Fluid Flow-II LABORATORY

MANUAL
Submitted By:
Fatima Saleem (2020-CH-202)
Abeeha Asif Khan (2020-CH-203)
Kashaf Imran (2020-CH-209) Submitted To:

Bisma Amjad (2020-CH-211) Sir Rashid

1
Saman Iftikhar (2020-CH-247)
 2
Hydra Flow meter Bernoulli Flow Orifice Permeabi Osborne Mobile
ulic demons- theorem over and Jet- lity and Reynolds bed and
bench tration demons- weirs force fluidizati apparatus flow
appara apparatus tration appar- apparatus on fluidizati
tus unit atus apparatus on
Series/parallel
pumps bench

Axial fan apparatus

Air flow apparatus

Lab layout

Centrifugal fan
apparatus
Fluid Friction in
pipe apparatus
Entrance

Exit
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Experiment # 01 ....................................................................................................... 7
1.1) Objective ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.2) Apparatus: .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3) Chemicals: .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4) Precaution ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.5) Theory: ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.7) Observation & calculation .............................................................................................. 10
1.8) Graphs: ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.9) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.10) Reference ........................................................................................................................ 12
Experiment # 02 ..................................................................................................... 12
2.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.3) Chemical: .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.4) Precaution ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.5) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 13
2.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 14
2.7) Observation and calculation ........................................................................................... 15
2.9) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.10) Reference ........................................................................................................................ 17
Experiment # 03 ..................................................................................................... 17
3.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.3) Chemicals: ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.4) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 17
3.5) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 17
3.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 19
3.7) Observation & Calculation ............................................................................................. 20

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 3.8) Graph ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.8) Result................................................................................................................................. 21
3.9) Reference .......................................................................................................................... 22
Experiment # 04 ..................................................................................................... 23
4.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 23
4.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 23
4.3) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 23
a) Personal safety ..................................................................................................................... 23
4.4) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 23
4.5) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 25
4.6) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 25
4.7) Reference .......................................................................................................................... 26
Experiment # 05 ..................................................................................................... 26
5.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 26
5.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 26
5.3) Chemicals: ........................................................................................................................ 26
5.4) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 26
5.5) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 26
5.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 28
5.8) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 29
5.9) References: ....................................................................................................................... 29
Experiment # 6 ....................................................................................................... 29
6.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 29
6.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 29
6.3) Software ............................................................................................................................ 29
6.4) Chemical: .......................................................................................................................... 29
6.5) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 29
6.6) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 30
6.7) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 31
6.8) Observation & Calculations: .......................................................................................... 32
6.9) Graphs: ............................................................................................................................. 32
6.10) Result: ............................................................................................................................. 33

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 6.11) Reference ........................................................................................................................ 34
Experiment # 7 ....................................................................................................... 34
7.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 34
7.2) Equipment: ....................................................................................................................... 34
7.3) Chemical required ........................................................................................................... 34
7.4) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 34
7.5) Theory ............................................................................................................................... 34
7.5.1) Orifice and Jet: .............................................................................................................. 34
7.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 36
7.7) Observation & Calculation ............................................................................................. 37
7.8) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 38
7.9) Reference .......................................................................................................................... 38
Experiment # 08 ..................................................................................................... 38
8.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 38
8.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 38
8.3) Chemicals: ........................................................................................................................ 38
8.4) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 38
8.5) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 38
8.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 40
8.8) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 41
8.9) Reference .......................................................................................................................... 41
Experiment # 09 ..................................................................................................... 41
9.1) Objective ........................................................................................................................... 41
9.2) Apparatus: ........................................................................................................................ 41
9.3) Chemicals: ........................................................................................................................ 41
9.4) Precautions: ...................................................................................................................... 41
9.5) Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 42
9.6) Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 43
9.7) Observation & calculation .............................................................................................. 43
9.8) Result: ............................................................................................................................... 43
9.9) Reference .......................................................................................................................... 44
Experiment # 10 ..................................................................................................... 44

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10.1) Objective ......................................................................................................................... 44
10.2) Apparatus: ...................................................................................................................... 44
10.3) Chemicals: ...................................................................................................................... 44
10.4) Precautions: .................................................................................................................... 44
10.5) Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 44
10.6) Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 46
10.7) Observation & Calculation ........................................................................................... 47
10.8) Result: ............................................................................................................................. 47
10.9) Reference ........................................................................................................................ 47

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 Experiment # 01
1.1) Objective:

To obtain head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump.

1.2) Apparatus:
• The FM50 Centrifugal Pump Demonstration Unit
• The IFD7 Arm-field Interface device
• Compatible PC with Arm-field FM50-304 software installed
1.3) Chemicals:
• Supply water

1.4) Precaution:
a) Personal safety:
• Ensure proper working of residual current circuit breaker(RCCB)
• Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
b) Equipment safety:
• Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
• Do not start the equipment without supply water
1.5) Theory:
1.5.1) Pump:
“A pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action, typically
converted from electrical energy into hydraulic energy.”
1.5.2) Centrifugal pump:
“Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to
the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.”
1.5.3) Graphical representation:
The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve. A
typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and net
positive Suction head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.
Graphical representation of pump performance are;
• Change in total heads produced by pump
• Power input to pump
• Pump efficiency

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 Figure 1: Centrifugal pump (elettronicaveneta - 2015)

1.5.4) Total Heads:

The term “total head” (H) is used to describe the energy in pumping systems and is how
manufacturers represent the performance of their pumps as a function of flow rate.
Ht = Hs+Hv+He
Where, Static head
“Static head is the pressure resulting from a column of liquid acting under gravity.”
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
𝜌𝑔
𝑃𝑖𝑛= inlet pressure
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡= outlet pressure
1.5.5) Velocity head

“Velocity head is the pressure which is needed to increase the speed at which a liquid flows.”
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
2𝑔
Vin = fluid velocity at inlet in m/s
Vout = fluid velocity at outlet in m/s
g = gravitational acceleration
1.5.6) Elevation head

“Energy per unit mass possessed by a fluid as a result of its height above some reference level.”

