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METROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTATION

Dynamic characteristics

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which change rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic
characteristics’

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

• Speed of response
• Fidelity
• Lag
• Dynamic error

Speed of response: It is the rapidity with which instrument respond to make the changes
in the measured quality.

Fidelity: It is the degree to which instrument indicates the change in measured variable
without dynamic error.

Lag: Lag is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to make the changes
in measured quality.

Dynamic error: It is difference between the true value of a quality changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.
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UNIT- V

5.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for
translating linear motion into electrical signal. This transducer converts a mechanical
displacement proportionally into electrical signal.

Construction: LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding P and two secondary
winding S1 & S2 mounted on a cylindrical former. The two secondary winding have equal
number of turns and placed identically on either side of the primary winding as shown in figure
below.

A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Actually the movable core is made of
nickel iron.The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss. The
assembly of laminated core is placed in a cylindrical steel housing. The displacement to be
measured is attached to this movable soft iron core.

LVDT- Working Principle: An LVDT produces an output proportional to the displacement

of a movable core within the field of several coils. As the core moves from its ‘null’ position,
the voltage induced by the coils change, producing an output representing the difference in
induced voltage. It works on the mutual inductance principle. A primary coil and two secondary
coils, identical to each other, are wound on an insulating form, as shown in Fig. shown below.
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An external AC power source is applied to the primary coil and the two secondary coils are
connected together in phase opposition.

The motion of the core varies the mutual inductance of secondary coils. This change in
inductance determines the electrical voltage induced from the primary coil to the secondary
coil. Since the secondary coils are in series, a net differential output results for any given
position of the core.

Characteristic curve of an LVDT

Figure above illustrates the characteristic curve of an LVDT. This curve shows the relationship
between the differential output voltage and the position of the core with respect to the coils. It
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can be seen from this graph that if the core is centred in the middle of the two secondary
windings, then the voltage induced in both the secondary coils will be equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase, and the net output will be zero.

An output voltage is generated when the core moves on either side of the null position.
Theoretically, output voltage magnitudes are the same for equal core displacements on either
side of the null balance. However, the phase relation existing between power source and output
changes 180° through the null. Therefore, it is easy, through phase determination, to distinguish
between outputs resulting from displacements on either side of the null. For such
displacements, which are within the linear range of the instrument, output voltage is a linear
function of core displacement. However, as above figure indicates, the linear range of the
instrument is limited. Care should be taken to ensure that the actual measurement ranges are
limited to the linear range of the LVDT.

5.1.1 Advantages of LVDTs

1. It directly converts mechanical displacement into a proportional electrical voltage. This is

unlike an electrical strain gauge, which requires the assistance of some form of elastic member.

2. It cannot be overloaded mechanically. This is because the core is completely separated from
the remainder of the device.

3. It is highly sensitive and provides good magnification.

4. It is relatively insensitive to temperature changes.

5. It is reusable and economical to use.

5.2 Bourdon pressure gauge

The most widely used gauge for pressure measurement is the Bourdon tube. It was first
developed in 1849 by E. Bourdon.

This tube is composed of a C-shaped hollow metal tube having an elliptical cross section. One
end of the Bourdon tube is fixed and can be used as the pressure inlet, as shown in Fig. below.
The other end is free and closed. Due to the applied pressure, the tube straightens out and tends
to acquire a circular cross section. Thus, pressure causes the free end to move. This movement
is proportional to the difference between inside and outside pressures. To measure pressure,
movement of the free end is often magnified and transmitted to a pointer that moves over the
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scale through a linkage and gearing mechanism. The pointer indicates gauge pressure, since the
reference pressure is atmospheric.

5.2.1 Advantages of Bourdon Gauges

1.Inexpensive

2.Simple Design

3.Good accuracy except at low pressure.

4.High-pressure range.

5.It can be easily used with electrical devices like LVDT.

5.2.2 Disadvantages of Bourdon Gauges.

1.Susceptible to shock and vibration

2.Gauges are subjected to hysteresis

5.3 Bulk modlus gauge ( Bridgman gauge)

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High-pressure measurement necessitates the use of special devices. The most popular device
used is the Bridgman gauge, which is capable of measuring high pressures of around 100,000
atm. The Bridgman gauge works on the principle that the resistance of a fine wire linearly
varies with pressure. The applied pressure is sensed using a fine wire of Manganin (84% Cu,
12% Mn, and 4% Ni) having a total resistance of 100 Ω, loosely wound on a coil, and enclosed
in a container having appropriate pressure. Conventional bridge circuits are employed for
measuring the change in resistance, which is calibrated in terms of the applied pressure and is
given by the following equation:

R = R1 (1 + PrΔP)

where R1 is the resistance at 1 atm, Pr the pressure coefficient of resistance, and ΔP the gauge
pressure. A Bridgman gauge requires frequent calibration, as ageing is a problem. A properly
calibrated gauge can be used to measure high pressures with an accuracy of 0.1%. Since the
Bridgman gauge has a very good transient response, changes with application of pressure are
sensed almost instantaneously.

• The sensing element does not actually contact the process medium but is separated
there from by a kerosene-filled bellows.

• One end of the sensing coil is connected to a central terminal, as shown, while the other
is grounded, thereby completing the necessary electrical circuit.

