DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – DASMARINAS

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

THE WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST • Chemistry

• Dangerous Drugs
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
I. COLLECTION OR RECEPTION OF THE SPECIMENT • Physics
TO BE EXAMINED
• Toxicology
• Research and Instrumentation
a. See to it that there is sufficient of sample.
• Records
b. There is standard for comparison.’
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY????
c. Labelling and sealing.’ The application of chemical principles in the
examination of physical evidence falls within
II. THE ACTUAL EXAMINATION OF THE SPECIMEN
this field. It plays a very important part in the
Step 1.
speedy investigation and solution of crimes.
a. Prepare laboratory logbook.
b. Scrutinize the article to be examined.’
c. Take photography of the specimen.’ CAPABILITIES OF THE FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Step 2. DIVISION – NBI LABORATORY:
a. Measurement of weight and/or volume of the object
b. Specimen divided into several portions.
➢ Task to examine the chemical nature and
Step 3.
composition of various specimen such as: blood
a. Chemical microscopic or physical examination.
and other body fluids, gunpowder, explosives,
b. Apparatus should be clean.
poisons, dangerous drugs, wines, etc.
c. Reagents should be free from contamination.’
➢ Kinds of Chemical Examinations conducted by the
d. Blank and control should be made whenever possible
Forensic Chemistry Division
Step 4.
The remaining portion of the specimen should be sealed and
1. Qualitative – determining what constituents are present
kept for production in court.
2. Quantitative – determining how much of the constituents
are present

III. COMMUNICATION OF THE RESULTS OF

For evidence submitted in very small amounts, high precision
EXAMINATION
instrument such as: the Ultraviolet (UV) & Infrared
(Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatograph are utilized.
IV. COURT APPEARANCE
The Forensic Chemist in charge of the case testify in court
KINDS OF EVIDENCE
regarding his/her laboratory findings of the evidence he
examined.
DIRECT
is simply that which the senses perceive. Any fact
THE WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST
to which a witness testifies based on what he saw, heard,
smelled, touched, or tasted.
A branch of chemistry which deals with the application
of chemical principles involve in the solution of problems
INDIRECT
arising in the administration of justice.
(This includes Circumstantial Evidence) – this is a kind of
evidence which seeks to established a conclusion
SECTIONS:
by inferences from proved facts. Almost all physical evidence
• Biology

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

is “circumstantial evidence” (serves as Corroborative DOCUMENTARY

Evidence to the case).
HEARSAY
is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another
and not from his own personal knowledge or observation. It
is the weakest kind of evidence for conviction.
any written evidence presented by an expert witness in court
which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not
excluded by the rules of court.
DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE CONSIST OF:
• Formal written reports – ex. Laboratory examine on.

• Written opinion – ex. A witness may be required to

SOURCES OF EVIDENCE write his opinion on the case,
o The crime scene
• Certificate – ex. Medical Certificate, birth, and
o Person who committed the crime death certificate
o Place where the crime occurred
• Deposition – is a written record of evidence in the
o Places visited frequently by the suspect/s
fear of question and answer. Ex.
Investigation report
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE - is any solid liquid or
• Dying declaration – dying statement of the patient in
semisolid material that may help in determining the truth to the emergency ward to the physician on duty
solve a crime. reduced in writing.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

BLOOD
o Supply basic investigation leads, clues and
Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It circulates continually
evidence. around the body, allowing constant communication between
o Strengthen the weak portion of the chain of tissues distant from each other.
evidence. Blood makes up about 7% of body weight (about 5.6 liters in
o Support the accuracy of the statements made by a 72 Kg man). This proportion is less in women, while in
children is greater (gradually decreasing until the adult level
witness.
is reached).
FORMS OF EVIDENCE
BLOOD-SERUM

REAL OR AUTOPTIC
it is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the
court. It is not limited to that which can be known by the
sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by
senses of hearing, taste and smell or touch. Ex. The court CASE INVOLVE BLOOD AS AN EVIDENCE:
may require a physician to bring the skeleton of the head 1. Murder
exhumed by show the degree of fracture.
2. Rape

TESTIMONIAL 3. Homicide

here a medico-legal officer or a chemist (forensic) may 4. Paternity Cases

be placed on the witness stand and answer all questions GROUP OF BLOOD:
asked by the counsel for the accused and complaint.
❖ A
❖ B
EXPERIMENTAL ❖ O
❖ AB
is a form of evidence wherein an expert or a medical witness
PERCENTAGE OF BLOOD GROUP AMONG FILIPINOS:
may be required to perform certain experiments to prove
a certain matter of fact. Ex. A rabbit may be injected with ❖ A = 26.3%
❖ B = 24.7%
fatal dose of cyanide to prove that this is a violent poison.
❖ O = 43.3%

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

❖ AB = 5.7% This is also Known as Van Deem’s Test.

