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A REVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS IN FUSION WELDING

S.C. Saha*
S. Debbarma**
Seena.P***

ABSTRACT
The problem of determination of temperature distribution and heat flow is of great interest to
Welding Engineer to understand the behaviour of the welded structure under a specific
application. It helps to predict the microstructure and mechanical properties at different
welding zones and also helps to optimize the welding parameters to control the required
quality. The paper reviews the development in this field and also future requirement.
Keywords:
Thermal profile, arc efficiency, distributed heat source, numerical methods, heat affected
zone (HAZ).

* Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Agartala-

799055
**Research Scholar, Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology,
Agartala-799055
***
Asst. Prof., Production Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology,
Agartala-799055

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INTRODUCTION
Energy supplied by welding heat sources must satisfy a number of requirements. It is
necessary to heat the edges of pieces being joined to a temperature exceeding the melting
points of the materials and to provide penetration of the molten zone deep enough into the
materials, so as to produce a strong joint of permanent nature with minimum overheating of
the surrounding materials. In fusion welding processes heat is supplied by the arc or by
suitable heat and this heat is utilized to melt the electrode and a filler material and some
portion of the parts to be welded. Ultimately the liquid after solidification forms the solid
bond to unite the two parts. Heat is carried away from the welded zone by conduction and as
a result the temperature at a point in the weldment rises to a peak value, and then cools to
room temperature as the weld material looses heat to surrounding continuously. A plot of this
continuous change in temperature with time is known as thermal profile. The thermal profile
in the region near the weld have a significant impact for the formation of weld metal and heat
affected zone(HAZ), its microstructure and mechanical properties and joint strength. Cooling
rates are closely related to joint thermal profiles and they directly influence the residual
stresses developed in the joint. It is therefore necessary to understand the mechanism of heat
generation, its transfer to the welding plate and its transmission through the weldment. A
review has been carried out to understand the subject methodology for its prediction and
recent development in this area.

MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER

In fusion welding processes the heat is supplied by suitable heat source and this heat is
utilized to melt the electrode and /or filler metal and some portion of the parts to be welded.
The heat generated by the source gets distributed in the following manner: To the electrode
and the work piece by thermal conduction and the surrounding atmosphere by convection and
radiation. Initially the source heat is concentrated in the portion of work piece immediately
under the arc; there after it spreads throughout the weldment due to conduction. This
conductional heat along with the heat coming directly from the heat source cause increase of
temperature of any point in the weldment. The nature of temperature change at a particular
point depends on the position of the points with respect to heat source, thermal properties of
the metal and environmental effects at that point.

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Accurate prediction of thermal history depends on, the knowledge of the part of energy
transferred by the source to the weldment, a well defined mathematical relation for heat
transfer which correlates time, temperature and heat input from the source, the nature of
variation of thermal properties of the weld materials, information related to boundary
conditions and availability of a technique to solve the above mathematical relation with all
the above conditions.
A comprehensive reviews of the literature[1,2,3,4,5] shows that accurate determination of the
temperature distribution through mathematical analysis is very complex in nature due to the
complexity of weld geometry, boundary condition and mode of heat transfer.
The basic input parameter required for thermal analysis of the weldment is the magnitude of
the heat coming from the welding heat source and its distribution. The mechanism involved
in the heat transfer from the source is complex and particularly in arc welding due to the
involvement of electromagnetic force, Lorentz force, surface tension, viscosity etc. and
therefore it is not completely understood. This complexity is avoided by taking a factor called
‘arc efficiency (η)’ which defines the ratio of energy transferred to the work piece to the
energy generated by the heat source. Christensen et.al (7) reported the value of arc
efficiency of different welding processes and it is also noticed that change in welding
parameters i.e. electrode shape, nozzle to plate thickness, shielding gas, flow rate etc.
significantly changes the value of arc efficiency.
With the knowledge of arc efficiency the magnitude of the heat transfer from the source to
the workpiece is then found as

Q = η × I × V (For arc welding)

Where η = Efficiency of the process

I = Welding current
V = Welding voltage

However for other welding processes the heat input may be calculated as
Friction welding: Q = µPωr