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1.5.5) Power Input:
“Power of a pump is the mechanical power in kW or Watt taken by the shaft or coupling”.
𝑷𝘮 = 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝘮 =
𝟔𝟎
n = rotational speed of pump in rpm
t = shaft torque in Nm
1.5.6) Pump Efficiency:

“A pump's efficiency is determined by how effectively the pump can convert one form of energy
to another, based on the difference between the horsepower going into and out of a pump.”
Formula:
Efficiency of pump calculated as
𝑃ℎ
𝐸 = 100 ×
𝑃𝑚
1.5.7) Hydraulic Power:
Where Ph is hydraulic power to fluid.

𝑃ℎ = 𝐻𝘑𝑄𝜌𝑔
Where Q is volumetric flow rate in m^3/s and mechanical power is absorbs by pump.
1.5.8) Performance Curve of Centrifugal Pump:
A centrifugal pump performance curve is a tool that shows how a pump will perform in terms of
head and flow. Pumps can generate high volume flow rates when pumping against low-pressure
head or low volume flow rates when pumping against high-pressure head.

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Figure 2: Performance curve of centrifugal pump (enggcyclopedia - 2018)

10
1.6) Procedure:
• Switch on the IFD7.
• Switch on the FM50 pump within the software using the Pump On button.
• In the software, rename the current (blank) results table to '50%' (this will be the only table
if results from Exercise A are not available). On the mimic diagram of the software, set the
pump speed to 50%.
• The interface will increase the pump speed until it reaches the required setting. Allow water
to circulate until all air has been flushed from the system. Partially closing and opening the
inlet and gate valves a few times will help in priming the system and eliminating any
bubbles caught within the valve mechanism. Leave the inlet valve fully open.
• Close the gate valve to give a flow rate Q of 0. (Note that the pump may not run well with
the gate valve closed or nearly closed, as the back pressure produced is outside normal
operating parameters. The pump should begin to run more smoothly as the experiment
progresses).
• Select the GO icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of
the software.
• Open the gate valve to allow a low flow rate. Allow sufficient time for the sensor readings
to stabilize then select the GO icon to record the next set of data.
• Open the gate valve in small increments, allowing the sensor readings to stabilize then
recording the sensor and pump data each time.
• Create a new results sheet by selecting the icon (you may also wish to save the results at
this time to avoid losing the data in the event of problems).
• Close the gate valve. Set the pump to 60%. Select the icon to record the sensor readings
and pump settings on the new results table.
• Repeat as before, opening the gate valve in small increments and allowing the sensor
readings to stabilize then recording the sensor and pump data each time. Close the gate
valve.
• Repeat the procedure at 70%, 80%, 90% and 100%. Create a new results sheet for each
setting (and save the results if desired- the same file may be overwritten each time as more
data is added). For convenience, rename each sheet of results in the software with the pump
setting. Ensure the results are saved after taking the final set of results.
• Switch the pump off. If not proceeding directly to another exercise then switch off the
IFD7 and close the FM50 software.

1.7) Observation & calculation:

Sr.no Pump Pump Mechanical Pump Total head Quantitative
setting % speed power (w) efficiency (m) flow rate Q
(Rpm) % (L/s)
1 50 750 48.4 1.3 1.70 0.04
2 50 750 50.5 3.9 1.68 0.12
3 50 750 50.3 6.9 1.67 0.21
4 50 750 52.1 9.0 1.64 0.29
5 50 750 50.8 12.2 1.58 0.40

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 6 50 750 52.7 13.9 1.52 0.49
7 50 750 51.8 15.5 1.51 0.54
1.8) Graphs:
1.8.1) Total head vs flow rate

Total head vs flow rate

0.6

0.5

0.4
Total head

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Flow rate

Figure 3: Graph between total head vs flow rate

1.8.2) Efficiency vs flow rate

Efficiency vs flow rate

0.6

0.5

0.4
Efficiency

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20
Flow rate

Figure 4: Graph between efficiency and flow rate

1.8.3) Mechanical power vs flow rate

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 Mechanical power vs Flow rate
0.6

0.5

Mechanical power
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
48 49 50 51 52 53
Flow rate

Figure 5: Graph between mechanical power vs flow rate

1.9) Result:

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When the two centrifugal pumps are connected in series the head become double but when two
pumps are connected in series the flow rate become double and the head remains same. In case of
series connection the hydraulic power produced by a pump is higher than that of parallel
connections at low flow rates.

1.10) Reference:
https://www.michael-smith-engineers.co.uk/
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/
https://www.elettronicaveneta.com/ (cited on 2015)
https://www.enggcyclopedia.com/ (cited on 2018)

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 Experiment # 02
2.1) Objective:
To fine the characteristic curve for an axial fan operating at constant speed.

2.2) Apparatus:
• The FM41 Axial Fan demonstration unit
• The IFD7 Arm-field interface device
• Compatible PC with Arm field FM50-304 software installed

2.3) Chemical:
• Air

2.4) Precaution:
1- Personal safety:
A) Ensure proper working of residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)

B) Wear laboratory coat and close shoes in the laboratory

2- Equipment safety:
A) Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

2.5) Theory:
2.5.1) Axial Fan:
“An axial fan is a type of fan that causes gas to flow through it in an axial direction, parallel to
the shaft about which the blades rotate.”
2.5.2) Characteristics of Fluid Machines:
Fluid machines are usually characterized in two distinct classes:
• Roto-dynamic
• Positive displacement.