This test will give also a blue color for bloodstains.
HISTORY OF BLOOD GROUPING:
PANUM and LANDOIS, in 19th century showed that when an
animal had been depleted by blood it could be saved by LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
transfusion with another animal of the species. This test will give a blue green color for bloodstains.
PONFICK, found out that transfusion between animals of
same species were safe.

Landsteiner in 1900 found out that the serum of one LUMINOL TEST
normal individual can agglutinate or HEMOLYZE the blood of
certain other individual. This also marked the discovery of this is based on the reaction of blood with luminol to produce
blood transfusion among human being. light. Therefore, this test is only limited to search for blood

➢ AGGLUNATION – the process of clumping or unseen by the naked eyes. The viewing is made on the
clustering of Red Blood Cells together upon the dark area.
addition of its corresponding antibodies.

CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY INVESTIGATORS A. Microscopic Test – applicable to fresh blood.

AND FORENSIC CHEMIST IN USING BLOOD AS AN B. Micro chemical Test
EVIDENCE. 1. TEICHMANN or HAEMIN Crystals Test
1.Where to searched for blood in a crime scene. 2. Haemochromogen Crystals or TAKAYAMA
Test
2.How to collect and preserved specimens containing blood
and blood stains. 3. Acetone- Haemin or Wagenhaar Test

3. Does the stains contains blood or other substance? C. Spectroscopic Test

4. If the stain is blood, is it human or not?

PRECIPITIN TEST
5. If human, what groups of blood it belongs?
use to determine whether the bloodstain is of human
or animal origin.

PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD This is based on the fact that when animals are injected

COLOR TEST with human blood, antibodies are formed that react with the
invading human blood to neutralize its presence
The Preliminary test are based on the observation that blood
• The antibodies can be recovered by bleeding the
possesses PEROXIDASE enzymes that accelerate the
animal and isolate the blood serum. This serum is
oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by
called as HUMAN ANTISERUM.
peroxides.

ABSORPTION METHOD
BENZIDINE TEST
is used to determine the blood group of the human
the most commonly used test for the presence of blood in an
bloodstains.
alleged blood. Positive results are the appearance of
immediate dark blue color.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
Can be use as a substitute to BENZIDINE and this is
also known the Kastle- Meyer test. Positive results fro blood
is the appearance of pink color.

GUAIACUM TEST OR THE SCHONBEIN’S TEST

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

BLOODSTAINS
PASSIVE BLOODSTAINS
is formed due to bleeding from wounds, and the blood
is deposited on a surface by the influence of the force of
gravity alone.

ANGLES OF IMPACT - the acute angle (alpha), relative

to the plane of a target at which a blood drop strikes
the target.” The shapes of the spatter stains are affected
by the angle of impact.

TRANSFER BLOODSTAINS
is a bloodstain resulting from contact between a blood-
bearing surface and another surface.

PROJECTED BLOODSTAINS
is formed when a volume of blood is deposited on a
surface under a pressure or a force that is greater than the
force of gravity.