Where μ= Co-efficient of friction, P= Pressure on contact surface

ω = Angular velocity, r = radius where heat is calculated

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Resistance welding: Q =η × R× I 2 ×t
Where, η = efficiency, R = Resistance, I = Current and t = time of heating

Friction stirs welding: Q = µωε

Here, µ = co-efficient of friction, ω = Angular velocity, ε = strain rate

pη d  d . x 2 dξ 2 
Laser welding: Q= exp− − 2 
reff2  r2 reff 
 eff 
Where: p = laser power, η = absorption co-efficient, reff = effective radius,

d = energy distribution co-efficient

This amount of heat Q is distributed over the surface of weldment as [8].

2
 ( r ) = 3Q exp[ −3 r 
Q  2  ]
πr 2
r 
For the moving heat source this can be written as [9].

3Q   r 2    ξ 2 

Q(r , ξ ) = 2 exp − 3 2   exp − 3  
πr   r     r  
and for the volumetric heat source like submerged arc, laser or electron beam etc., the source
is thought to be hemispherical[10]

6 3Q   y 2    z 2    ξ 2 
Q ( y, z , ξ ) = 3 exp − 3   exp − 3   exp − 3  
r π π   r     r     r  
The above equation further modified to double ellipsoidal heat distribution for the welding
arc, according to which [10].

6 3Q   y 2    z 2    ξ 2 
Q ( y, z , ξ ) = exp − 3   exp − 3   exp − 3  
abcπ π   a     b     c  

Where a, b, c are the semi-axes of the ellipsoid in the direction of y, z , ξ

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r is a characteristic radial dimensional (heat) distribution parameter. The value of r is

reported (1, 8) to have a significant effect on the calculated heat flux and thereby the thermal
profiles.

Photographic method of estimation of r is reported by some researchers (12) which later on

were put into argument by some other scientists. Iterative method is also made for estimation
of r (12).

With the knowledge of heat distribution, it is now requisitioned to calculate the temperature
distribution at any point on the weldment during welding. This requires the solution of
unsteady state heat conduction equation: [14].

∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T   ∂T
k  +  k  +  k  + Q = ρ Cp
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂t

Where ρ , C p and k refer respectively to density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the

workpiece material, T is the temperature and is a function of spatial ( ξ , y, z) and time (t)
coordinates. Considering the moving coordinate system ( ξ = x – Vt), the governing equation
can be rewritten as
∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T   ∂T
 k  +  k  +  k  + Q = ρ C pV
∂ξ  ∂ξ  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂ξ
The solution of the above equation depends upon the boundary and initial conditions which
may be considered as

T (ξ , y, z ) = T0

(α c + α r )(T − T0 ) = −k ∂T
∂η
Qc = α c (T − T0 )

Qr = α r (T − T0 )

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ANALYTICAL SOLUTION:
A review of the analytical methods to solve the temperature distribution in welding shows a
large departure from the actually measured temperature values. This may be mainly due to
the number of simplifying assumptions necessary to obtain such a solution. The consideration
is weld arc to be line or point source, a two dimensional independent material properties,
quasistationary heat flow condition, Omission of heat of transformation. Some of the
analytical solution with specific assumptions is summarised to understand the development in
this technique.
The momentary stationary source is a possible model simplification for welding processes
with short-time heating and subsequent cooling (spot welding). The temperature increase
in the distance R on the plate is given by [14,20].
R2
2Q −
T − T0 = e 4αt

ρC p (4πα t )
3
2

In the source point itself (R=0), the temperature is [21]

(T − T0 ) = 2Q
ρ C p (4πα t ) 2
3

In case of momentary line source in the infinite plate the temperature increase is [22]
 − R2 
 
(T − T0 ) = Q  4αt −bt 
 
e
ρ C p (4πα t )
2(α c + α r )
The parameter b = designates the coefficient of heat transfer which can be
ρ C ph
explained with convection and radiation heat.
In the source line itself (r=0), the temperature increase is [23]

(T − T0 ) = Q
e −bt
hρ C p (4πα t )

Momentary area source gives the temperature distribution in the rod as [24]

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 −X 2 
 
(T − T0 ) = Q  4α t −bt 
 
e
Aρ C p (4πα t )
1
2

(α c + α r )P
The heat transfer co-efficient introduced here is b * = , with P describing the
C p ρ XA

perimeter and A the area of the rod cross-section.

