EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTIONS

PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

Fig. 1: Experimental setup

Keywords: ultrasound, sound propagation, acoustic impedance, reflection, transmission, sound

pressure, sound intensity, reflection coefficient, sound damping, acoustic attenuation, sound coupling

Motivation
When a sound wave strikes the boundary of two materials with different characteristic acoustic
impedance, it will be reflected partially or almost completely. Besides material-specific propagation
speed and damping and/or attenuation of ultrasound, the phenomenon of the reflection of ultrasound at
boundaries represents the basis of many non-invasive test methods in medical diagnostics (sonography)
or non-destructive testing (NDT).

The proportion of reflected sound energy depends on the difference of the materials’ characteristic
acoustic impedances. It is defined by reflection coefficients resulting from the ratio of the sound
pressures or sound intensities of the reflected and the incident sound wave. (In the experiment, the
reflection coefficient is considered with regard to sound intensities.)

Due to the air’s low density and velocity of sound, the reflection coefficient at a boundary between a solid
body and air is almost 1. Within scope of the experiment, this allows for determination of the reflection
coefficients of various material combinations composed of acrylic, PVC and brass by performing
comparative measurements of the amplitudes of the reflection echoes at the materials’ boundaries and
the amplitudes of the reflection echoes at the respective material-to-air boundaries.

Furthermore, the damping characteristics of the materials can be qualitatively described by comparing
the examined reflection echoes.

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2 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

Theory
At boundaries of materials with different acoustic impedance Z, a
part of the ultrasound energy is reflected and another part is passed.
In case of vertical incidence of the sound onto a smooth surface
(fig. 2), the reflection coefficient R, based on the sound intensities,
will be calculated from the sound impedances Z1 and Z2 as follows:
2
IR ⎛ Z −Z ⎞
(1) R = = ⎜⎜ 2 1 ⎟⎟
Io ⎝ Z 2 + Z1 ⎠

whereas the characteristic acoustic impedances Z result from the

velocities of sound c and the densities ρ of the respective materials:

(2) Z = cρ
Fig. 2: Reflection ratios at a
boundary between two different
Regarding the transmission or permeability coefficients D of the
materials
intensities, the formula (I0 intensity of the incident wave, IR
(3) 1 = R +D intensity of the reflected wave, ID
intensity of the transmitted wave;
results in the following correlation: c1, c2 velocities of sound and ρ1, ρ2
densities of materials 1 and 2)
4 Z 2 Z1
(4) D =
(Z2 + Z1 ) 2
The intensity IR = I12 of the ultrasound wave reflected at the boundary of material 1 and material 2 results
from the intensity I0 of the ultrasound wave entering material 1, the reflection coefficient R12 and the
damping in material 1 as determined by the attenuation coefficient of the material α1 and the thickness
of the material d1.

(5) I12 = I0 R 12 e (−2α 1 d1 )

Analogously, the following applies to reflection at the boundary to the air:

(6) I1L = I0 R 1L e (−2α 1 d1 )

Due to the air’s low density and velocity of sound as compared to a solid body, the following results from
(2) and (1):

(7) R1L ≈ 1

Intensity I and amplitude A of the reflection echo show the following correlation:

(8) I12 ~ A 122

The reflection coefficient of the material combination 12 equals the reflection coefficient of the material
combination 21. Correspondingly, it is calculated as follows from the measured reflection amplitudes A12
and A1L by creating a ratio of (5) and (6) as well as by considering (7) and (8):

I12 A122
(9) R12 = = = R21
I1L A1L 2

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 3

Tasks
1. Calculate the theoretical values of the reflection coefficients as per formula (2)
a) based on literature values for velocity of sound and density, and
b) by measuring the velocity of sound as well as determining mass and volume of the individual
material samples.
2. Measure the amplitude of the reflection echo of a material with air contact on the back side.
3. Determine the reflection amplitudes of the echoes from the boundaries of the various material
combinations for both possibilities of probe coupling, respectively (material 1 in front of
material 2, and material 2 in front of material 1).
4. Calculate the reflection coefficients for all other measurements.
5. Compare the determined values to the calculated theoretical values.
6. Describe the echo signals regarding the damping characteristics of the individual materials.

