Indian 

Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Department of Earth Sciences

ES654A: ADVANCED STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 2. Introduction ‐ II
Santanu Misra
Department of Earth Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
smisra@iitk.ac.in        http://home.iitk.ac.in/~smisra/

Review of Previous Lecture

Any question?

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 What is Structural Geology?
Structural Geology is commonly used together with Tectonics and Geodynamics 

struere (latin) : build

tektos (greek) : builder
dunamis (greek) : power, force

The subject concerns in general with the shape (geometry), displacements (kinematics) and
forces (mechanics) in Earth and Planetary bodies

Highly interdisciplinary subject:

Material Science, Mechanics, Physics, Computer Science, Remote sensing

Geophysics, Petrology (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary), Geodesy, Survey

Structural Geology / Tectonics / Geodynamics
Structural Geology characterizes the deformation structures, displacements (kinematics), and forces
that produced the deformation (dynamics). A field‐based discipline, structural geology operates at
scales ranging from 100 microns to 100 meters (i.e. grain to outcrop).

Tools: Field‐study, Rock Deformation, Analogue experiments, Numerical models.

Photo: Santanu Misra

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 Structural Geology / Tectonics / Geodynamics

Tectonics picturizes the geological

scenario (maps, cross sections, 3D
presentations etc.) of deformation
together with information from
petrology, stratigraphy and geophysics.
Tectonics operates at scales ranging
from 100 m to 1000 km, mostly
confined on the movement of the
plates and their mutual‐interactions
(continental rifting and basins
formation, subduction, collisional
processes and mountain building
processes etc.).

Tools: Field‐study, Analogue

experiments, Numerical models.

Ding et al., 2022 / Nature Review

Structural Geology / Tectonics / Geodynamics
Geodynamics discusses about the forces and processes drive the plate tectonics, and deformation of
materials inside the earth (mantle convection, plumes etc.). The study of Geodynamics operates at scales
> 100 km.

Tools: Analogue experiments, Numerical Models

https://unixtitan.net https://concord.org

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 What does a Structural Geologist do?

Observe deformed rocks and explain why and how they ended up at their present state. 

a. Field Observation

b. Laboratory Experiments

c. Analytical and Numerical Modelling

..all of them have merits & demerits; also complementary to each other

What does a Structural Geologist do?

To interpret and define, on the basis of scientific data…..

Complex interaction of natural elements 
Large‐scale in both time and space 
Large time scale = "non‐repeatable" experiments 

Geologic Reconstruction…. 

Time is the limiting factor 
extremely slow rates of deformation, very large scale 
Solving jig‐saw puzzle 
(1) no initial picture 
(2) some pieces may be missing 
(3) multiple phases of deformation at different times

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 Different ways of studying Structural Geology
Geometric Models (Structural Analysis): Qualitative or Quantitative
a. 2D or 3D interpretation of form and orientation of structures
DIRECT METHODS

b. based on data obtained from field studies (mapping, geophysical data) 
c. represented by cross sections and maps. 

Kinematic Model (Strain Analysis): mostly Quantitative
a. reconstructing specific history of motion, displacement 
(Plate tectonics is a kinematic model)

Mechanical Model (Dynamic Analysis): Quantitative
a. reconstructing the mechanical processes that resulted in rock deformation
b. deals with forces, rheology, deformation mechanism etc.
INDIRECT METHODS

Analytical Model 
a. hypothesis 
b. model derivation 
c. additional data collection
d. compare with natural observations

Geometric Model ‐ Example

http://www.geologyin.com

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 Geometric Model ‐ Example

Lamarche et al., 2008

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Geometric Model ‐ Example
Integration of multi‐disciplinary data,
including reservoir simulation, seismic
attribute extractions, structure model,
and production data

Dynamic Graphics (www.dgi.com)

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 Kinematic Model ‐ Example

Photo‐source: Unknown

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Kinematic Model ‐ Example

Photo‐source: Unknown

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 Kinematic Model ‐ Example

Photo: Santanu Misra

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Kinematic Model ‐ Example

Streule et al., 2010

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 Dynamic Models ‐ Example

Sand Box Experimental Set‐up
(Photo: Judith Hubbard, EOS, NTU)

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Dynamic Models ‐ Example

Experiment: Judith Hubbard, EOS, NTU

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 Dynamic Models ‐ Example
Superposition of folding

Stage 1 Stage 2

Stage 3 Stage 4
Experiments: Santanu Misra

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Dynamic Models ‐ Example
 = 0  = 1

 = 2  = 11

Barnhoorn et al., JSG 2004

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 Review statements of Introduction
Structural Geology is a highly interdisciplinary subject and has changed from being a
descriptive discipline to quantitative science.

The key skill of a Structural Geologist is observation and answer questions “Why”; “How”
and “When”.

The rocks contain the crucial information. Field Geology is, therefore, very important.

The interpretation of every structural observations we make, are scale dependent.

Experimental and Numerical models have limitations and are way behind to reach/mimic
the complexity of nature.

Models can also help us to distinguish between possible and impossible interpretations.
However, they must always agree with the information retrievable from the field.

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Next Lecture

Structural elements Structural elements

Stereographic Projection Stereographic Projection

OR
Strain Strain

Stress Stress

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