TYPES OF BLOODSTAINS PATTERNS

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

MICROSCOPE PARTS

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

urethra where they are joined with secretions from

the prostate.
➢ Seminal fluid is a complex mixture of glandular
secretions. A typical sample of seminal fluid
contains the combined secretions of
several accessory glands. Seminal vesicle fluid
accounts for approximately 60% of the ejaculate.
Various proteins secreted by the seminal vesicles
play a role in the coagulation of the ejaculate.
Additionally, seminal vesicle fluid contains flavin,
which causes semen to fluoresce under ultraviolet
light, often utilized when searching for semen-
stain evidence.
➢ Prostatic fluid secretions account for approximately
30% of the ejaculate. The components of this fluid
are complex as well. This portion of semen contains
high concentrations of acid phosphatase (AP) and
prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Both are useful
markers for the identification of semen in forensic
laboratories.
➢ The epididymis and the bulbourethral secretions
each account for approximately 5% of the ejaculate.
A vasectomy is the surgical removal of a bilateral
segment of the ductus deferens. The surgery
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN prevents spermatozoa from reaching the distal
portions of the male reproductive tract. However,
a vasectomized male can still produce ejaculate
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
that contains only seminal vesicle fluid, prostatic
➢ A typical ejaculation releases 2–5 mL of
fluid, and bulbourethral fluid.
semen, which contains seminal fluid and sperm
➢ Oligospermia - the condition by which males have
cells (spermatozoa).
abnormally low sperm counts is known as
➢ A normal sperm counts ranges 107 to
➢ Azoospermia – the absence of sperm in the semen.
108 spermatozoa per milliliter of semen.
➢ Aspermia - the condition characterized by the
➢ The spermatozoa are formed from spermatogonia
complete absence of SEMEN.
in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. This
process of generating spermatozoa is referred to
➢ However, the secretion of seminal fluid is not
affected in males who have these conditions. DNA
as spermatogenesis.
derived from epithelial cells can be isolated from the
➢ The spermatozoa are then transported and stored
seminal fluids of these individuals.
in the tubular network of the epididymis where they
undergo functional maturation (spermatogenesis
SPEMATOZOA
and maturation take approximately 3 months). The
➢ A human spermatozoon has three morphologically
epididymis joins the ductus deferens, which
distinct structures: the head, the middle piece, and
transports matured sperm from the epididymis to
the tail.
the ejaculatory duct. From there, spermatozoa
follow the ejaculatory ducts into the prostatic

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

3. Microscopic Examination- confirms the presence of

Spermatozoa

ACID PHOSPHATASE (AP) TEST

o Acid phosphatase is an enzyme secreted by

the prostate gland into seminal fluid.
o Concentration is 400x more in seminal fluid than
in any other body fluid.
o A reaction time of less than 30 seconds is a
➢ The head contains a nucleus with densely packed strong indication of semen.
chromosomes. At the tip of the head is the o The half-life of AP activity at 37°C is
acrosomal cap, which is a 6 months. However, the half-life is decreased if a
membranous compartment containing enzymes sample is stored in a wet environment. AP activity
essential for fertilization. The head is attached to can be detected from dry seminal stains stored at –
the middle piece through a short neck where 20°C up to 1 year. L
the mitochondria that provide the energy for moving
the tail are located. The tail or flagellum is PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN (PSA or p30)
responsible for spermatozoon motility.
o It is a major protein present in seminal fluid at
Forensic Cases where Semen and seminal stains concentrations of 0.5–2.0 mg/mL.
are involved:
o PSA is a protein that has a molecular weight of
• Rape 30 kDa and is thus also known as P30. It is

• Adultery responsible for hydrolyzing semenogelin (Sg),

which mediates gel formation in semen.
• Sodomy

• Bestiality RAPE EVIDENCE

o The rape victim must undergo a medical

examination as soon as possible after the assault.
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
o At that time the appropriate items of physical
(IF IT IS A SEMINAL STAIN) evidence including clothing, hairs, and vaginal and
rectal swabs can be collected for subsequent
1. Physical of Examination laboratory examination.
a. By feeling the apparel- presence of stiff and starchy o All outer and undergarments should be carefully
feeling. removed and packaged separately in paper (not
b. Ultraviolet Examination plastic) bags.
2.Chemical Examination o Bedding, or the object upon which the assault took
a. Florence Test- for the presence of Choline. place, may also be carefully collected.
b. Acid Phosphatase Test- based on the reaction of acid o If a suspect is apprehended within 24 hours of the
solution and Acid Phosphatase (AP) assault, it may be possible to detect the victim’s
c. Barberio Test- this detects the presence of DNA on the male’s underwear or on a penile swab
spermine using Picric Acid. of the suspect.

