DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – DASMARINAS
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
 is the science of analyzing firearms usage in crimes. It
involves analysis of bullets and bullets impact to
determine information of use to a court or other part of
legal system. Separately from the ballistics
information, firearm and toolmark examinations also
involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark
evidence in order to established whether a certain
firearm or tool was used in the commission of crime.
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
 the identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or
other ammunition components as having been fired
from a specific firearm.
ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC
“BALLISTICS”
➢ from the Greek word “Ballein” which means “to throw”
➢ from the Roman word “Ballista” which is a gigantic bow or
catapult used to hurl a stone.
➢ From those words the modern term for Forensic Ballistics
was derived to indicate the science of moving projectile.
BALLISTIC
➢ the science of the motion of projectiles and the condition
that affects their motion
➢ science of firearms identification involves examination of
fired bullets; fired shells; firearms; and allied matters, used in
crime.
COMMON TERMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS
MOTION
 refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile
from the time it leaves the shell empty, it leaves the
gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall in the
ground.
 Projectile - is any metallic or non-metallic ball which
is propelled from a firearm
3 TYPES OF MOTION
 Direct Motion - is the forward motion of the bullet or
shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive
force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
 Rotatory Motion - is the action of the bullet passing
through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either
twisted to the left or to the right.
 Translational - is the action of bullet once it hits a
target and subsequently ricocheted.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1) INTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of
the projectiles while still in the firearm, namely the
studies of combustion of the powder, pressure
developed and velocity. It involves the ff:
 Firing pin hitting the primer
 Ignition of the priming mixture - (KCLO3,
sulfur and carbon) located either at the cavity
rim or at the center of the primer upon the
striking effect of the firing pin will ignite and
such action is known as “Percussion
action”.
 Combustion of the gunpowder
 Energy that is generated
 Force/Pressure developed
 Recoil of the gun - the equal and opposite
reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet upon explosion. The
backward or rearward movement of the gun
 Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to
the muzzle) - is the relative speed of the
bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel
 Rotation of the bullet
 Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the
bullet
 Action – term referring to the mechanism of a
firearm.
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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness
that burning propellant
 Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within
the chamber erroneously called breeched pressure.
 Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules
into gas instead of solids to cause the high explosives
to exert full power of shock. The speed
of detonation varies in different explosive but in some
it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
 Foot – Pound - Energy the amount of work required
to raise one pound one foot high against the force of
gravity..
 Foot second - Velocity
 Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of
gunpowder with a relatively great expansion and
spontaneous tendency.
 Hang fire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode
on time or delayed in firing.
 Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This
is different from hang fire which merely a delayed
combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to
start combustion.
 Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which
delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the
victim down and may then recover if the wound
inflicted upon is not fatal.
 Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder
combustion against cartridge case, chamber and
bore.
 Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun
against the forward movement of the bullet during the
explosions.
 Jump is another portion of the recoil action
characterized as the backward and upward
movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves
the muzzle.
 Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the
chamber after the bullet has left the barrel
 Yaw - the instability of the bullet
2) EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) Ballistics - treats of
the attributes or movement of the projectile after
leaving the gun muzzle.
d.2.Effective Range - distance within which when the
bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal
injury.
d.3.Maximum Range - the farthest distance the
bullet could travel.
E. Velocity - refers to the rate of speed of the bullet
(during its flight) per unit of time usually express in
feet per second (ft/sec.)
F. Pull of Gravity - is the downward reaction of the
bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight.
G. Air Resistance - Refers to the force of the air
encounter by the bullet in its flight.
3) TERMINAL Ballistics - deals with the effects of
the impact of the projectile on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy - refers to the size of
the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy - the energy or force of the
projectile when it strikes the target same as
striking energy.
c. Terminal Velocity - the speed of the bullet
upon striking the target.
d. Terminal Penetration - the depth of entry of
the bullet in the target.
4) FORENSIC Ballistics - the branch of ballistic
which is the product of the application of the
ballistics to law. The idea comes with the used
of the word forensic.
- defined as the study of the motion of the
projectile as applied to law or simply the
science of firearm identification by means of the
ammunition fired through them
FORENSIC - was derived from the Latin word
“forum” meaning a “marketplace” where people
gathered for public disputation or public discussion.
When used in connection with the word ballistics or
other natural science, it suggests a relationship to the
courts of justice or legal proceedings.