In case of moving heat source the mathematical expression for the temperature field around a
continuously acting and moving source is obtained proceeding from the superposition
principle as is given by [16]

 X +R 
−V  
(T − T0 ) = Q
e  2α 
2πλR

And for rapidly moving high-power point source on the semi infinite solid as [1]

R2
−
(T − T0 ) = Q e 4α t
v 2πλt

Classical analysis of heat flow in fusion welding proposed by researchers suffers from the
limitation that its thermal prediction near the weld pool are highly inaccurate due to
consideration of point heat source. To remove this discrepancy subsequent researchers
simplified the solution by considering a pure heat conduction problem through elimination of
the weld pool.
Consideration of fictitious heat sources, distributed heat source, effective material properties
etc. improves the result (2, 12).
NUMERICAL METHODS:
In an effort to have a better coupling of complex boundary condition, temperature field
solution based on numerical solution is used. Much attention is focussed to study the effects

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of different welding parameters, thermal properties and weld geometry to achieve a closer
solution of the problem.
Some of the parameters which are assumed to control the heat transfer mechanism associated
with welding processes can be easily incorporated in the numerical solution. These are
magnitude and distribution of heat input, variation of material properties with temperature,
latent heat of transformation. Surface heat losses due to radiation and convection, thickness
of plate and weld dimension, heat sink condition.
In more complex applications, temperature field solution based on the finite element method
is more suitable whereas for simple geometries the finite difference method are more
advantageous
The transformation of the main heat transfer equation by explicit finite difference technique
is given as [14]
 Q 
Ti ,nj+1 = Ti ,nj + φ Ti +n1, j + Ti −n1, j + Ti ,nj +1 + Ti ,nj −1 − 4Ti ,nj + 
 Kth 

∆t
Where φ = α , k = thermal conductivity, th = thickness of plate
∆x 2
k
α= , ∆x = Node spacing
ρ Cp
In case of finite element the temperature is given by [1]
n
T e (α , y, t ) = ∑ N i (x, y )Ti (t ) = [N ] [T ] e
e

Where [N ] e is the shape function and [T ] are the temperature of the nodes of an element.
e

EXPERIMENTAL SOLUTION
Various experimental methods are used to obtain experimental temperature at a location and
these are temperature sensitive paints, crayons and thermocouples. However, the most
suitable and reliable method is measurement of temperature through thermocouples.
Thermocouples are generally mounted at the bottom side of the welded plates and other leads
are then connected to a temperature measuring instrument such as Strip Chart Recorder or
Data Logger. Continuous recording of the temperature from the welded plate is achieved in
the form of graph or print.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Extensive literature survey reveals that a number of mathematical models have been put
forward to study the thermal profiles of fusion welding processes. These models are based
either on analytical or numerical techniques.
The analytical models are reported to predict temperature in the weldment by a closed
solution of the unsteady state heat conduction equation. Such solutions require some
assumptions to be considered. These assumptions though make the model simple but the
profile generated by these is reported not to be so accurate comparable to experimental result.
But it is noticed that there are scopes of improvement of these analytical model by either
introducing new concept of distributed heat source or finite size of the weldment or
elimination of such assumptions or a combination of these. Improvement in these models is
desirable especially because analytical solutions are simple and easy to implement in
practical solution. So necessity of improving or upgrading the analytical method is envisaged.
However when the complex weld pool behaviour or extreme boundary conditions has to be
studied, use of sophisticated numerical techniques become essential. Though a number of
numerical models are put forward for research purpose, but no simple model is available
which is easy to understand, comprehensive in nature and as well as economic. The trend of
development is discussed below:
Model simplification relating to geometry and heat input:
Three basic geometrical bodies are introduced in respect to the geometry. The semi infinitely
extended solid, the infinitely extended plate and the infinitely extended rod. In semi infinite
solid, the heat is propagated three-dimensionally. In the infinite plate the heat is propagated
two-dimensionally and in the infinite rod, the heat is propagated one-dimensionally. This is
shown in fig. 1. [12]

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Fig. 1. Basic concept of heat flow in welded plate.