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

o Items routinely collected from the suspect include • Greeks – first to use pyrotechnics for military
all clothing, pubic hair, head hair, penile swab, and purposes.
a blood sample or buccal swab for DNA typing. • Roger Bacon – in 1242, first to introduced
o The forceful physical contact between victim and gunpowder as an explosive in the western world.
assailant may result in a transfer of such physical
• Berthold Schwartz – a German monk discovered
evidence of blood, semen, saliva, hairs, and fibers.
the composition of black powder and introduced it
as a propellant in a gun. He invented gun in 1250.
HOW TO PROTECT RAPE EVIDENCE
• Pierre Eugine Marcellin Berthelot of France –
o Outer garments and undergarments carefully
(1827-1907), founder of thermochemistry and the
removed and packaged in separate paper
science of explosives
bags. WHY?
• Alfred Nobel – in 1863, he discovered dynamite by
o Don’t fold an article through a seminal stain as it
mixing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin.
may damage the sample.
• John Bate – in the early 17th century gave the
o Latex gloves must be worn when collecting
function of the three components of the black
samples.
powder,
• Potassium nitrate or saltpeter – as the soul
• Sulfur or brimstone – as the life
• Carbon or charcoal – as the body
Mechanism: Saltpeter supplies the Oxygen for
combustion of the charcoal, but sulfur is the life because
this inflammable element catches the first fire,
communicates it throughout the mass, makes powder
quick and gives its vivacity.
• Christian Friedrich Schonbein – (1799 – 1868)
discovered guncotton. Guncotton is the other name
for nitrocellulose. He also discovered ozone in
EXPLOSIVES 1846.
• Captain Schultze of the Prussian Artillery –
The sudden and rapid escape of gasses from a confined made the first successful smokeless powder in
space accompanied by high temperatures, violent shock and 1864.
loud noise. • 1346 – the first recorded use of gunpowder for
military purposes by the English.
Explosives are reactive substances that undergo • 1900 – Picric acid was introduced to replaced
rapid burning (deflagration) or detonation resulting in gunpowder as busting charge for shell.
the formation of large volumes of gases, liberation of heat • 1914 – 1918 – picric acid was replaced by
and light along with sudden pressure effects (Shock wave trinitrotoluene (TNT) and amatol with the addition of
and blast wave). cyclonite (RDX)

HISTORY OF EXPLOSIVES USES OF EXPLOSIVES

• Chinese – many centuries, they produced ❖ Commercial/Industrial applications - includes

firecrackers for the purpose of driving evil spirit demolition for construction, fireworks and metal
away, invented gunpowder. forming etc.

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
❖ Military applications - for security purposes. It
includes rockets, missiles, bombs etc.
❖ Antisocial elements - use explosives in the form of
Improvised explosives devices to create havoc and
instability.
CATEGORIES OF EXPLOSIVES
❖ Mechanical Explosives are those substances that
tend to undergo physical change such as
overloading of container with compressed air
stream.
❖ Chemical Explosives are compounds or mixtures
of compounds that react to produce large volumes
of rapidly expanding gases as well as energy in the
form of heat light and shockwaves that exert
sudden pressure on the surroundings.
❖ Nuclear Explosives are the most powerful
explosives. They are produced by sustained nuclear
reactions while releasing a tremendous amount of
heat and energy.
CHARACTERISCTICS OF EXPLOSIVES
❖ Deflagration (Burning) – a burning process that
proceeds at a rate less than 3000 fps but produces
sufficient gas pressure to rend or disrupt the
material around it, including rock.
❖ Internal Burning – enables the combustible portion
when ignited, to burn independently of external
oxygen.
❖ Explosion – special form of combustion and is
characterized by the process of internal burning,
instead of oxygen being supplied from the
surrounding air, it is supplied in the form of oxidizers
or oxidants and is a solid material that is in intimate
contact with the fuel. Energy produced normally
appears in the form of heat and light.
❖ Detonation – an explosives reaction that consists
of the propagation of a shock wave through the
explosive, accompanied by a chemical reaction that
furnishes energy to sustain the shock wave
propagation in a stable, sustained manner, with
gaseous formation and pressure expansion
following shortly thereafter. The shock wave must
propagate through the explosive at a rate higher
than that of the velocity of sound in the undetonated
explosives.
❖ Sensitivity – the ease at which an explosive can be
initiated, by a suddenly applied mechanical force of
other forms of energy.
❖ Power Index – is a measure of the work capacity of
an explosive when compared to a known standard.
(Piciric acid or TNT)
❖ Velocity of Detonation (VOD) – the rate at which a
detonation wave progresses through an explosive
causing release of energy through the breakdown of
molecules.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES
❖ According to rate of decomposition- High
explosives and Low explosives
❖ According to chemical structure: - The most
important class includes organic compounds, which
contain the nitro (NO2 ) group. They are sub divided
according to the atom to which the NO2 group is
attached.
Nitro compounds - C-NO2 group
Nitrate esters - C-O-NO2 group
Nitramines - C-N-NO2 group.
❖ According to application: - Industrial explosives
and Military explosives.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
High explosives are detonating explosives. Detonation is the
explosion effect that is caused by the transmission of high-
speed shock wave when the explosive compound or mixture
of compounds decomposes and liberates energy. The
chemical reaction propagates with such rapidity that the rate
of reaction zone into the material exceeds velocity of sound
and is greater than 1000m/s. High explosives are further
sub-divided into two groups according to their susceptibility
to initiation.
i.e., Primary explosives and Secondary explosives.
PRIMARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Primary explosives are among the most powerful and most
sensitive of all chemical explosives. These are the
explosives which are used to start or initiate the explosion.
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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