Equipment and materials

• ultrasonic echoscope GAMPT-Scan order no. 10121
• ultrasonic probe 2 MHz order no. 10132
• acoustic impedance sample set order no. 10208
• ultrasonic gel order no. 70200

• additionally: computer, laboratory scales, calliper gauge

Experimental setup

Connection of equipment
Connect the ultrasonic echoscope to your computer by using a USB cable. Switch on the ultrasonic
echoscope. Then, start the AScan software. If the software is installed correctly, the equipment will be
detected automatically.

Connect the 2 MHz ultrasonic probe to the “PROBE (Reflection)” connector. In case of pulse echo
measurements, the selection switch above the connector should be in the “REFLEC.” position.

Measurement software “AScan”

The software is used for recording, displaying and evaluating data. When starting the programme, the
connected ultrasonic echoscope and the interface will be detected automatically. The upper half of the
programme window displays the A-Scan signal (amplitude scan). The diagram in the lower half shows the
TGC (time gain control) settings. Furthermore, the frequency of the connected receiving probe, the
output (transmission power), the gain (amplification) and the operation mode (reflection or transmission)
are displayed. The measurement cursor (red, green and turquoise line) is moved in the A-Scan diagram by
means of the PC mouse. The time-of-flight and amplitude values corresponding to the cursor positions
are displayed on the bottom edge of the screen. Any further settings can be accessed and changed via the
menu or the programme interface switches.

Note: Please also consider the special handling and safety notes as stated in the user manual of the
ultrasonic echoscope.

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4 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

Clamping device

1 upper clamping plate

2 lower clamping plate
3 threaded rods
4 knurled screws
M1 test cylinder - material 1
M2 test cylinder - material 2

Fig. 3: Clamping device (schematic)

The clamping device (fig. 3) serves for mutual fixation of two sample cylinders for amplitude
measurements B and C as per fig. 6. When coupling the cylinders, a small amount of ultrasonic gel is
applied onto one material sample (see fig. 4a). Then, the second cylinder is placed onto the first cylinder.
The ultrasonic gel is uniformly applied as thin film between the material samples by means of pressing
and applying slight circulating movements; excessive material will escape at the edge of the boundary
(fig. 4b). The coupled sample cylinders are inserted into the circular recess of the lower clamping plate.
The upper clamping plate is lowered onto the cylinders. The test cylinders are clamped by uniform
fastening of the three upper knurled screws. Such fastening allows for coupling of the ultrasonic probe
(from both sides) without the test cylinders dislocating towards each other.

Note: Coupling of the sample cylinders and/or coupling of the ultrasonic probe to a sample cylinder
only requires a small amount of ultrasonic gel – the volume does not exceed the size of a cherry
stone (see fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Maximum quantities of ultrasonic gel required for sound coupling .

(a) material sample with gel, b) two material samples coupled with gel, c) sound probe with gel

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 5

Experiment procedure

Determination of density and velocity of sound

The acoustic impedances of the individual materials should be determined for theoretical calculations of
the reflection coefficients to be expected. According to formula (2) this requires the material-specific
velocity of sound and the corresponding density. These are a) taken from literature, and b) determined
directly for the present material samples.

The density of the material samples can be easily determined by weighing with a laboratory scale and
calculating the cylinder volume of the test cylinders.

For determination of the velocities of sound, the ultrasonic probe is coupled to the surface of the test
cylinders, applying ultrasonic gel or a thin layer of water. Output and gain are selected so that the
amplitude of the first reflection pulse (echo of the material-to-air boundary) does not exceed 1 V. The
time-of-flight difference Δt between the first reflection echo and the first multiple echo is determined in
the A-Scan diagram. The velocity of sound in the material is then calculated by the following equation:

2h
(10) c =
Δt
whereas h represents the height of the sample cylinder. Position the red measurement cursor at the start
position of the first echo and the green cursor at the start position of the subsequent echo. The time-of-
flight difference Δt can be read directly in the lower part of the programme window (see fig. 5).

