω)
0.001
Gain (dB)
0
10-4
-50
10-5
-100 10-6
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Phase Phase
180 180
135 135
90 90
45 45
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
0 0
-45 -45
-90 -90
Compensation
-135 Plant -135
Loop
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Three curves are shown in order to illustrate Notice that the feedback provides a
the benefit the feedback (i.e. the compensation) considerable reduction to Z OUT (s). This
provides to this transfer function. improvement is most notable at lower frequencies
where the gain of the system is the largest. Once
Symbol Description
the frequency has crossed 0 dB the ability of the
ZOUT(s), Open Loop This is the open loop output im-
compensator to reject disturbances is diminished
pedance of the converter.
and the three curves converge.
ZOUT(s), Closed This is the closed loop output
Loop impedance of the converter. In an effort to improve the performance, the
ZC_OUT(s) This is the impedance of the out- gain of the compensator is increased from 0 dB to
put capacitor bank. It is added as 9.5 dB. The resulting graphs are illustrated in
an additional metric to justify the Figure 22.
Topic 7
accuracy of the model.
7-15
Compensation ZOUT(s)
100 0.1
Open Loop
Closed Loop
0.01 ZC_OUT(s)
50
Impedance (Ω)
0.001
Gain (dB)
0
10-4
-50
10-5
-100 10-6
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Phase Phase
180 180
135 135
90 90
45 45
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
0 0
-45 -45
-90 -90
Compensation
-135 Plant -135
Loop
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
7-16
ii. Input Voltage Disturbance Rejection, choices summarized in Table 9 are the starting
^ (s)/ V
V ^ (s) point and Figure 23 graphs the resulting
OUT IN
The process taken in section i is now repeated ^
compensation and V ^
OUT(s)/ VIN(s).
for V^ ^
OUT(s)/ V IN(s). As before, the compensation
Compensation VO(s)/VIN(s)
100 -20
-30
50
-40
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
0 -50
-60
-50
-70
Open Loop
-100 Closed Loop
-80
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Phase Phase
180 180
135 135
90 90
45 45
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
0 0
-45 -45
-90 -90
Compensation
-135 Plant -135
Loop
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
-30
50
-40
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
0 -50
-60
-50
-70
Open Loop
Closed Loop
-100 -80
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Phase Phase
180 180
135 135
90 90
45 45
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
Topic 7
0 0
-45 -45
-90 -90
Compensation
-135 Plant -135
Loop
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
7-17
E. Plant Variations voltage operating point. This seems to match the
In order to finish off the discussion of the intuition of the circuit. At resonance the tank is
small signal model, it is valuable to discuss how thought of as a short circuit, removing any load
the plant characteristics change with operating dependence. In addition, when the input voltage
point. In this context, the operating point includes falls, the system still operates at the resonant
variations in input voltage as well as load. The frequency with dead times between ½ cycles.
word variation refers only to a shift in the DC These dead times (i.e. time periods when the
operating point of the system and not small signal synchronous rectifiers do not conduct) produce a
amplitude. greater variation in the voltage across the resonant
Figures 25 and 26 help to illustrate how these capacitor which ultimately increases the “gain” of
variations behave. Figure 25 shows two input the system. Presumably these dead times are what
voltages and the corresponding Bode plots for an give the system its input voltage independent
array of different gains. When operating at 370 V appearance. This is also observed in the DC
all the load conditions represent the below- operating point curves.
resonance operating mode. Operation at 400 V Operation above-resonance results in
represents the above-resonance mode. Likewise significantly more variation in the Bode plots.
Figure 26 shows the same kind of trends. In this There is a strong dependence on load. In addition
case, two load conditions are considered over a it appears that the transition from the resonant
range of input voltages. In all cases the solid lines frequency mode to the above-resonant mode
represent operation at or below-resonance, while results in the system poles splitting from a complex
the dashed lines are above-resonance. pole pair into two real poles. This could be the
Operation at or below-resonance appears as a result of the fact that when operating below-
second order system. The overall dynamics are resonance there are two distinct states. There are
approximately independent of the load and input four actually, but two of them are just a mirror
VIN = 370 V VIN = 400 V
Gain Gain
90 90
Increasing
80 80
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
Load
70 70
Increasing
Load Legend
60 60 0.4 Ω
0.5 Ω
0.6 Ω
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104 0.7 Ω
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz) 0.8 Ω
0.9 Ω
Phase Phase 1.0 Ω
180 180
1.1 Ω
135 135 1.2 Ω
1.3 Ω
90 90 1.4 Ω
45 45
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
Topic 7
Increasing
0 0
Load
Increasing
-45 Load -45
-90 -90
-135 -135
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
7-18
image of the other two. However, there is only one
state that transfers energy. When operating above-
resonance there are still only two states (again,
actually four) but, in this case, both states transfer
energy. This author suspects that it is the ratio of
these two modes to the overall energy transfer
cycle that creates more drastic plot variations.