These compounds are easily detonated by mechanical

shock, friction and heat and readily ignited by direct contact
with flame or electrical sparks. The main function of Primary
explosives is to initiate a secondary explosive by shock
wave. Because of their sensitivity they are used in small
quantities.
Examples of primary explosives are Mercury Fulminate, lead
Azide, Lead Styphnate, Dizodinitrophenol (DDNP), Tetrazine
etc.

SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES

Secondary explosives are generally used as the main
charge. These are relatively insensitive to heat, flame and
shock. They usually require a primary explosive to initiate
detonation.
Secondary high explosives include boosters and main GUNPOWDER RESIDUE
charge. The most commonly used booster is PETN. TNT,
RDX, HMX, Dynamites, Binary explosives, emulsions, water FACTORS AFFECTING GUNPOWDER RESIDUES
gel etc. are used as main charge. • Type and caliber of the ammunition
The most important class of main charge is the organic
• Length of the barrel
compounds which contain the nitro group.
• Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target
• Humidity
LOW EXPLOSIVES
• Wind velocity
Low explosives are compounds or mixtures that deflagrate.
These explosives have propagation speed less than
• Direction of firing

1000m/s. Low explosives are mechanical mixtures of • Nature of the material into which the gun was fired.

individual ingredients.
They are used mainly as propellants because they tend to COLLECTION METHOD FOR GSR

exert a rapid pushing effect. Propellants are mixtures of one

or more energetic materials, plasticizers, stabilizer and o Paraffin method
inorganic additives. 1. Wash hands of the subject under running water and
The main applications of propellants are in launching fried without wiping.
projectiles from guns, rockets and missile systems. Black 2. Molten paraffin (MP – 38 – 40 C) is dropped from a
powder (gun powder) and smokeless powder are the most height of 15 inches into the hand to be tested for
commonly used low explosives. the presence of nitrates.
3. When the surface is covered by a thick coating of

GUNPOWDER paraffin, a layer of clean cotton is placed over the

paraffin.

PROBLEMS THAT ARISE IN CRIMES INVOLVING 4. Coat again the cotton with hot paraffin

THE USE OF FIREARMS 5. After the paraffin has set and cooled, it is gently
lifted off.
o Determining whether or not a person has fired a
• Dermal Nitrate Test
gun.
1. Used paraffin for the purpose of collecting
o Determining the probable gunshot range.
residues from discharged firearms.
o Determining the time of firing.

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

2. A Lunge’s reagent is used to test for the Tattooing – small, discrete, black specks caused due to grains
of gunpowder
presence of nitrates.
• Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than
thirty-six inches
3. Lunge’s reagent (diphenylamine in Observations noted: Evidence of powder tattooing is
seldom present. Nitrate particles may be found present but this
concentrated sulfuric acid) will not be sufficient basis for gunshot range determination.

4. Positive indication of the presence of nitrates –

FACTORS INDICATIVE THAT A GUN HAS BEEN FIRED:
deep blue speck
• Presence of nitrates
o Washing
• Formation of rust inside the barrel
o Tape lift method
LIGHT FOR CRIME SCENE EXAMINATION
o Swabbing
o Glue lift method
o Vacuum lift method INTRO TO ALTERNATE LIGHT SOURCES

\ FLUORESENCE
Alternate light sources (ALS) enhance the visualization of
evidence not readily apparent to the naked eye, facilitating
collection, documentation, and processing of evidence. The
technology uses light emitted at a controlled range of
wavelengths to improve the contrast of evidence against a
background. Alternate light sources that emit light in the
visible range (400– 700 nanometers [nm] within the
electromagnetic spectrum) cause multiple types of evidence
to be visualized through fluorescence.