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2.5.3) Roto-dynamic machine:

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The axial fan is an axial flow roto-dynamic machine. Air is drawn along by fan blades rotating about
an axis parallel to the direction of air flow (hence the name axial fan), as in an aircraft propeller.
The air stream does not undergo a significant change of mean flow direction (as is seen in the
centrifugal fan), but turbulence and swirling within the air stream is introduced by the actionof the
fan blades.
2.5.4) By 1st law of Thermodynamics:
The general relationship between the various forms of energy, based on the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics applied to a unit mass of fluid flowing through a control volume (such as the fan
itself) is expressed as:

Figure 7: 1st law of thermodynamics (hkdivedi - 2016)

𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟭𝟐 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏
−𝑾𝒔 = + 𝒈(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏) + +𝑭
𝟐 𝝆

-W, is the mechanical shaft work performed on the fluid. On the right hand side, represents the
change in Kinetic energy, Potential energy and Pressure energy respectively. F is the frictional loss
as the heat to the surrounding or in raising the temperature of the fluid itself as it travels from inlet
to outlet.
2.5.5) Fan total pressure:
For the FM41, the change in potential energy g(z-2₁) may be considered negligible as the mass of
a unit volume of air is so small. The equation may then alternatively be presented as the Fan Total
Pressure ptF of the fan, by converting the units from work per unit mass to pressure.
𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏𝟐)
𝒑𝒕𝒇 = ( ) + (𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏)
𝟐

2.6) Procedure:
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 • Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarize yourself wit Set the fan speed
to maximum (100%) and note the rotational speed of the fan.
• Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure and
motor power by selecting the 'GO' icon on the software toolbar.
• Using the maximum air velocity as a guide, select incremental values for air velocity that
will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and maximum velocity.
• Close the aperture to increase the air velocity by approximately one step. Select the "GO'
icon. Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the aperture and fan setting to
givethe required values and selecting the 'GO' icon to record the data once the settings are
correct.
• Continue in steps until the aperture is fully closed, recording the data each time. NOTE:
There will always be a small-indicated discharge even when the aperture is fully closed,
because of the fan blades acting on the air within the inlet and outlet ducts.
• Always monitor the aperture visually at low discharge rates, and do not twist the aperture
beyond the point at which it is fully closed. Over-twisting the aperture device will damage
the aperture. Create a new results table using the 'Table' icon on the software toolbar.
• Select a new fan rotational speed, for example half the value for the first set of data.
• Adjust the fan speed to give this rotational speed, and note the maximum flow velocity.
Select the 'GO' icon.
• Open the aperture in steps as before, recording each set of data with the 'GO' icon. - Fully
open the outlet aperture after recording the last set of data.
• If time additional rotational speed settings may be investigated to give a full series of
performance data. Remember to create a new results sheet for each set of data.
Alternatively, each student or set of students may take data for different rotational speeds,
and the results can then be combined.

2.7) Observation and calculation:

Sr.no Volumetric flow Efficiency % Total pressure Power input (w)
rate Q (L/s) (Pa)
1 40.2 45.8 40.2 3.17
2 40.0 46.3 40.0 3.23
3 39.9 46.0 39.9 3.23
4 39.8 46.8 39.8 3.32
5 39.8 47.4 39.8 3.37
6 39.8 48.5 39.8 3.42
7 40.0 48.5 40.0 3.45
8 39.9 48.5 39.9 3.44
9 39.9 48.5 39.9 3.45
10 39.9 48.1 39.9 3.43
2.8) Graphs:
Flow rate vs efficiency:
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 Flow rate vs efficiency
50

40

Efficiency
30

20

10

0
45.5 46 46.5 47 47.5 48 48.5 49
Flow rate

Figure 8: Graph between flow rate vs efficiency

Flow rate vs total pressure:

Total pressure vs flow rate

40.25
40.2
40.15
Total pressure

40.1
40.05
40
39.95
39.9
39.85
39.8
39.75
39.7 39.8 39.9 40 40.1 40.2 40.3
Flow rate

Figure 9: Graph between flow rate vs total pressure

Flow rate vs power input:

Power input vs flow rate

40.25
40.2
40.15
40.1
Power input

40.05
40
39.95
39.9
39.85
39.8
39.75
3.15 3.2 3.25 3.3 3.35 3.4 3.45 3.5
Flow rate
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Figure 10: Graph between flow rate vs power input
2.9) Result:
The experiment shows that the efficiency of fan increases by increasing the flow rate but the total
pressure decreases.

2.10) Reference:
https://armfield.co.uk/ (cited on 2020)
https://www.hkdivedi.com/ (cited on 2016)
https://eurovent.eu/

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 Experiment # 03
3.1) Objective:

To study the behavior of two centrifugal pumps of similar characteristics coupled in parallel and
series.

3.2) Apparatus:
• The Series Parallel Pumps Bench

3.3) Chemicals:
• Supply Water

3.4) Precautions:
a) Personal safety:
• Ensure proper working of Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises.
b) Equipment safety:
• Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Do not start the equipment without supply water

3.5) Theory:

Figure 11: Series and parallel pump bench (tecquipment - 2018)

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3.5.1) Series Coupling:

Figure 12: Series coupling (pharmacalculations - 2016)

When two (or more) pumps are arranged in serial their resulting pump performance curve is
obtained by adding their heads at the same flow rate as indicated in the figure below. Centrifugal
pumps in series are used to overcome larger system head loss than one pump can handle alone.

Figure 13: Series coupling (actamont.tuke - 2018)

3.5.2) Parallel Coupling:

Figure 14: Parallel coupling (blog.craneengineering - 2020)

When two or more pumps are arranged in parallel their resulting performance curve is obtained by
adding the pumps flow rates at the same head as indicated. Centrifugal pumps in parallel are used
to overcome large volume flows than one pump can handle alone. One major benefit of parallel
pumping is the high degree of standby capacity provided by single pump operation.
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 Figure 15: parallel coupling graph (archive.nptel.ac.in - 2018)

Note:
Parallel coupling produces more heads than that of series coupling.