A. Muzzle Blast - is the noise created at the muzzle

point of the gun.
B. Muzzle Energy - energy generated at the muzzle
point measured in foot-pound.
C. Trajectory - refers to the parabola-like flight of the
projectile from the time
it leaves the muzzle until it hits the target. It is also
described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
during its flight
D. Range - refers to the imaginary straight distance
between the muzzle of the gun and the target. 1. FIELD INVESTIGATION
d.1.Accurate Range - distance within which the - the job of the field investigator includes
shooter or gunner has control of his shots. recognition, collection, markings, prevention,
packing and transmittal of ballistics exhibit

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 DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – DASMARINAS
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
2. TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF
BALLISTICS EXHIBIT
- job performed by a firearm identification
examiner includes markings of evidence, test-
firing evidences, photomicrography,
preparation of reports
3. LEGAL PROCEEDING
- the most critical part in the field of firearm
identification the firearm examiner goes to court
to testify as an expert witness
MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
John M. Browning Wizard of the modern
firearms and pioneered the
breech loading single shot
rifled which was adopted by
Winchester.
Samuel Colt Patented first practical
revolver maker of the
Peace Maker, a famous
revolver in history.
Alexander John Forsyth Father of the percussion
powder
Major Uziel Gal An Israeli army who
designed UZI (Israel) in the
year 1950.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard Father of modern Ballistics.
John C. Garand Designed and invented The
Semi automatic US Rifle
Cal. 30. M1 Garand.
George Hyde A well-known expert in the
field of SMG, (also known
as grease gun) developed
in 1941.M3A1(USA).
Mikhail Kalashnikov Designed the AK
47(Avtomat Kalashnikova)
(Soviet Union) adopted by
the Russian Army in the
year 1951.
THE Horace Smith Founded Great Firm of
Smith and Wesson and
pioneered in making
breech loading rifles.
and Eugene Stoner Designs the U.S. M16
Armalite under licensed by
Colt Company from July
1959 onwards.
L.C. Smith Developed shotgun bearing
his name now the Ithaca
Gun Company.
John T. Thompson Developed in the course of
WW1 the Thompson
M1A1 and model of 1928
A1(USA). Pioneered the
making of Thompson
sub-machine gun.
Daniel B. Wesso Associates of Horace Smith
in the making of Revolver.
David“Carbine”Williams Maker of the first known
Carbine.
Oliver Winchester One of the earliest rifle and
pistol maker.
Benjamin Robins Father of Modern Gunnery
Benjamin Thompson made the first attempt to
measure the pressure
generated by gunpowder
BRIEF HISTORY OF FIREARMS
 Hand Cannons - first own portable type of handgun
14th century.  
 Matchlocks (1450) - first handguns, can be actuated
by applying a lighted match, a cord dipped in saltpeter
used in the Thirty Years' War
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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 Wheel Lock - (RA 10591 ComFARA) Comprehensive Firearm and

- replaced the matchlock
- has a wheel known as "arquebus", a
serrated steel wheel
- invented in the late 15th century in Italy- is
said to be found in the work of Leonardo Da
Vinci's "II Codice Atlantico"
 Snaphaunce or Snaphance - second half 16th
century, can be fired from iron pyrites or flint
 Miquelet Lock - the name derived from the body of
men organized in Spain as government escorts called
"Miquelites" follower of Casare Borgia
 Flint Lock - believed to have been invented in France
by Marin le Bourgeoys of Lisieux
- as a mechanism that produced spark by striking a
piece of flint against a steel
 Percussion S ystem- in this system, a metal cup
containing a very sensitive compound
 - Introduces by Alexander John Forsyth “The
Father of Percussion System”
 Pinfire System - Lefaucheux of Paris
 Rimfire System - the initial development was made
by Flobert, a French gunsmith
- Smith and Wesson produced the first break-open
type revolver to fire .22 caliber rimfire cartridges
 Dreyse Needle Fire Rifle - a military breech-loading
rifle
 - became famous as the main infantry weapon of the
Prussians
 - invented by the gunsmith Johann Nikolaus von
Dreyse
 Center Fire System - the primer cup had to be soft
enough to be crushed by the firing
BORE DIAMETER ( CALIBER )
 pin
 Hand Bombard or Hand Cannon
 According to B.J. Heard, “Pistol” is derived from the
word “pistolla” which means pommel of the saddle.
Ammunition Regulation Act
- refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether
a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is
designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any
projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive
force of gases from burning gunpowder or other form
of combustion or any similar instrument or implement.
 Barrel, Frame or Receiver is considered a
FIREARM
FIREARMS CHARACTERISTICS
1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
 those properties or attributes of firearms which can be
determined even before the manufacture of the
gun
 these are factory specifications
 these serve as basis for identifying a certain group
or class of firearms
 examples of which are bore diameter or caliber,
number of lands or grooves, width of lands, width of
grooves, direction of twist, pitch of riflings and depth
of grooves
2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
 those characteristic markings peculiar and not
found in all other firearms
 these serve as basis in identifying a particular
firearm
 these are determinable only after the manufacture
 the diameter in which the bore was reamed
 the distance measured between two opposite lands
inside the bore

NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES

The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided
into three
parts:  always the same

1. Bow Resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the

projectile; LANDS
2. Skin Friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the
middle portion of the body; and
3. Base Drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of
 the elevated portions
the air behind the base.
GROOVES
The Silent Witness - any evidence at a crime scene, that can
possibly identify the perpetrator
Res ipsa loquitur - Latin for "the thing speaks for itself"  the depressed portions

DIRECTION OF TWIST
FIREARM
 the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either to the
right or to the left

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 the twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it

passes through the bore, for the bullet to have C. ANTIQUE FIREARMS
gyroscopic stability during its flight from muzzle to
target D. IMITATION FIREARMS

E. DEMILITARIZED FIREARMS
PITCH OF RIFLINGS

 the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves

 the distance advanced by the riflings in one complete CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
turn

A. ACCORDING TO INTERIOR BARREL

RIFLINGS
CONSTRUCTION

 consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the

1. Smooth-bore firearm – those that do not have
interior surface of the bore
 the purpose is to impart a motion of rotation to a bullet rifling inside their gun barrel
during its passage inside the barrel in order to ensure 2. Rifled-bore firearm – those that have rifling
gyroscopic stability in its flight and so that it will travel
nose-on towards the target inside their gun barrel

TYPES OF FIREARMS B. ACCORDING TO THE CALIBER OF THE

PROJECTILE PROPELLED

A. SMALL ARMS 1. Artillery – those type that propel projectile with

more than one inch diameter
 firearms intended or primarily designed for individual 2. Small arms – those that propel projectile with
use generally intended to be fired from a hand or less than one inch diameter; can be handled,
shoulder, not capable of fully automatic burst moved and operated by one man machine guns
1) Handgun - intended to be fired from the hand - is primarily designed for military use
a. Pistol - a hand-operated forearm with a chamber that
- designed to fire, automatically or semi
is permanently aligned with the bore, may be self-
loading automatically, more than one shot without manual
b. Revolver - a hand-operated forearm with a revolving reloading, by a single press of the trigger
cylinder containing chambers for individual cartridges
a. SubMachine Gun - a light, portable form of
2) Rifle - a shoulder firearm be fired from the hand. It machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition,
can discharge a bullet through a rifled barrel with
different actions of loading (lever, bolt or self-loading). having a shoulder stock that may or may not be
3) Shotgun - intended to fire shots folded and designed to be fired with both hands.
b. shoulder arms – normally fired from the
shoulder
B. LIGHT WEAPONS
c. hand arms – designed or intended to be fired
1) Class – A Light Weapons using one hand, either the right or the left
2) Class – B Light Weapons

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

C. ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION CARTRIDGE

1. Single shot firearm – those designed to fire  derived from the word, CHARTA, the Latin for paper
only one shot every loading  derived from the word, CARTOUCHE, French for
2. Repeating arm – those designed to fire rolling paper
several loads in one loading
3. Automatic – those designed with continuous
firing in a single press of the PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
trigger and while the trigger is pressed
4. Slide action type – loading takes place by
back and forth manipulation of the 1. BULLET - the projectile propelled through the barrel

under/over forearms of the gun of a firearm by means of the expansive force of

5. Bolt action type – reloading takes place by gases coming from burning gunpowder

manipulating the bolt back and forth 2. CARTRIDGE CASE - the tubular metallic container