Principle:

Fluorescence is the emission of light of a longer wavelength

ASCERTAINING THE GUNSHOT RANGE (THREE
ZONES)
• Contact wound – those in which
the muzzle of the gun was held directly in
contact with the body.
Observations noted: gaping hole where fabric
is badly torn, blackened area surrounding the bullet
hole, singeing of the fibers at the entrance, and
presence of partially burned powder residues around
the entrance hole.
by a substance that has absorbed light of a shorter
wavelength. When a fluorophore, or molecule capable of
fluorescence, is subjected to a light source at a specific
wavelength (called the excitation wavelength), it absorbs
energy and transitions into a higher-energy excited state.
Shortly after light exposure, the molecule returns to its
normal state, or ground state, and the excess energy is
emitted as light. This wavelength of light (called the emission
wavelength) is of a longer wavelength than the excitation
wavelength and is detected as fluorescence

• Wounds inflicted at a distance from two to

thirty-six inches
Observations noted: smudging and powder tattooing.
Smudging – smoke and soot from the burned powder is
deposited around the hole of the entrance producing a dirty,
grimy appearance.

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

BARRIER FILTERS
Barrier filters enable visualization of fluorescence by
preventing transmission of light at the same wavelength as
the excitation light to the eye or detector (such as a digital
camera). Light produced by the fluorescing compound
passes through the barrier filter and is detected by the eye or
camera.
that limit the investigator’s mobility. In this application, the
portability and size of the ALS are critical. Generally, the
crime scene investigator looks for the widest range of
evidence, from biological fluids—such as semen and
saliva—to fingerprints. Once discovered, the evidence is
collected and allocated to specialized sections in the crime
laboratory.

Barrier filters are manufactured in the form of goggles, flat

viewing panes, and filters for digital cameras—any
combination of the barrier filters and detectors can be used
with single and multiwavelength units. The appropriate
barrier filter depends on the wavelength of light used; for
example, evidence illuminated by blue light can most often
be visualized through an orange barrier filter. Without these
filters, the illuminated evidence would most likely be
undetectable to the naked eye.

Barrier filters must transmit precise wavelengths of light to

effectively detect evidence. Filters that block light
transmission at a defined wavelength range may more
reliably block the transmission of ALS excitation light,
enabling better visualization of evidence. This means that CRIME LABORATORY
undesired wavelengths of light are less likely to “leak” ALS devices are used to identify evidence that requires
through the barrier filter, obscuring the fluorescence. further laboratory analysis. Evidence collected from a crime
scene is brought to the crime laboratory that may
be operated at the local or state level or may be privately
owned. Evidence is sent to different units based on forensic
discipline. Forensic biology, latent prints, and trace evidence
are three major crime laboratory units that commonly use
ALS.

ALS devices are used to identify evidence that requires

further laboratory analysis. Evidence collected from a crime
scene is brought to the crime laboratory that may
be operated at the local or state level or may be privately
owned. Evidence is sent to different units based on forensic
discipline. Forensic biology, latent prints, and trace evidence
ALS APPLICATION
are three major crime laboratory units that commonly use
ALS.
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
FORENSIC BIOLOGY
ALS are commonly used to investigate crime scenes to
Personnel working in the forensic biology unit use ALS to
identify and document evidence. The crime scene is the least
identify body fluids such as semen, saliva, or urine on
controlled of environments in which alternate light sources
collected evidence to test for the presence of DNA. The DNA
are used. Outdoor crime scenes are subjected to weather
found on the evidence is ultimately tested for identification
conditions and lack available power sources. Crime scenes
purposes. Most interviewees working in a forensic biology
can range from large areas, such as fields, to tight spaces