5.4 Pirani gauge – A Thermal conductivity Gauge

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A conducting wire gets heated when electric current flows through it. The rate at which heat is
dissipated from this wire depends on the conductivity of the surrounding media. The
conductivity of the surrounding media inturn depends on the densisty of the surrounding media
(that is, lower pressure of the surrounding media, lower will be its density). If the density of
the surrounding media is low, its conductivity also will be low causing the wire to become
hotter for a given current flow, and vice versa.

Construction:

• Description of Pirani gauge Pirani gaugeThe main parts of the arrangement are: A
pirani gauge chamber which encloses a platinum filament.

• A compensating cell to minimize variation caused due to ambient temperature changes.

• The pirani gauge chamber and the compensating cell is housed on a wheatstone bridge
circuit as shown in diagram

Working:

• A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani gauge chamber. Due to
this current, the filament gets heated and assumes a resistance which is measured using
the bridge.

• Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is connected to the pirani gauge
chamber. Due to the applied pressure the density of the surrounding of the pirani gauge
filament changes. Due to this change in density of the surrounding of the filament its
conductivity changes causing the temperature of the filament to change.
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• When the temperature of the filament changes, the resistance of the filament also
changes. Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the bridge.

• This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes a measure of the applied
pressure when calibrated.

5.4.1 Applications of Pirani gauge

Used to measure low vacuum and ultra high vacuum pressures.

5.4.2 Advantages of Pirani gauge

• They are rugged and inexpensive

• Give accurate results Good response to pressure changes.

• Relation between pressure and resistance is linear for the range of use.

• Readings can be taken from a distance.

5.4.3 Limitations of Pirani gauge

• Pirani gauge must be checked frequently.

• Pirani gauge must be calibrated from different gases.

• Electric power is a must for its operation.

5.5 Thermocouples

The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the temperature at
one particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the temperature
in the form of an electric current or the EMF

The thermocouple consists two wires of different metals which are welded together at
the ends. The welded portion was creating the junction where the temperature is used to be
measured. The variation in temperature of the wire induces the voltages.

5.5.1 Working Principle of Thermocouple

The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

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Seeback Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals. When the heat
provides to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus,
direct current induces in the circuit.

Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The Peltier effect state
that the temperature difference can be created between any two different conductors by
applying the potential difference between them

Thomson effect-Thomson effect is related to the emf that develops between two parts of the
single metal when they are at different temperature Thus, thomson effect is the absorption or
evolution of heat along a conductor when current passes through it when one end of the
conductor is hot and another is cold.

Working

The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure above. It comprises
of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions, p and q,
which are maintained at the temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. Remember that the
thermocouple cannot be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions are
maintained at different temperatures , emf is generated within the circuit and it is the function
of the temperatures of two junctions.

If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf will be generated at
both junctions and the net current flowing through the junction is zero. If the junctions are
maintained at different temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will be a net
current flowing through the circuit. The total emf flowing through this circuit depends on the
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metals used within the circuit as well as the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or
the current flowing through the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable device.

5.5.2 Thermocouple Applications

• These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices &
businesses.

• These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron, aluminum,
and metal.

• These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature applications.

• Thermocouples are used as a heat pump for performing thermoelectric cooling.

• These are used to test temperature in the chemical plants, petroleum plants. These are
used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.

5.5.3 Laws of thermo electricity

1. Laws of Homogeneous Metals A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of

a single homogeneous material, however, varying in cross-section, by the application of heat
alone. A consequence of this law is that two different materials are required for any
thermocouple circuit.

2. Law of Intermediate Metals

If an intermediate metal is inserted into a thermocouple circuit at any point, the net emf will
not be affected provided the two junctions introduced by the third metal are at identical
temperatures..

3. Law of Intermediate Temperatures

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If a thermocouple circuit generates an emf e1 when its two junctions are at temperatures T1 and
T2, and e2 when the two junctions are at temperatures T2 and T3, then the thermocouple will
generate an emf of e1 + e2 when its junction temperatures are maintained at T1 andT3

5.5.4 Characteristics of thermocouple materials

The choice of the thermocouple materials is influenced by several factors. Different

combinations of thermocouple materials should possess the following characteristics in order
to be used for temperature measurement:

1. Capable of producing a reasonable linear temperature–emf relationship

2. Able to generate sufficient thermo-emf per degree temperature change to facilitate detection
and measurement

3. Capable of withstanding persistent high temperatures, rapid temperature variations, and the
effects of corrosive environments

4. Good sensitivity to record even small temperature variations

5. Very good reproducibility, which enables easy replacement of the thermocouple by a similar
one without any need for recalibration

6. Good calibration stability

7. Economical

5.5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouple Materials

Advantages

The following are some distinct advantages that merit the use of thermocouples:

1. Temperature can be measured over a wide range.

2. Thermocouples are self-powered and do not require any auxiliary power source.
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3. A quick and good response can be obtained.

4. The readings obtained are consistent and hence are consistently repeatable.

5. Thermocouples are rugged, and can be employed in harsh and corrosive conditions

6. They are inexpensive.

7. They can be installed easily.

Disadvantages

However, thermocouples also have certain disadvantages, which are listed as follows:

1. They have low sensitivity when compared to other temperature-measuring devices such as
thermistors and RTDs.

2. Calibration is required because of the presence of some non-linearity.

3. Temperature measurement may be inaccurate due to changes in the reference junction

temperature; hence thermocouples cannot be employed for precise measurements.

4. For enhancing the life of thermocouples, they should be protected against contamination and
have to be chemically inert