Note: In case of materials with high damping, the time gain control (TGC) can be used to amplify the
first multiple echo (fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Amplitude scan (upper diagram) of measurement of sound time of flight in PVC with the reflection echo of the
PVC-to-air boundary and the first multiple echo. The multiple echo has been amplified with the time gain control (TGC;
lower diagram).

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6 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

Amplitude measurements

1 ultrasonic probe
M1 test cylinder - material 1
M2 test cylinder - material 2

Fig. 6: Scheme on performance of amplitude measurements

A: Measurements against air

First, perform the measurements A against air as per fig. 6. For this, couple the ultrasonic probe to the
surface of the test cylinder, applying ultrasonic gel or a thin layer of water. Using the software,
determine the amplitude of the first reflection echo. Optimise coupling and orientation of the probe so
that the amplitude reaches its maximum.

Attention! The amplitude measurements should be performed without time gain control (TGC). Set
the values for THRESHOLD, SLOPE, WIDE and START to zero (rotary switch to the left).

The output (transmission power) for plastics (acrylic, PVC) should be set to 10 dB or 20 dB, and for metals
(brass) to 0 dB or 10 dB. Then, set gain (amplification) so that the amplitude of the first reflection echo
does not exceed a value of approx. 0.8 V at the material-to-air boundary. This is to prevent overdriving of
the amplitude signal.

Note: Maintain the settings determined for a certain material also with all subsequent amplitude
measurements. For example, the amplitude measurements for the combinations with acrylic as
material 1 (acrylic/air, acrylic/PVC, and acrylic/brass) should be performed with identical output and
gain. This is the only possibility to ensure correct comparison as per the formulas (5) to (9).

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 7

The following screenshots show exemplary measurements against air with the individual test cylinders.

Fig. 7: Acrylic/air; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

Fig. 8: PVC/air; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

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8 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

Fig. 9: Brass/air; output 0 dB, gain 25 dB

B & C: Measurements with the various material combinations

After performing the measurements with

the individual test cylinders, now perform
the measurements B and C in accordance
with fig. 6 for the various combinations of
two materials.

Couple and fasten the test cylinders in the

clamping device as described above. The
ultrasonic probe is coupled to a test cylinder
by applying ultrasonic gel (fig. 6 and 10).
Analogous to the measurements against air,
the software is now used to determine the Fig. 10: Setup of amplitude measurement with a material
amplitude of the reflection echo of the combination
boundary from material 1 to material 2.
Then, the clamping device is turned to determine the amplitude of the reflection echo of the boundary
from material 2 to material 1.

Note: Ensure correct setting of output and gain. These should be selected as with the measurements
against air.

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 9

The following screenshots show exemplary amplitude scans for the various material combinations.

1. Measurement acrylic/PVC

Fig. 11: Material 1: acrylic, material 2: PVC; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

2. Measurement acrylic/brass

Fig. 12: Material 1: acrylic, material 1: brass; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

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10 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

3. Measurement PVC/acrylic

Fig. 13: Material 1: PVC, material 2: acrylic; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

Note: In case of very low amplitudes, the shift and zoom functions at the right edge of the program
window can be used to enable more accurate positioning of the amplitude cursor.

Fig. 14: Use of the zoom function, here with PVC/acrylic measurement

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 11

4. Measurement brass/acrylic

Fig. 15: Material 1: brass, material 2: acrylic; output 0 dB, gain 25 dB

5. Measurement PVC/brass

Fig. 16: Material 1: PVC, material 2: brass; output 10 dB, gain 20 dB

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12 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

6. Measurement brass/PVC

Fig. 17: Material 1: brass, material 2: PVC; output 0 dB, gain 25 dB

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 13

Evaluation
The characteristic acoustic impedances determined theoretically for the individual materials are listed in
the tables 1 and 2. The impedances ZL (table 1) calculated on the basis of values from literature confirm
the values ZM resulting from determination of velocity of sound c and density ρ for the individual test
cylinders (table 2).
Tab. 1: Characteristic acoustic impedances ZL (calculated from literature values)
Material c [m/s] ρ [g/cm3] ZL [106 Ns/m3]
Acrylic 2700 1.15 3.105
Brass 4300 8.55 36.765
PVC 2300 1.45 3.335
Air 340 0.0017 0.001