3.6) Procedure:
For series
• Both pumps must be used at the same setting in this experiment to ensure identical
performance. As the speed of pump 2 is fixed at its design operational point, pump 1 should
be set to match - select 80% for a 50Hz electrical supply, or 100% for 60 Hz.
• Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from the system.
• Set up the hydraulics bench valves to perform the two pumps in series test.
• Start pumps 1 and 2, and increase the speed until the pumps are operating at 60 rev/sec.
• Turn the bench regulating valve to the fully closed position.
• Create a new results sheet using the (New) icon. Rename this new results sheet to 'Series'.
In the software, on the mimic diagram, set the 'Mode' to 'Series' by selecting the appropriate
radio button.
• Open pump 2 outlet valve, close pump 1 outlet valve and wait for any air to circulate out
of the system.
• Select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of
the software.
• Close the gate valve to reduce the flow by a small increment. Select the (Go) icon again.
• Continue to close the gate valve to give incremental changes in flow rate, recording the
sensor data each time.
• After taking the final set of data, fully open the gate valve again.
For Parallel

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 • Both pumps must be used at the same setting in this experiment, to ensure identical
performances. As the speed of pump 2 is fixed at its design operational point, pump 1
should be set to match. Select 80% for a 50Hz electrical supply, or 100% for 60Hz.
• Allow water to circulate until all air has been flushed from the system.
• Exercise A should be performed before this experiment, and the results loaded into the
software if the software is not still open from that exercise. If the software is still open from
exercise A, then create a new results sheet by selecting the (New) icon. Rename the current
(blank) results sheet to 'Parallel'.
• Select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the results table of
the software.
• Close the gate valve to reduce the flow by a small increment. Select the (Go) icon again.
• Continue to close the gate valve to give incremental changes in flow rate, recording the
sensor data each time.
• After taking the final set of data, fully open the gate valve. Set Pump 1 to 0% and switch
off both pumps.

3.7) Observation & Calculation

Single pump:
Single pump
Sr.no Quantitative flow rate Head (m)
Q (L/s)
1 0.04 1.70
2 0.12 1.68
3 0.21 1.67
4 0.29 1.64
5 0.40 1.58
6 0.49 1.52

Pump connected in series:

Pump connected in series
Sr.no Quantitative flow rate Head (m)
Q (L/s)
1 0.04 1.70
2 0.12 1.68
3 0.21 1.67

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 4 0.29 1.64
5 0.40 1.58
6 0.49 1.52

Pump connected in parallel:

Pump connected in parallel
Sr.no Quantitative flow rate Head (m)
Q (L/s)
1 0.04 1.70
2 0.12 1.68
3 0.21 1.67
4 0.29 1.64
5 0.40 1.58
6 0.49 1.52

3.8) Graph:
Single pump

Head vs flow rate

0.6

0.5

0.4
Head

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Flow rate

Figure 16: Graph b/w head vs flow rate

Series pump

22
 0.6

0.5

0.4

Head
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Flow rate

Figure 17: Graph between head vs flow rate

Parallel pump

0.6

0.5

0.4
Head

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Flow rate

Figure 18: Graph between head & flow rate

3.8) Result

When the two centrifugal pumps are connected in series the head become double but when two
pumps are connected in series the flow rate become double and the head remains same. In case of
series connection the hydraulic power produced by a pump is higher than that of parallel
connections at low flow rates.

3.9) Reference:
https://www.tecquipment.com/variable-speed-series-and-parallel-pumps (cited on 2018)
https://www.pharmacalculations.com/2016/05/pumps-in-series-vs-pumps-in-parallel.html (cited
on May, 2016)
https://actamont.tuke.sk/pdf/2018/n2/3qazizada.pdf (cited on 2018)

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https://blog.craneengineering.net/operating-centrifugal-pumps-in-series-or-parallel (cited on
2020)
https://archive.nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/112104117/chapter_8/8_10.html (cited on
2018)
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pumps-parallel-serial-d_636.html (cited on 2016)

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 Experiment # 04
4.1) Objective:
To visualize the flow pattern of a converging and diverging nozzle to give a parallel flow in a
contracted outlet using different item.

4.2) Apparatus:
• Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization tank.

4.3) Precautions:
a) Personal safety
• Ensure proper working of residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Water laboratory coat
• Closed shoes
b)Equipment safety
• Ensure the proper working of miniature breaker (MCB)
• Do not start equipment without supply water

4.4) Theory:

Figure 19: Mobile bed and flow visualization tank (hampden- 2021)

4.4.1) Flow Visualization:

25
 “The Mobile Bed and Flow Visualization Unit is a particularly useful unit to demonstrate the
fluidization phenomenon in engineering. Flow visualization is the art of making flow patterns
visible.”
4.4.2) How to make the flow visible?
Most fluids (air, water, etc.) are transparent, thus their flow patterns are invisible to the naked eye
without methods to make them this visible. Local speeds and direction of flow are estimated from
the movement of dust particles sprinkled on the water surface. The dust should be lightly
distributed upstream of the boundaries arranged in working section.
4.4.3) Models of flow boundaries:
The basis of the flow boundaries inserted in the working section must be flushed with the glass
sheet to prevent the leakage of water beneath .isolated models such as cylinders should have basis
machined at right angle to their vertical axis .Long walls can easily be made of metal strips but
their lower edges must be straight. The strips may be kept vertical by short length of angle fixed
on inner side of the wall where there is usually no flow .The strips may also be horizontal legs of
the angles to prevent movement of the wall.
4.4.4) Flow Patterns:
It may be converging, diverging or in between them.

Converging Flow:
A duct that has a decreasing cross section in the direction of fluid flow is convergent flow

Divergent Flow:

Figure 20: Convergent flow (engapplets.vt.edu - 2019)

A duct that has an increasing cross section in the direction of fluid flow is divergent flow.

