THEOREM 1.

1: For all vectors ⃗

x , ⃗y ,and ⃗z ,and real numbersc THEOREM 1.11: Let a , b , and c be real numbers. Then
andd , {( x , y )∨ax +by +c =0 } is
i. ( ⃗x +⃗y ) +⃗z =⃗x +(⃗y + ⃗z ) i. the empty set if a=0 , b=0 , and c ≠ 0 ,
ii. ⃗x +⃗y=⃗y + ⃗x ii. the whole plane R2 if a=0 , b=0 , and c=0 ,
iii. ⃗x + ⃗0=⃗x iii. a line with normal vector (a , b) otherwise.
iv. ⃗x + (−⃗x )=0⃗
THEOREM 1.12 (Pythagoras): Let P ,Q , and R be three
v. 1 ⃗x =⃗x 2 2 2
distinct points. Then |R−P| =|Q−P| +|R−Q| iff the
vi. c ( ⃗x + ⃗y ) =c ⃗x +c ⃗y
´ and RQ
lines QP ´ are perpendicular.
vii. ( c +d ) ⃗x =c ⃗x +d ⃗x
viii. c ( d ⃗x )=(cd ) ⃗x THEOREM 1.13: If l ⊥m , then l and m have a unique point
in common.
THEOREM 1.2: ∀ ⃗x , ⃗y , ⃗z ∈ R2 , andc ∈ R

i. ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗y +⃗z ⟩= ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗y ⟩+ ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗z ⟩
ii. ⟨ ⃗x , c ⃗y ⟩=c ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗y ⟩
iii. ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗y ⟩ =⟨ ⃗y , ⃗x ⟩
iv. x , ⃗y ⟩ =⃗0, then either ⃗x =0⃗ or ⃗y= ⃗0
If ⟨ ⃗

THEOREM 1.3: The length function has the following

properties:

i. |⃗x|≥ ⃗0 ∀ ⃗x ∈ R2
ii. If |⃗x|= ⃗0 ,then ⃗x =⃗0
iii. |c ⃗x|=|c||⃗x| ∀ ⃗x ∈ R 2
THEOREM 1.4 (CAUCHY – SCHWARZ INEQUALITY): For two
x , ⃗y ∈ R2 we have|⟨ ⃗x , ⃗y ⟩|≤|⃗x||⃗y|. Equality holds iff
vectors ⃗
⃗x and⃗y are proportional.

x , ⃗y ∈ R2 ,|⃗x + ⃗y|≤|⃗x|+|⃗y| .Equality

COROLLARY TO 1.4: For ⃗
holds iff ⃗
x and⃗y are proportional with a nonnegative
proportionality factor.

THEOREM 1.5: Let P ,Q , and R be points of E2 . Then

i. d ( P ,Q ) ≥ 0
ii. d ( P ,Q ) =0 iff P=Q
iii. d ( P ,Q ) =d (Q , P)
iv. d ( P ,Q ) +d ( Q , R ) ≥ d ( P , R)
THEOREM 1.6: Let P and Q be distinct points of E2 . Then
there is a unique line containing P and Q , which we denote
´ .
by PQ

THEOREM 1.7: Let P , X , and Q be distinct points of E2 .

Then X is between P and Q iff
d ( P , X )+ d ( X ,Q )=d ( P ,Q).
THEOREM 1.8: Two distinct lines have at most one point of
intersection.

THEOREM 1.9: Let { ⃗ w } be an orthonormal pair of vectors

v,⃗
in R 2. Then for all x ∈ R2 , x= ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗
v ⟩ ⃗v + ⟨ ⃗x , ⃗
w⟩⃗
w.
THEOREM 1.10: Let P be any point and let ⟨ ⃗
v , N ⟩ be an
orthonormal pair of vectors. Then
P+ [ ⃗v ]= { ⟨ X ∨X −P , N ⟩=0 } .
COROLLARY TO THEOREM 1.10: If N is any nonzero vector,
{ ⟨ X∨ X−P , N ⟩ =0 } is the line through P with normal
vector N and, hence, direction vector N ⊥ .