Tab. 2: Characteristic acoustic impedances ZM (calculated from measured values)

Test cylinder h [mm] Δt [μs] c [m/s] m [g] D [mm] ρ [kg/m3] ZM [106 Ns/m3]
Acrylic 20.06 14.8 2711 27.10 38.05 1,188.1 3.221
Brass 20.02 9.2 4352 192.30 38.05 8,447.3 36.762
PVC 20.00 17.4 2299 31.24 38.05 1,373.7 3.158

Table 3 summarises the amplitude measurements. Furthermore, it compares the reflection coefficients R
determined by experiment and the calculated theoretical reflection coefficients RL (literature) and
RM (c and ρ measured).
Tab. 3: Amplitude measurements and reflection coefficients for the corresponding material combinations
Material 1 Material 2 Output [dB] Gain [dB] Amplitude [V] R RL RM

Acrylic Air 10 20 0.741 - 0.9993 -

Acrylic PVC 10 20 0.096 0.017 0.0013 0.0001
Acrylic Brass 10 20 0.608 0.673 0.7127 0.7037

Brass Air 0 25 0.642 - 0.9999 -

Brass Acrylic 0 25 0.563 0.769 0.7127 0.7037
Brasss PVC 0 25 0.556 0.750 0.6950 0.7086

PVC Air 10 20 0.380 - 0.9993 -

PVC Acrylic 10 20 0.045 0.014 0.0013 0.0001
PVC Brass 10 20 0.314 0.683 0.6950 0.7086

The reflection coefficient R determined by experiment for the individual combinations of acrylic and
brass as well as PVC and brass are almost equal. Here, the values for acrylic/brass and PVC/brass are
slightly below the theoretical values (RL, RM), and the values for brass/acrylic and brass/PVC are above the
theoretical values. This is most probably caused by a material coupling not achieving 100% performance
at the transition from one material to the other. This - or entrapped air in the coupling layer - may result
in deviation of the experimentally determined values from the theoretical values (perfect sound
coupling). For example, if various parts of the integrally captured amplitude signal of the reflection echo
show differing phasing (0° and 180° with vertical incidence of sound), the measured reflection coefficient
will be smaller than the theoretically calculated coefficient. In the other case it will be higher. (Phasing

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14 PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries

of a sound wave reflected at the boundary of two materials depends on the ratio of the materials’
characteristics acoustic impedances.)

The coefficients for acrylic/PVC and PVC/acrylic are almost identical and almost amount to zero. The
deviations from the theoretical values are most probably due to measurement errors with small
amplitudes and the high variation of the velocities of sound and the densities of the plastic materials.

Fig. 18: Reflection coefficients for various material combinations

(theoretical: reflection coefficient, calculated from velocity of sound and
density)

Besides determination of the reflection coefficients, the amplitude measurements also allow for
qualitative statements on acoustic attenuation in the three test materials. The A-Scan of the
measurement of brass against air shows a high number of multiple reflections as compared to acrylic and
PVC (see fig. 7-9). Correspondingly, the acoustic attenuation in brass is very much lower than with acrylic
or PVC. The comparison of the figures 11 and 13 shows that the amplitude of the reflection echo of the
measurement of PVC/acrylic (fig. 13) is significantly lower than the reflection amplitude of the
measurement of acrylic/PVC (fig. 11) with identical reflection coefficient (as well as identical settings for
output and gain). Thus, in this experiment PVC represents the material with the highest sound damping.

Quantitative statements on acoustic attenuation and/or damping are not possible because the incident
sound intensity I0 depends on the transmission coefficient of probe and material, and is not known.
Measurements of acoustic attenuation requires test blocks of identical material and differing sample
thickness.

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PHY21 Reflection and transmission at boundaries 15

Applications
• Medicine: examinations of the breast and the eye
• Materials sciences: Non-destructive Testing (NDT), crack determination
• Physics: damping, impedance

Related experiments
• PHY03 Acoustic attenuation in solids
• PHY22 Phase shift and resonance effects
• IND08 Detection of discontinuities
• MED02 Ultrasonic imaging at breast phantom (mammasonography)

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