26
 Figure 22: Divergent flow

4.5) Procedure:

• Place the model to be used in the channel with the screws supplied. Wedge models (as well
as circular ones) will be placed in the central hole.
• For a better visualization of the flow, we must use an ink, injected through the hypodermic
needles. 3
• It is recommended to use a vegetable ink with density similar to that of the water, so the
flow lines are clear.
• Start the pump in order that the water begins to circulate through channel, being the ink
valve closed. Adjust the flow through the channel with the control valve of the hydraulic
bench.
• To study the submerged bodies in a fluid current, we will slide the trap from top to bottom,
in order that the water covers the models completely.
• Open the ink control valve located in the base of the tank and adjust the current density
• Repeat this procedure with all models supplied.
• With the discharge adjustable plate at the highest position, the channel will operate full of
water, allowing the visualization of the flow with flow models around and over submerged
objects.
• To see the visualization of the flow lines clearly, we can place a blank sheet at the back of
the channel.
• See how lines vary depending on the flow, when we increase this flow progressively.

4.6) Result:
We arranged different shapes of hurdles and different other things to break and diverge the flow
of the incoming water and observed the turbulence produced by it and how the boundary layer
formation occurs and how it is dependent on the flow type because it’s thickness depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

27
4.7) Reference:
https://www.hampden.com/civil-engineering-program.html (cited on 2021)
https://www.engapplets.vt.edu/fluids/CDnozzle/cdinfo.html (cited on 2019)
http://www.expertsmind.com/questions/airflow-through-divergent-and-convergent-ducts-
30111535.aspx (cited on 2015)

28
 Experiment # 05
5.1) Objective:

To determine the rate of sedimentation and to draw the sedimentation curve.

5.2) Apparatus:
• Sedimentation study apparatus
• Stopwatch (to determine time)

5.3) Chemicals:
• Supply Water
• Calcium carbonate (CaC𝑂3)

5.4) Precautions:
a) Personal safety:
• Ensure proper working of Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
• Calcium carbonate is hazardous in case of eye contact (irritant). Slightly hazardous in
case of skin contact (irritant),of ingestion
b)Equipment safety:
• Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
• Carefully mount/dismount the cylindrical glass tubes from the apparatus

5.5) Theory:
5.5.1) Sedimentation:
“Sedimentation is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle out of the
suspension under the effect of gravity.”
5.5.2) Rate of Sedimentation:
Sedimentation rate kettle determines the speed at which particles (whether nanoparticles or
suspended particulate matter, SPM) are removed from the water through sedimentation (sediment
deposition). The higher the rate, the faster particles are removed.

29
 Figure 24: Sedimentation apparatus

5.5.3) Stokes Law:

According to Stokes' law, the particle sedimentation velocity is proportional to the density
difference between the solid phase and the liquid phase, inversely proportional to the viscosity of
the liquid, and proportional to the square of particle diameter.
𝒅𝟐(𝒑𝒔 − 𝒑𝒆)𝒈
𝒗=
𝟏𝟖𝝁
5.5.4) Zones of Sedimentation:
Sedimentation basins have 4 zones.

30
1- Inlet zone:

The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the water and
to control the water’s velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act to prevent
turbulence of the water. The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed
across the width of the basin to prevent short-circuiting.

2- Settling zone:

After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity is greatly
reduced. This is where the bulk of settling occurs and this zone will make up the largest volume
of the sedimentation basin.

3- Sludge zone:

The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge is collected
temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of sludge.

4- Outlet zone:

The outlet zone controls the amount of water flowing out of the sedimentation basin. Like the
inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in the basin. In
addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and enters the
filter.

5.6) Procedure:
• Prepare a desired amount of 5%, 10% and 20% concentration by weight of chalk in water
slurry.
• Mix each slurry in the separate beaker with the help of stirrer.
• Now fill each sedimentation tube starting with the most concentrated. Each tube should be
well shaken to give a consistent suspension.
• Take note of the readings of the interface at convenient timed intervals. Record also
the rise of sludge interface at the base of cylinder.
• Height of the port is also being measured. Suspension or the mixture of chalk and water
prepared is to be tested and placed in the column. The suspension is being mixedcompletely
to ensure uniform distribution of particles. At time interval, a portion of the sample is
removed from the port and carried out in order to determine the initial concentration of the
readings. The suspension is allowed to settle in four different heights.

5.7) Observation & Calculation:

Time Sludge interface at time t (Hs) Suspension interface at time t (Ht)
(min) Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3
5 48 49 41 5 5 3
10 48.5 49 41 5 5.2 3.5

31
 15 48 49.5 41 5 5.5 7
20 48 49.5 41 5 5.5 7
5.8) Result:
It shows that when the sedimentation applied there is a reduction in concentration of solids in
suspension, it means that at higher concentration the sedimentation coefficient decreases rapidly.

5.9) References:

https://dreamcivil.com/sedimentation-in-water-treatment/ (cited on 2022)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311985882_A_Numerical_Model_of_Flow_and_Settli
ng_in_Sedimentation_Tanks_in_Potable_Water_Treatment_Plants/figures?lo=1 (cited on 2018)

https://www.docsity.com/en/sedimentation-experiment/4565685/ (cited on 2016)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment) (cited on 2020)

32
 Experiment # 6
6.1) Objective:
To obtain characteristics curve for centrifugal fan at constant speed

6.2) Apparatus:
• FM40 Centrifugal fan demonstration unit
• The IFD7 Arm field interface device

6.3) Software:
• The Arm-SOFT software enables the operator to control the fan speed 0 to 100%. Feedback
from the sensors is then displayed in real time for the end user with simultaneous data
logging.
• The data trend is also displayed graphically in real time and can be exported to another
platform such as Excel for further analysis.
6.4) Chemical:
• Air

6.5) Precautions:
Personal safety
• Ensure proper working of residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Water laboratory coat
• Closed shoes

Equipment safety
• Ensure the proper working of miniature breaker (MCB)

6.6) Theory:
6.6.1) Centrifugal fan
“A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases in a direction at an
angle to the incoming fluid”.
6.6.2) Biscuit blower
Centrifugal fans often contain a ducted housing to direct outgoing air in a specific direction or
across a heat sink; such a fan is also called a blower, blower fan, or squirrel-cage fan (because it
looks like a hamster wheel). Tiny ones used in computers are sometimes called biscuit blowers.