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COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
unit use primarily blue light with orange goggles for detection
of biological fluids, though other wavelengths can also
visualize relevant evidence.
LATENT PRINT UNIT
Laboratory technicians in latent print units use ALS to
visualize fingerprints, palm prints, footprints, and other
impressions. ALS is commonly used in conjunction with
reagents to either enhance the contrast of the evidence with
the background or cause the evidence to fluoresce. The
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)’s Processing Guide for
Developing Latent Prints documents ALS as a laboratory tool
for a largely diverse set of enhancement techniques. A wide
variety of wavelengths and goggles are used in conjunction
with developing agents for latent prints, but the most
common light wavelengths used are blue, green, and yellow.
TRACE EVIDENCE UNIT
Trace evidence units in crime laboratories search for and test
materials—such as glass, fibers, and residues—both at the
crime scene and on evidence collected at the crime scene.
ALS are used to better visualize this evidence, which is
tested and identified through analytical laboratory
techniques.
ALS OTHER APPLICATIONS
Medicolegal Death Investigation
Medical examiners investigate homicides and suspicious
deaths both in context at the crime scene and in the morgue.
By examining the body of a deceased victim, medical
examiners provide insight to investigators about the cause
and manner of death and can assist in identifying and
collecting evidence for further analysis. Medical examiners
may use ALS in a darkened examination room to search for
biological evidence on the body—such as semen and
saliva—as well as patterned and unusual injuries. Blue light
or UV is usually employed for detecting biological materials;
for bruising and patterned injuries, multiple wavelengths and
barrier filters can detect ecchymosis, depending on how
deep the injury penetrates the skin. Ecchymosis is defined as
discoloration of the skin due to ruptured blood vessels, and it
results in blood leakage into subcutaneous tissue.
Multiwavelength ALS devices, therefore, are very useful in
these settings.
Forensic Nursing
Forensic nurses treat victims who have survived violent
crimes, often domestic violence and sexual assault, in a
clinical setting. The nurse can alert law enforcement to
potential evidence, such as semen or saliva, on the victim for
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collection and processing. Additionally, forensic nurses can
detect pattern injuries on the victim, such as ligature marks
from victim-reported strangulation. Similar
examiners, forensic nurses use blue or UV to search
for biological fluids and use a wide variety of wavelengths
and barrier filters to search for bruising. High-intensity light is
critical to penetrating layers of skin to visualize bruising,
and multiwavelength units are preferred. Photography of the
noted injuries is also very important.
Photography
Photography is an essential tool for documenting the
processing of a crime scene. ALS photography is a type of
forensic photography that visualizes and
evidence—such as fingerprints and biological materials—that
is not always visible to the naked eye. In most cases, ALS
photography takes place in a controlled setting, such as a
laboratory or a windowless examination room in a morgue.
The room is darkened to enhance the effect of the light
source on the evidence. However, ALS photography may
also occur at crime or death scenes where the user has less
control over the light conditions.
GLOSSARY
• Alternate light source (ALS): a tool used to help
visualize evidence that is not apparent to the naked
eye. ALS typically utilize the UV and visible light
spectrum. Also known as a forensic
source (FLS).
• Barrier filter: an optical filter
transmission of light either above, below, or
between a specific range of wavelengths, which
permits certain wavelengths to reach the eye or
other detector.
• Brightness (of light): a measurement of the level of
intensity of a light output from a light source.
This can be measured in lumens. In this report, the
term “intensity” is used as a proxy for brightness.
• Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum: the complete
range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
This spectrum includes visible light (red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) as well as
non-visible radiation (ultraviolet and infrared
radiation, radio waves, x-rays, and gamma rays).
to medical
• Electromagnetic (EM) radiation: a type of energy
that travels as both a wave and a particle. Waves of
electromagnetic radiation are made up of oscillating
magnetic and electric fields. Visible light is a type of
electromagnetic radiation.
• Emission wavelength: the wavelength of light
emitted by a fluorophore when it changes from an
excited state to a ground state. This wavelength of
light is visualized as fluorescence.
documents • Excitation wavelength: the wavelength of light that
causes a fluorophore to transition to a higher
energy level, or excited state.
• Excited state: the state in which an atom or
molecule has more energy relative to its ground
state; a higher energy level.
• Fluorescence: a phenomenon in which light is
emitted, resulting from the excitation of a
fluorophore; absorption of a shorter wavelength
followed by emission of a longer wavelength
• Ground state: the lowest energy state of an atom
or molecule.
• Incandescent light: a light source that produces
light illumination through the heating of a filament such
as tungsten, which emits radiation in the visible and
infrared (IR) region of the EM spectrum.
that blocks
• Infrared (IR) radiation: that part of the EM
spectrum whose wavelength is above 700 nm
usually below 12,000 nm.
• Light Absorption: a process by which light strikes
a surface, causing the material to absorb energy
and transition to a higher energy state.
• Multiwavelength device: an ALS that emits more
than one peak wavelength of light.
• Peak wavelength: the wavelength of light that is
most apparent; most of the light emitted by the ALS
is at this wavelength.
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• Single-wavelength device: an ALS that emits a

single peak wavelength of light. For the purposes of
this report, this term refers to a device that emits a
small range of wavelengths surrounding the peak
wavelength. For example, a blue light may emit a
peak wavelength of 475 nanometers (nm), but also
emit light in a small range around that peak
wavelength (465-485 nm). This same device is
incapable of emitting other ranges of light. Lasers,
which emit light at a singular wavelength only, are
not included in this report.

• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: that part of the EM

spectrum below 400 nm and usually above 200 nm.