Load = 0.4 Ω Load = 1.4 Ω
Gain Gain
100 100
90 90
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
80 80 Legend
Increasing
370 V
VIN 372 V
70 70 374 V
Increasing 376 V
VIN 378 V
60 60 380 V
382 V
384 V
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
386 V
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz) 388 V
390 V
Phase Phase 392 V
180 180
394 V
135 135 396 V
398 V
90 90 400 V
45 45
402 V
404 V
Phase (°)
Phase (°)
Increasing Increasing
0 0 406 V
VIN Load
408 V
-45 -45 410 V
-90 -90
-135 -135
-180 -180
10 100 1000 104 10 100 1000 104
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
V. Overview of Key Tools Enabling of the Fusion Digital Power Designer. For those
the Practical Use of the New readers not familiar with this tool, it is a turn-key
Model environment for working with the UCD based
The complexity of the new model prohibits digital power products from Texas Instruments.
wide spread use and adoption without some kind The new LLC based tools provide small signal
of aid. Therefore, a set of GUI based tools have modeling support for both half-bridge and full-
been developed to make the application of the bridge LLC configurations as well as an easy-to-
model trivial to a wide variety of operating use format that allows users to customize the
conditions. This tool is packaged with the Fusion component values used in their application. The
Topic 7
Digital Power Designer. By doing this, users are small signal model automatically analyzes the
provided with a turn-key environment to both system and determines the operating mode as well
analyze and program their loop coefficients. as the unique operating states used in that mode.
Figure 27 shows a screen shot of the design tab While this paper only discussed three operating
modes, this tool is not limited to that.
7-19
Figure 27 – Fusion design tab.
In addition to the small signal model discussed,
the steady state operating point finder also provides
a wide array of outputs that give the user additional
insight into the operation of the specific LLC Figure 29 – Fusion secondary currents.
converter under consideration. Figures 28 and 29
show some examples of the kinds of plots that are VI. Practical Limitations
available. If a new component value is selected, While great effort has been taken to validate
the Bode plot, associated time domain data, the results of the model and the associated outputs,
frequency domain, states and modes are all there are still some limitations, as one might
recalculated and the GUI display is updated in just expect from any such model. For starters, a model
a couple of seconds. This fast accurate response like this is only going to give predictions
makes these tools an incredibly valuable design commensurate with the inputs provided. In other
aid to the power supply designer’s tool box. words, if the input parameters are not correct the
output cannot be expected to be correct. On top of
this there are a few other scenarios where the user
should exercise caution before trusting the results:
•• Low efficiency scenarios may need additional
work to achieve proper correlation. At very low
efficiency the loss terms in the real circuit may
be large enough that the model does not predict
the correct behavior. It may be possible to
compensate for this by increasing the model
resistance.
•• The model does not support PWM or PSM. The
model was created with the infrastructure to
Topic 7
7-20
•• Corner cases may exist which limit the accuracy VIII. References
due to numerical approximations.
[1] h t t p : / / w w w . p l u g l o a d s o l u t i o n s .
•• Additional work may be required to ensure
com/80PlusPowerSupplies.aspx.
accuracy, especially at higher frequencies.
[2] McDonald, Brent and Freeman, Dave,
•• Higher frequency operation may include the “Designing an LLC Resonant Half-Bridge
effects of parasitics that were not considered Power Converter,” SEM2000; Texas
during the original modelling process. Instruments, Dallas, TX, 2012.
[3] http://www.ti.com/product/ucd3138.
VII. Conclusions & Future Work
[4] Yang, B., Lee, F.C. and Concannon, M., “Over
A new set of modelling methods and tools Current Protection Methods for LLC Resonant
have been presented which are capable of Converter,” Applied Power Electronics
predicting the small and large signal behavior of Conference and Exposition, 2003. APEC ‘03.
the LLC converter for virtually any operating Eighteenth Annual IEEE , vol.2, pp.605-609,
mode. This tool set provides the design engineer Feb. 9-13, 2003.
with analytical predictions of plant pole zero [5] Huang, Hong, “Designing an LLC Resonant
behavior that enables more robust compensation Half-Bridge Power Converter,” SEM1900;
as well as the ability to simulate and predict Texas Instruments, Manchester, NH, 2010.
parameter variations & extreme operating [6] Bing Lu; Wenduo Liu; Yan Liang; Lee, F.C.;
conditions. In addition, it provides independent van Wyk, J.D., “Optimal Design
validation of the DC operating point along with Methodology for LLC Resonant Converter,”
instant visualization of key system waveforms and Applied Power Electronics Conference and
harmonic content. All of this is provided with Exposition, 2006. APEC ‘06. Twenty-First
seamless integration to TI standard isolated digital Annual IEEE, March 19-23, 2006.
controllers. [7] Ya Liu; “High Efficiency Optimization of
This new tool set opens a wide variety of other LLC Resonant Converter for Wide Load
features that can be added into future version of Range,” Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
the GUI. Among these features are: State University, Master’s Thesis, 2007.
• DC operating point plots based on time
[8] Yiqing Ye; Chao Yan; Jianhong Zeng;
domain simulation instead of just the first
Jianping Ying; “A Novel Light Load Solution
harmonic approximation.
for LLC Series Resonant Converter,”
• Performance metric plots like:
^ ^ Telecommunications Energy Conference,
- ZOUT(s) = V OUT(s)/ IOUT(s)
^ (s)/^I (s) 2007. INTELEC 2007. 29th International,
- ZIN (s)=V IN IN
^ ^ (s) pp.61-65, Sept. 30 2007-Oct. 4 2007.