33
 Figure 26: Centrifugal pump (indiamart - 2018)

The Arm-field centrifugal fan is a radial flow machine which produces the necessary pressure to
move gas by the centrifugal force built up inside the fan casing. The design of the fan blade has a
primary influence on performance.
6.6.3) Types of Fans
These types of fans are usually employed for ventilating duties requiring a somewhat higher
delivery pressure than that available from axial fans.
1- Aperture
A motor driven centrifugal fan mounted on a stainless steel plinth. Transparent air inlet and air
outlet ducts enable the fan volute and the impellor to be clearly observed. A manually operated
adjustable aperture allows the air flow rate to be varied at constant fan speed. A calibrated orifice
plate is used on the discharge to measure the air flow rate.
2- Impellers
Interchangeable backward and forward-curved blade impellers are provided to facilitate direct
comparison between their respective operating characteristics and to demonstrate to which duties
each is best suited.
3- Electronic sensors

34
Electronic sensors measure the pressure head developed across the fan, the pressure across the
orifice plate (and hence the flow rate) and the air temperature.
6.6.4) Working of centrifugal fan:
Centrifugal fans are based around a rotating wheel of blades called impellers, which drag the
entering air or gas into a circular motion. It is then pushed out of the fan by the centrifugal force
created by the rotation. The flow of air changes direction when both exiting and entering the fan.
6.6.5) Efficiency of centrifugal fan:
The relative performance of different fan designs is assessed by comparing the power of the air
or gas flow output to the power they consume to operate. This ratio is referred to as the static
efficiency or mechanical efficiency rating. Meanwhile, the Pascal rating is a measurement of a
particular fan’s pressure output.
Centrifugal fans produce constant airflow and normally have high static efficiency.
6.7) Procedure:
• Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarize yourself wit Set the fan speed
to maximum (100%) and note the rotational speed of the fan.
• Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure
and motor power by selecting the 'GO' icon on the software toolbar.
• Using the maximum air velocity as a guide, select incremental values for air velocity that
will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and maximum velocity.
• Close the aperture to increase the air velocity by approximately one step. Select the "GO'
• Icon
• Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the aperture and fan setting to give
the required values and selecting the 'GO' icon to record the data once the settings are
correct.
• Continue in steps until the aperture is fully closed, recording the data each time. NOTE:
There will always be a small-indicated discharge even when the aperture is fully closed,
because of the fan blades acting on the air within the inlet and outlet ducts.
• Always monitor the aperture visually at low discharge rates, and do not twist the aperture
beyond the point at which it is fully closed. Over-twisting the aperture device will damage
the aperture. Create a new results table using the 'Table' icon on the software toolbar.
• Select a new fan rotational speed, for example half the value for the first set of data.
• Adjust the fan speed to give this rotational speed, and note the maximum flow velocity.
Select the 'GO' icon.
• Open the aperture in steps as before, recording each set of data with the 'GO' icon. - Fully
open the outlet aperture after recording the last set of data.
• If time additional rotational speed settings may be investigated to give a full series of
performance data. Remember to create a new results sheet for each set of data.
Alternatively, each student or set of students may take data for different rotational speeds,
and the results can then be combined.

35
6.8) Observation & Calculations:

Sr.no Volumetric flow Efficiency % Total pressure Power input (w)

rate Q (L/s) (Pa)
1 20.3 0.65 23.8 15.4
2 27.8 0.64 26.6 17.1
3 33.7 0.62 23.3 14.4
4 36.3 0.59 15.4 9.17
5 26.6 0.58 11.8 6.87
6 25.8 0.59 9.3 5.53
7 21.2 0.59 6.4 3.82
8 16.4 0.60 5.7 3.43
9 14.2 0.58 4.8 2.84
10 18.3 0.60 4.9 2.93

6.9) Graphs:
Flow rate vs efficiency:

0.66
0.65
0.64
0.63
Efficiency (%)

0.62
0.61
0.6
0.59
0.58
0.57
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Flow Rate (L/s)

Figure 27: Graph between flow rate vs efficiency

36
Flow rate vs total pressure:

30

25
Total Pressure (Pa)
20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Flow Rate(L/s)

Figure 28: Graph between flow rate vs total pressure

Flow rate vs power input:

18
16
14
Power Input (w)

12
10
8
6
4
2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Flow Rate (L/s)

Figure 29: Graph between flow rate vs power input

6.10) Result:
By adjusting the aperture and fan setting we get the various values at constant speed. As a result,
we obtained the characteristics curve for the centrifugal fan.

37
6.11) Reference:
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/centrifugal-exhaust-fan-11791955762.html (cited on
2018)
https://armfield.co.uk/product/fm40-centrifugal-fan-demonstration-unit/(cited on 2016)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_fan (cited on 2020)

38
 Experiment # 7
7.1) Objective:
To investigate the discharge characteristics of circular orifices subjected to a constant head.

7.2) Equipment:
• F1-10 hydraulics bench;
• F1-17 orifice and free jet flow apparatus, with two orifices having diameters of 3 and 6
mm.

7.3) Chemical required:

• Water

7.4) Precautions:
Personal safety:
• Ensure proper working of residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Water laboratory coat
• Closed shoes
Equipment safety
• Ensure the proper working of miniature breaker (MCB)

7.5) Theory:
7.5.1) Orifice and Jet:
The orifice and free jet flow apparatus consists of a cylindrical head tank with an orifice plate set
into its side. An adjustable overflow pipe is adjacent to the head tank to allow changes in the water
level. A flexible hose attached to the overflow pipe returns excess water to the hydraulics bench.