• Visible light the part of the electromagnetic (EM)

spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Visible
light ranges from approximately 400-700 nm.
Occasionally in this report the term “visible
spectrum” is used to mean the more correct term
“the visible region of the EM spectrum.” The same
occasionally occurs with the term “UV and IR
spectrum” which more correctly means “the UV and
IR region of the EM spectrum.” Furthermore, the
term “light” strictly applies only to the radiation of
the visible region of the EM spectrum, but in this
report the term “light” is occasionally used for
radiation of the UV region and of the IR region of
the EM spectrum.

• Wavelength: a measure of the distance (nm)

between two consecutive peaks (or troughs)

FOOTWEAR AND TIRE IMPRESSIONS

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• Must be easy to apply.

• Must have no tendency to adhere to the impression.
• Should have a fine even composition and surface.
• Should not injure the impression.
• Should be easily obtainable.
• Should be cheap.

CASTING METHODS: LARGE IMPRESSIONS

• Photographed before attempting to make casts.

• The impression must be surrounded by a wall to
keep the plaster from running away and to give a
thick strong cast.
• Any water which is in the impression should be
soaked out with small syringe, sponge or blotting
paper with great care.
• Impressions in firm ground such as clay, it requires
no preparatory treatment to the introduction of
Plaster of Paris. Impressions in dry sand or dust
requires previous treatment (a mixture of shellac
and alcohol is recommended)
• After 15 minutes, a thin layer of talcum powder is
sprayed and the plaster operation can be
commenced. (Other separating materials: French
chalk, graphite, talcum, linseed oil mixed with
petroleum, and 4% solution of cellulose acetate in
acetone).
• Preparation of the plaster of Paris: Gradually add
plaster to water, stir. The mixture must reached a
thin cream consistency and free from all lumps – it
is ready for pouring. Plaster is best mixed with
hand.
• Pour the first layer of the thin plaster, almost one-
half inch thick.
• Carefully place small sticks on the plaster to
reinforce the cast.
• Place a second layer , until the plaster reaches the

MOULAGE top of the surround.

• Wait half an hour at least before the impression can
be safely lifted and very gently cleansed any
CRITERIA: MOULAGE CASTING MATERIALS
attaching soil but no scrubbing should be attempted
• Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.
for at least 24 hours.
• Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass.
• To hasten – add one-half teaspoonful of table salt to
• Must not be deformable nor shrink. the plaster
• Must be tough.

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• To retard – add one part of a saturated solution of
borax to ten parts of water to be used in making the
plaster. One tsp of sugar may also be used.
• To harden – a saturated solution of sodium
bicarbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution
for some time. It is then removed and dried.
CASTING METHODS: SMAILL IMPRESSIONS
SHOE FITS IN ‘FRENZIED KILLING’ CASE
A Supreme Court jury has today found a man guilty of
murdering his brother-in-law in a case where the key piece of
evidence was a pair of size 7 Prada men's shoes. Yeng Jun
Wu, 45, was found guilty of murdering Berwick plasterer
Shao Qing "Victor" Chen in what was described in court as a
"frenzied killing". Wu was remanded to appear for a pre-
sentence hearing next Wednesday.
Prosecutor Patrick Bourke had told the jury a shoe print had
been left behind at the murder scene. Mr. Chen's body was
found by his father at his Endeavour Hills property on
February 11 last year. A long sharp weapon had inflicted at
least 40 cuts to his head, and his brain had been removed.
When Wu was later arrested, police found a shoebox for a
pair of size 7 Prada shoes at his home just outside the
garage. "Inquiries were made with Prada Australia about the
style of shoe that correlates with the shoebox that had been
located," Mr. Bourke said.
"A sample pair of such shoes that corresponded to the
shoebox were provided to the police. “ Mr. Bourke said a
witness, Nu Chen, told police he and Wu had the same pair
of Prada shoes. Test impressions made of the Prada shoes
had similarities to the shoe print left at the crime scene.
Wu had been declared bankrupt in June 2008 after his
plastering business failed. He had borrowed substantial
sums of money from a number of family members and
associates to maintain his lifestyle before buying a
restaurant, initially called Spicy Temptation and later
renamed Straits of Malacca, in Little Bourke Street in 2009.
Wu also bought another restaurant in 2011 in Glen
Waverley, called Tasty Seafood. At the time of his arrest, Wu
was hundreds of thousands of dollars in debt.
Defence barrister Damian Sheales, however said his client
had no motive to kill "Victor" Chen, who had drinking and
gambling problems, because he kept lending him money he
never repaid.
"Why on earth would you want to kill the person who you
borrow money from? Every time you ask them for money
they say yes, and they give you more and you never pay
them back," Mr. Sheales said.
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