6. Lever type (break type) – loading takes for the gunpowder also called shell or casing

place by lever action of the firearms 3. GUNPOWDER - the powder charge which when

7. LOW-POWERED FIREARM - firearms using ignited by the primer flash is converted into heated

cartridges giving a muzzle velocity gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or

of less than 1850 ft/sec shots charge through the barrel and to the target also

8. HIGH-POWERED FIREARM - firearms called propellant or powder charge

using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity 4. PRIMER - the metal cup containing the highly

between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound

9. HIGH-INTENSITY FIREARM - firearms which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite

using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity

of over 2500 ft/sec
10. AUTOMATIC - when the mechanism is so
arranged that it will fire continuously
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
while the trigger is depressed
11. SEMI-AUTOMATIC (SELF-LOADING) -
when the mechanism ejects the fired shell
1. ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMER
and put on new one in the chamber and
prepares the gun to be fired
a. PIN FIRE – the ignition cap is concealed inside the
AMMUNITION
cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it; the pin
protrudes radially through the side and the gun
 a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when loaded
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, and it will be struck by a falling hammer; no longer in
shell or other missile may be fired by means of use
gunpowder or other explosives (LEGAL) b. RIM FIRE – the priming mixture is located at the rim
 a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge of the case; this can be
case, gunpowder and primer; single round fired only if the cartridge is struck by the hammer or
(TECHNICAL) firing pin on the rim of the case

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FORENSIC BALLISTICS

c. CENTER FIRE – the primer cup is centrally placed in - derived from the French word, BOULETTE, which means
the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture small ball
is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the
support of the anvil
GENERAL TYPES OF BULLETS

2. ACCORDING TO RIM DIAMETER

1. LEAD TYPE - composed of lead metal

2. JACKETED TYPE - consist of the regular lead core, coated

a. RIMMED CASE TYPE – the case has a well-defined
with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel
upstanding rim around the base or simply a cartridge
with a rim diameter GREATER than the body
diameter of the shell
TYPES OF BULLET ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM
b. SEMI-RIMMED TYPE – the rim diameter is
EFFECT ON TARGETS
SLIGHTLY GREATER than the body diameter of the
case
c. RIMLESS TYPE – the rim diameter is EQUAL to the 1. BALL TYPE - intended for anti-personnel and general
body diameter of the case use
d. REBATED TYPE – has a rimless pattern but which 2. ARMOUR PIERCING - designed to penetrate light
has rim diameter SMALLER than the body diameter steel armour
of the case 3. EXPLOSIVE - small arms bullet containing a charge
e. BELTED TYPE – with prominent raise BELT around of explosive which will detonate on impact
its body just in front of the extraction groove 4. INCENDIARY - used to cause fire in a target
5. TRACER BULLET - capable of leaving visible marks
or traces while in flight, giving the gunner the chance
3. ACCORDING TO CALIBER to observe the strike of the shot or make adjustments
in the event of a miss

THREE SYSTEMS OF MEASURING CALIBER

A. English system – expressed in thousandths of an inch ( cal. CARTRIDGE CASE

380)

B. American system – expressed in hundredths of an inch
( cal. 38 )
C. European or continental system – expressed in millimeter
CALIBER
- the bore diameter measured between two opposite lands
 the metallic or non-metallic tubular container which
holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer
 the portion of the cartridge that is automatically
ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and
this remains at the scene of the crime
 also called shell, casing

BULLET

- metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
firearm also called projectile, slugs

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FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 BASE - the bottom portion of the cartridge case which PARTS OF THE PRIMER
contains the head stamp containing the caliber,
manufacturer, and in some cases, the date,
trade name and batch number  PRIMER CUP - the brass gilding metal cup which
 RIM - the part of the cartridge designed to limit the contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil
forward movement of the cartridge to chamber  PRIMING MIXTURE - the highly sensitive chemical
 EXTRACTING GROOVES - the circular groove near compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of
the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal the firing pin
of the case from the chamber  ANVIL - that portion of the primer which provides
 PRIMER POCKET - the part which provides the solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin
means for the primer to be put in the central position causing friction that would initiateignition
 BODY - the cylindrical part of the shell which houses  DISC - a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the
the gunpowder priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture
 SHOULDER - supports the neck of the cartridge attack
 CANNELURE - the cylindrical groove formed in the
outer surface of the cartridge case designed to
secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent
the bullet from being pushed down to the powder
charge
 NECK - the part actually occupied by the bullet
 CRIMP - the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the GUNPOWDER
shell designed to hold the bullet and prevent it from
being pulled out from the shell
 VENT OR FLASH HOLE - the hole at the bottom of
 that mixture of chemicals of various compositions
the primer pocket serving as the passageway for the
priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant designed to propel the projectile by means of the
charge.
expansive force of gas when burned
 also called propellant or powder charge
PRIMER