7.5.2) Parts of orifice and jet apparatus:

• A scale attached to the head tank indicates the water level.

• A baffle at the base of the head tank promotes smooth flow conditions inside the tank,
behind the orifice plate.
• Two orifice plates with 3 and 6 mm diameters are provided and may be interchanged by
slackening the two thumb nuts.
• The trajectory of the jet may be measured, using the vertical needles.

39
 • For this purpose, a sheet of paper should be attached to the backboard, and the needles
should be adjusted to follow the trajectory of the water jet. The needles may be locked,
using a screw on the mounting bar. The positions of the tops of the needles can be marked
to plot the trajectory. A drain plug in the base of the head tank allows water to be drained
from the equipment at the end of the experiment.

Figure 30: Orifice and jet apparatus (uta.pressbooks.pub – 2018)

7.5.3) Explanation:

Consider a small orifice in the side of a vessel with the head of water above the orifice kept
constant.

Figure 31: Orifice vessel (indiamart - 2019)

Applying Bernoulli's theorem between the surface of the water 1 and the orifice O yields

𝑍1 + 𝑃1 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉1 2 2𝑔 = 𝑍𝑜 + 𝑃𝑜 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉𝑜 2 2𝑔
However 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑜 = atmospheric pressure

𝑉1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍1 − 𝑍𝑜 = 𝐻𝑜
Hence substituting these into Bernoulli's equation gives

𝐻𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 √2𝑔
40
In other words, the theoretical velocity of the water passing through the orifice is given by

𝑉𝑜 = √2𝑔𝐻𝑜

And hence the quantity of water being discharged through the orifice is given by

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

However in practice the discharge is always less than this theoretical amount due to the viscosity
of the fluid, to surface tension and due to resistance of the air. The disparity between the theoretical
discharge velocity and the actual discharge velocity is allowed for by introducing a factor 𝐶𝑣
known as the coefficient of velocity so that

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

If the discharge from a sharp edged orifice is examined closely, it will be observed that the
minimum diameter of the jet of water discharging from the orifice is smaller than the orifice
diameter. The plane at which this occurs is known as the vena contract, which is the plane where
stream lines first become parallel. Applying the discharge equation at the vena contract.

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻𝑜
Which can be written as

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐𝐴𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

Where 𝐶𝑐 = Coefficient of contraction.

Or more simply as

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑𝐴√2𝑔𝐻𝑜

Where: 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣 = Coefficient of discharge.

Typical values of Cd range from 0·6 to 0·65, i.e. the actual flow through a sharp edged orifice is
approximately 60% of the theoretical value. The value of the coefficient of discharge may be
determined by measuring the quantity of water discharged over a period of time whilst the head is
maintained at a constant level.

7.6) Procedure:
• If the hook gauge and scale are to be used to measure the trajectory of horizontal jets then
place the two positioning rails on the worktop of the hydraulics bench engaging them onto
the locating pegs. Ensure that the engraved rail is placed closest to the front of the
hydraulics bench with the engraved side uppermost. 2.
• Position the constant head inlet tank onto the worktop of the hydraulics bench (over the
hook gauge positioning rails, if fitted) at the left hand side engaging two of the feet of the
inlet tank onto the locating pegs. If the orifice is to be fitted into the side of the inlet tank

41
 then it should be moved to the left so that the right hand support feet engage with the
locating pegs. 3.
• Remove the hexagonal (37mm across flats) bush and adaptor from the side of the inlet tank.
Fit the required orifice into the screwed hole in the side and plug the unused hole using the
blanking plug provided. 4.
• Connect the hydraulics bench flexible delivery tube to the connection provided on the rear
of the inlet tank base. Insert the flexible overflow take off pipe, which is connected to the
boss on the front of the inlet tank, into the overflow pipe of the volumetric measuring tank.
5.
• Remove or refit the overflow extension tube (screwed) in the inlet head tank to obtain a
nominal head of 250mm or 500mm above the side orifice
• Switch on the pump and control the flow rate by either adjusting the hydraulics bench
delivery valve or by adjusting the pump speed. The flow should be adjusted carefully to
produce a small but constant overflow and then fine adjusted to give 250 or 500mm head
as required
• The discharge from the orifice may be measured using the volumetric measuring tank and
taking the time required to collect a quantity of water. The quantity should be chosen so
that the time to collect the quantity is at least 120 seconds to obtain a sufficiently accurate
result.
• Use the hook gauge to measure the trajectory of the jet
• The scale attached to the side of the inlet tank has its zero level with the center line of the
side outlet boss.
• Fit the 5mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank.
• Remove the overflow extension pipe.
• Start the pump and set up an inlet head of 25cm. Measure the flow rate using the
volumetric measuring tank
• Replace the overflow extension pipe and set up an inlet head of 50cm. Measure the flow
rate
• Repeat the procedure using the 8mm orifice.

7.7) Observation & Calculation:

Sr.no Diameter A B C D E F G H Flow
of nozzle (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) rate
(mm) 𝒎𝟑⁄
𝒔𝒆𝒄
1 3 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.18 4.5
× 10−5
2 6 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.19 1.2
× 10−5

42
7.8) Result:
At 3mm the flow rate was 4.5 × 10−5 and at 6mm, the flow rate obtained was 1.2 × 10−5 which
shows that by increasing the diameter of orifice the flow rate of fluid decreases.
7.9) Reference:
https://uta.pressbooks.pub/appliedfluidmechanics/chapter/experiment-6/ (cited on 2018)
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/orifice-and-jet-velocity-apparatus-14844779362.html
(cited on 2019)
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/mymousa/files/Fluid-Mechanics-and-Hydraulics-Lab-Manual-2015-.pdf
(cited on 2017

43
 Experiment # 08
8.1)Objective:
To determine the velocity distribution of a free non-buyout fluid jet at various cross sections
different distances from the orifice

8.1) Apparatus:
• Air flow Rig

8.2) Chemicals:
• Air
9 Terms and their forms :
Column Headings Abbreviations Units Description

Height X1 or X2 M Vertical height of manometric tubes.