The simplification of an infinite extension instead of finite dimension is justified, the larger
the dimension of the component in the appropriate direction the shorter the period to heat
propagation under study (heating and cooling), the lower the thermal diffusivity, the less
distance from the heat source the area under study and greater the coefficient of heat transfer.
The simplification of two-one-dimensional heat flow, on the other hand, is all the mode
justified, the smaller of the plate thickness or the longer the period of heat propagation under
study, the greater the thermal diffusivity, the more distance from the heat source the area
under study, and the smaller the coefficient of heat transfer.
The local concentration of the welding heat input suggests corresponding simplification of
the heat source for the purpose of analysing the temperature field. The Gaussian distribution
of heat source of plane, hemispherical ellipsoidal and double ellipsoidal are generally used. It
has been seen at a greater distance no change in the temperature field occurs if the distributed
source is replaced by a concentrated heat source. In the immediate vicinity of the source, the
heat flow density distribution determines the temperature field whereas at a greater distance
the geometric condition of the component is decisive. The fig. 2. gives the shape of various
heat sources used for heat transfer analysis in welding.[1,7,8,9]

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Circular strip source Normal distribution

r=radial distance Semi Ovaloid source

Fig. 2. Various shapes of welding heat source.[1,7,8,9]

The prediction of the temperature field by analytical solution considering a moving heat
sources on a semi infinite solid, an infinite plate or in an infinite rod shows a very high
temperature near the sources whereas at a long distance from the sources it shows less
temperature comparable to experimental result. The temperature field around moving point
sources on a semi-infinite solid is shown in the fig. 3.[19]

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Fig. 3. Temperature field in weld plate due to point source. [19]

The temperature field around moving line source in plate is shown in fig. 4. [19]

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Fig.4.Temperature field in welded plate due moving line source. [19]

The temperature field around moving line source in plates of different materials are shown
in fig. 5.[19]

Fig. 5.Temperature field in welded plate of different metals.[19]

The temperature field in a fine grained steel plate of 1x1x0.01 m3 with a butt weld is
presented in the fig. 6. This analysis is obtained by using low order triangular elements in
finite element analysis. The temperature profile over time for two points at a smaller and
larger distance from the weld centreline is shown in fig. a close match of experimental
result with analysis justified the use of numerical model for heat transfer study.

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Fig.6. Thermal profile in a steel plate at various distances (experimental: Numerical). [25]

FUTURE REQUIREMENT
Analysing welding thermal history, residual stresses and welding deformation using
numerical techniques remains a challenge even in the age of super computer. The
following features of the numerical analysis task posed assist the expert in understanding
the degree of difficulty and the immense effort involved in a general solution.
The numerical analysis should be designed three-dimensionally, at least in the weld area in
order to allow for the different cooling conditions in the interior and on the surface. The
process to be modelled in transient to a high degree, with extremely different field
gradients depending on position and time because of the rapid heating and cooling down
events. The process to be modelled in non linear and temperature dependent to a high
degree in respect to thermo-mechanical material behaviour. The momentary, local material
behaviour is dependent on the local thermal and mechanical stresses and strain theory.
The material is molten during welding, in some cases also added to the component, and, as
it solidifies, changes the connectivity of the component. Defects and cracks, which may
occur at critical points make the continaum concept output. A finer modelling is needed for
thermodynamic and thermo-kinetic processes in the area of welding pool. The necessary
coupling of the energy relation, equation with weld pool physics has not yet been

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completely accomplished but progress has been made in this direction particularly in
respect of heat affected zone (HAZ).

CONCLUSION
The heat transfer study of the welding processes with complex weld pool behaviour and
various weld geometrics require a complete understanding of the phenomena, expressing
the same with well defined mathematical equation and competent numerical technique for
solution. Though a number of numerical models are put forward based upon various
numerical techniques, but still no simple approach has been developed to be used in the
shop floor for optimising the weld heat input for quality welding. So it is felt that there are
sufficient scope for development of simple models to study heat transfer of various
welding processes particularly Electron Beam Welding and Laser Beam Welding.

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