- the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire TYPES OF GUNPOWDER
type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound
that would easily ignite or burst into flames when struck by
the firing pin ; also known as the percussion cup

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FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1. BLACK POWDER - the oldest of the propellants
 Composition:
 Potassium Nitrate = 75%
 Sulphur = 10%
 Charcoal = 15%
2. SMOKELESS POWDER - the most powerful of
propellants
STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF A BARREL
1. DRILLING - boring of deep-hole
2. REAMING - the removal of the scars and scratches left
by the drilling process
3. RIFLING - making of the helical grooves or riflings
4. LAPPING - polishing operation; the removal of large
imperfections on the inside surface of the barrel
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USED IN FIREARMS
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
 LAND MARKS - marks made by the lands of the
barrel
 GROOVE MARKS - marks made by the grooves of
the barrel
 SKID MARKS (slippage) - form on the bearing
surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of the barrel
before the bullet engages the rifling.
 STRIPPING MARKS - marks found on bullets fired
from a loose-fit barrel riflings of which are already
worn out
 SHAVING MARKS (shearing) - is the cutting of metal
from the surface of a bullet due to cylinder
misalignment in a revolver
 SLIPPAGE MARKS - marks found on fired bullets
passing through either an oily or oversized barrel
 FIRING PIN MARKS - marks found at the base
portion of the cartridge case made by the firing pin
 BREECH FACE MARKS - marks found at the base
portion of the cartridge case caused by the movement
of the breech face
 EXTRACTOR MARKS - marks found at the extracting
groove of the fired cartridge case caused by its
withdrawal from the chamber
 EJECTOR MARKS - marks found on a cartridge case
fired from an automatic firearm
 SHEARING MARK - mark found in the primer near
the firing pin mark
 CHAMBER MARK - mark found around the body of
the fired cartridge case caused by the irregularities of
nips inside the walls of the chamber
IDENTIFICATION
1. Analytical or torsion balance - instrument used for
determining weight of bullets and shotgun pellets for
possible determination of type, caliber and make of
firearm from which it was fired
2. Bullet comparison microscope - an optical
instrument consisting of two compound microscope
with a single microscope field or monocular eyepiece
capable of viewing two objects side by side
3. Bullet Recovery Box - an instrument used for test
firing -used in collecting test bullets safely and without
damage
4. Chronograph - an instrument designed to measure
velocity of the bullet
5. Caliper - used to measure caliber of firearms, bullets
and shells
6. Helixometer - used to examine the bore of the firearm,
more specifically the pitch of rifling
7. Onoscope - used to examine the inner surface of the
barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore
8. Stereoscopic microscope - used for preliminary
examination of fired bullets and fired shells as to
determine the relative class characteristics
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FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. FEEDING
2. CHAMBERING
 Bore Scope
3. LOCKING
 Bullet Recovery System
4. FIRING
 Caliper
5. OBTURATION
 Comparison Camera 6. UNLOCKING
 Bullet Comparison Microscope 7. EXTRACTION
 Comparison Projector 8. EJECTION
 Crushe Gage 9. COCKING
 Helixometer
 IBIS
 Micrometer
 Panoramic Bullet Camera
 Peripheral Camera
 Rifling Meter
 Star Gage
 Stereo Microscope
 Tallysurf
 Tallyron
 Vernier Caliper

BASIC FIREARM OPERATIONS

- The working mechanism of a firearm

COMMON ACTION TYPES OF FIREARMS

1. AUTOMATIC
2. BOLT
3. SINGLE ACTION
4. DOUBLE ACTION
5. FALLING BLOCK
6. LEVER
7. REVOLVER
8. SEMI-AUTOMATIC
9. SLIDE ACTION

CYCLE OF FIRE / MECHANICAL / ACTION / ACTUATION

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