Density p Kg/m3 Density of the manometric fluid.

Pressure P Nm-2 or Pressure in terms of height or from

pressure
mH2O

8.5.1) THEORY:
The differences between the liquid levels in the manometer tubes are used in calculate the
pressure differences in each of the experiments.

Starting with the basic equation of hydrostatics:

Therefore the pressure difference P corresponding to this different levels in manometer

tubes ∆p=pg∆h

If the height of find in to vertical manometer tubes in x1 and x2 then

44
 9 ∆P=pg[x1-x2]

The manometer tubes can be inclined to increase the sensitivity of the readings.

Procedure:

• Select three or more cross-sections of the jet well-spaced along its axial length.
• 2 The cross-section closest to the orifice will be fixed by the need to accommodate the total had on
the jet center line (point of maximum velocity) within the range of the mater provided. The position
of the most remote cross-section will be fixed by considerations of accuracy in the measurement of
total head with the manometer.
• Determine the jet axis or center at each cross-section selected by moving the total head
• Tube through the center of the jet and stopping is at the point where the highest manometer

• Reading is obtained.

• If this process is repeated a couple of times traversing alternatively in the horizontal and
vertical directions, the jet axis will soon be located. Do not assume that the Centre of the jet
occurs the same and sales at each cross-section as it may be inclined in either the vertical or
horizontal plane.

• When the y and z co-ordinates of the point of maximum velocity have been located.
Traverse the total head tube me through this point recording.

45
DIAGRAM:

46
Observation & Calculation:
Sr.no Air Time (s) Velocities Pressure difference
volume (mL)
1 0.5095 4.48 120 600
2 3.866 1,23 160 800
3 9.99 6.67 250 1200
Result:
Because the jet dispersion mechanism is essentially one of turbulent mixing at a free shear layer,
the flow being investigated will be highly turbulent. Point velocities therefore will vary with time,
especially near the edges of the jet, and mean (time averaged) velocity values can only be obtained
if the movement of the manometer fluid column is damped either by partial pinching of the
connecting tubes using the clamps provided, or by friction in long tube lengths.

Reference:

• Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Climbala "Fluid Mechanics" 2nd Edition.

• W. L. McCabe, J. C. Smith "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering" 7th Ed. McGraw Hill
Education (Pvt.)

47
 Experiment # 09
9.1) Objective:
To determine the surface profile of free and forced vortex.

9.2) Apparatus:
• The FFM00 Hydraulics Bench
• The Free and Forced Vortex Apparatus.
• Stopwatch (to determine the time for rotation speed of the paddle)

9.3) Chemicals:
• Supply Water

9.4) Precautions:
a) Personal safety:
• Ensure proper working of Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
• Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
b)Equipment safety:
• Ensure proper working of miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

• Do not start the hydraulic bench without supply water

• Use appropriate way to inject dye crystals in cylinder
9.5) Theory:

48
 Figure 34: Free & forced vertex

9.5.1) Surface Profile:

The vortex surface profile is determined by a measuring caliper housed on a mounted bridge, that
measures the diameter of the vortex at various elevations. This provides the coordinate points that
are required for plotting the free vortex profile.
9.5.2) Free Vortex Flow:
“When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass that type of flow is called free
vortex flow.”
Examples:
▪ A whirlpool in a river
▪ The flow fields due to a tornado.
9.5.3) Surface Profile of Free Vortex:
No external torque or energy required. The fluid rotating under certain energy previously given to
them. In a free vortex mechanics, overall energy flow remains constant. There is no energy
interaction between an external source and a flow or any dissipation of mechanical energy in the
flow.
Fluid mass rotates due to conservation of angular momentum.
Velocity inversely proportional to the radius.
For a free vortex flow,

Velocity inversely proportional to the radius.

𝑐
𝑣 × 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝑟
9.5.4) Singular point:
At the center (r = 0) of rotation velocity approaches to infinite, that point is called singular point.

9.6) Procedure:
• Position the apparatus on the hydraulics bench so that the central outlet in the base of the
vessel is located over the weir trough.
• Adjust the feet to ensure that the apparatus is level.
• Push the 24 mm diameter orifice into the central outlet located in the base of the apparatus.
• Connect the inlet pipe of the apparatus (situated on the 3-way valve) to the hydraulics bench
outlet, using the flexible pipe provided.
• Close the apparatus outlet globe valve, and position the 3-way valve so that water flows
into the vessel via the 15-degree inlet ports.
• Close the bench outlet valve, and turn on the pump. Gradually open the bench valve, and
allow the vessel to fill with water until water begins to overflow through the cutouts.
• After the vessel is slightly overflowing, slowly open the outlet valve so that the water level
maintains a stable height.
• Now, measure the water surface profile, by adjusting the measuring caliper to a desired
radius, and then lower it into the vortex until the needles evenly touch the walls of the
vortex. At this point, record the height and repeat the procedure for the remaining radii.
49
 • After completing the measurements, close the bench valve, turn off the pump, drain the
apparatus, and repeat the process for the remaining two orifices.

9.7) Observation & calculation:

Number of Radius (R) Height (Z) K
observations mm mm m²/s

1 30 130 0.0279
2 50 133 0.0448
3 70 133 0.0627
4 90 140 0.0734
5 110 140 0.0897
6 center 50 ---

9.8) Result:
In free vortex all the orifices show the common trend whereby velocity decreases as the radius
increases. This causes a drop in elevation since pressure is same on the free surface.
9.9) Reference:
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pumps-parallel-serial-d_636.html (cited on 2014)
https://www.mecholic.com/2015/10/free-and-forced-vortex-flow-comparison.html (cited on
2016)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment) (cited on 2007)

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