- VOUT(s)/ V IN
- ^I (s)/^I [9] Maksimovic, D., Erickson, R., Griesbach, C,
IN OUT(s)
“Modeling of Cross-Regulation in Converters
• Additional modulation methods:
Containing Coupled Inductors,” Applied
- PSM
Power Electronics Conference and
- PWM
Exposition, 1998. APEC ‘98. Conference
• Additional states & modes to include effects
Proceedings 1998, Thirteenth Annual, vol.1,
like:
pp.350-356, Feb 15-19, 1998.
Topic 7
- Switching transitions
- Body diode conduction [10] Suntio, T., Glad, A., Waltari, P., “Constant-
Current vs. Constant-Power Protected
Rectifier as a DC UPS System’s Building
Block,” Telecommunications Energy
Conference, 1996. INTELEC ‘96, 18th
International, pp.227-233, Oct 6-10, 1996.
7-21
[11] Lazar, J.F., Martinelli, R., “Steady-State [23] B. Yang, “Topology Investigation for Front
Analysis of the LLC Series Resonant End DC/DC Power Conversion for
Converter,” Applied Power Electronics Distributed Power System,” Dissertation,
Conference and Exposition, 2001. APEC Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, September
2001. Sixteenth Annual IEEE, vol.2, pp.728- 2003.
735, 2001. [24] Yang, B. and Lee, F.C., “Small Signal
[12] Martin Zhang (Zhang Tao), Sober Hu (Hu Analysis for LLC Resonant Converter,”
Yanshen); “Phase Shifted Full Bridge LLC Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 2002.
Resonant Converter”, Web-Link. [25] Hsiao, C., Ridley, R.B. and Lee, F.C., “The
[13] http://www.synopsys.com/Systems/Saber/ Simulation of Switching Converters Using
Pages/default.aspx. the New Version COSMIR. Program,” VPEC
[14] http://www.simetrix.co.uk/site/products/ Seminar, September 1989.
simplis.htm. [26] Hsiao, C., Ridley, R.B., Naitoh, H. and Lee,
[15] R. D. Middlebrook, “Measurement of Loop F.C., “Circuit-Oriented Discrete-Time
Gain in Feedback Systems,” Int. J. Modeling and Simulation for Switching
Electronics, 1975, pp. 485-512. Converters,” IEEE Power Electronics
[16] Groves, J.O. and Lee, F.C., “Small Signal Specialists Conference and Exposition,
Analysis of Systems with Periodic Operating 1987.
Trajectories,” Proc. VPEC Annual Seminar, [27] Hsiao, C., Ridley, R.B. and Lee, F.C., “Small-
1988, pp. 224-235. Signal Analysis of Switching DC-DC
[17] J. O. Groves, “Small-Signal Analysis Using Converters Using the Simulation Program
Harmonic Balance Methods,” Proc. IEEE COSMIR,” VPEC Seminar, September 1988.
PESC, 1991, pp. 74-79. [28] Witulski, A., Hernandez, A.F., Erickson,
[18] J. O. Groves, “Small-Signal Analysis of R.W., “Small Signal Equivalent Circuit
Nonlinear Systems with Periodic Operation Modeling of Resonant Converters,” Power
Trajectories,” Ph.D. Dissertation, Virginia Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.6,
Tech, Blacksburg, VA, April 1995. no.1, pp.11-27, Jan 1991.
[19] E. Yang, “Extended Describing Function [29] V. Vorperian, “Approximate Small-Signal
Method for Small-Signal Modeling of Analysis of the Series and the Parallel
Switching Power Circuit,” Proc. VPEC Resonant Converters,” Power Electronics,
Annual Seminar, 1994, pp.87-96. IEEE Transactions on, Volume: 4, Issue: 1 ,
Jan. 1989.
[20] Yang, E., Lee, F.C. and Jovanovic, M.,
“Small-Signal Modeling of Series and [30] Forsyth, A., Ho, Y.K.E., Ong, H.M.,
Parallel Resonant Converters,” Proc. IEEE “Comparison of Small-Signal Modeling
APEC, 1992, pp. 785-792. Techniques for the Series-Parallel Resonant
Converter,” Power Electronics and Variable-
[21] E. Yang, “Extended Describing Function
Speed Drives, Fifth International Conference
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on, 1994.
Resonant and Multi-Resonant Converters,”
Dissertation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, [31] Sanders, S., Noworolski, J.M., Liu, X.Z. and
Verghese, G.C., “Generalized Averaging
Topic 7
February 1994.
Method for Power Conversion Circuits,”
[22] Wong, R. and Groves, J.O., “An Automated
IEEE PESC 1990.
Small-Signal Frequency-Domain Analyzer
for General Periodic-Operating Systems as
Obtained via Time-Domain Simulation,”
Proc. IEEE PESC, 1995, pp. 801-808.
7-22
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