LESSON 3 - 4: Gunpowder residues, explosives and post blast

residues. Gunshot range (approximate distance of firing).

Determination of approximate time of firing. Classfication of
explosives and analyses.

GUNPOWDER & GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)

When a firearm is discharged, an assortment of vapors and particulate material are expelled in the
area around the firearm. These products of firearm discharge can be collectively referred to as gunshot
residues (GSR) or sometimes cartridge discharge residues (CDR). Gunshot residues have been used in
criminalistics to: estimate firing distances; identify bullet holes; and to determine whether or not a
person has discharged a firearm.

GUNPOWDERS: The use of black powder as a propellant for bullets has largely been discontinued.
Black powder is composed of 75% potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate, 15% sulfur, and 10% charcoal.
Smokeless powders, which are commonly used as propellants, are composed of nitrocellulose in single
base powders and nitrocellulose together with nitroglycerine in double base powders. In some double
base powders a portion of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine has been replaced by nitroguanidine. These
are sometimes referred to separately as triple base powders. Typical single based powders are found in
rifle cartridges and some rim fire rifle and revolver cartridges, whereas double based powders are used in
revolver and pistol as well as shotguns.

Nitrocellulose is used, not only in propellants and explosives, but also in lacquers, varnishes
celluloid films and printing and pharmaceutical industries.

All smokeless powders, in addition to explosive ingredients, contain a number or additives.

These additives fulfill the role as stabilizers, flash inhibitors, coolants, surface lubricants, and antiwear
additives.

When a gun has been fired, gunshot residues can arise from the primer, propellant, lubricants, and
metals that are found in the bullet, bullet jacket, cartridge casing, and gun barrel. When a weapon is
discharged, gunshot residues are mixed with propulsive gases and deposited on nearby objects, including
the person who fired the weapon. The amount of deposition is determined by several factors such as the
type and condition of weapon, number of shots fired, and the amount of oil, moisture or perspiration
material on the deposited surface, and the direction and force of air currents.

Gunshot residues originating from the primer contain elements of primer components mainly
lead, antimony and barium. Elements such as copper, iron and some nonspecific elements such as
aluminum, silicon, sulfur, potassium, and calcium are also often found associated with them. These latter
elements can originate from other sources such as etched bullets, cartridge casings or barrel. Lead
particles, when abundant can arise from the lead bullets themselves. Under ideal circumstances it would
be expected that all of the propellant powder would be consumed in the burning process and would be
converted into gases. However, in practice this is not the case because the whole powder charge is never
totally burnt.

Techniques for inorganic analysis of gunshot residues include SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscopy) combined with EDX (Energy Dispersive X-ray) or the AAS (Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy) to name a few.

However, the less expensive way that is utilized to determine whether a person has fired a gun or
not is by the DIPHENYLAMINE -PARAFFIN TEST or DERMAL NITRATE TEST or LUNGE
DIPHENYLAMINE TEST which is a test for the presence of nitrates.

The diphenylamine reagent (0.5gm diphenylamine crystals dissolved in 100cc of sulfuric acid).
Deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the reagent are the visible positive
results. The presence of nitrites is visibly seen with a yellow green color.

There are possibilities that a person may be found negative for the presence of nitrates even if he
actually fired a gun. This may be due to the kind of weapon used, the direction and velocity of wind,
excessive perspiration, use of gloves and chemicals to remove the nitrates from the hands.

Gunshot Residue Deposition (PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE)

If the muzzle of the discharging firearm is sufficiently close, gunshot residues will deposit on the
target in an approximately circular area around the bullet hole. The residues include not only those burned
and unburned primer and propellant materials ejected forward with the bullet, but also some material
ablated from the bullet or jacket. The deposition of gunshot residues around holes in tissue, clothing,
wood metal, and glass permits identification of the bullet entrance holes.

The clothing is examined microscopically for the presence of singeing, burning, smudging and
powder tattooing. Singeing is characterized by slight burning of the fabric on the area of the gunshot hole.
Smudging as a blackening characteristic surrounding the bullet hole and tattooing is the presence of
specks of nitrates and nitrites around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye. It can be described as a
black peppered pattern.

A distance of 0 – 2 inches has a characteristic pattern of gaping hole (torn fabric) with the
presence of smudging, singeing, tattooing and burning.

A distance of 2 - 8 inches show the presence of smudging and tattooing.

A distance of 8 – 36 inches tattooing is visible.

 A distance of beyond 36 inches show absence of characteristic patterns. Evidence of tattooing is
seldom visible.

WALKER’S TEST – test can be used if gunpowder is deeply embedded on the fabric. It is based on the
conversion of nitrites to a dye. The visible result is orange-red spots imprinted on the photographic paper.
PROBABLE TIME OF LAST DISCHARGE OF FIREARM

In the determination of the probable time of last discharge of the firearm the barrel is swabbed
and the presence of rust, soot, metallic fragments, nitrites and nitrates are examined microscopically and
chemically. Diphenylamine reagent is utilized to test for the presence of nitrites and nitrates. The
presence of nitrites visible by a yellow green color is indicative that the firearm could have been recently
fired.

EXPLOSIVES
An explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion. It is a material (chemical or nuclear) that can be initiated to undergo very rapid, self-
propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more stable material, the liberation of heat, or
the development of a sudden pressure effect through the action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. All
of these outcomes produce energy. The effectiveness of a weapon is measured by the quantity of energy
or damage potential it delivers to the target.

A chemical explosive is a compound or a mixture of compounds which, when subjected to heat,

impact, friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid, self-propagating, heat-producing decomposition. This
decomposition produces gases that exert tremendous pressures as they expand at the high temperature of
the reaction. The work of an explosive depends primarily on the amount of heat given off during the
explosion. The term detonation indicates that the reaction is moving through the explosive faster than
the speed of sound in the unreacted explosive; whereas, deflagration indicates a slower reaction (rapid
burning). A high explosive will detonate and a low explosive will deflagrate. All commercial explosives
except black powder are high explosives.

Relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) is a measurement of an explosive’s power for military
demolition purposes. It measures the detonating velocity relative to that of TNT, which has an R.E. factor
of 1.00.

Explosives are classified as primary or secondary based on their susceptibility to initiation.

Primary explosives, which include lead azide and lead styphnate, are highly susceptible to initiation.
Primary explosives often are referred to as initiating explosives because the can be used to ignite
secondary explosives. Secondary explosives, which include nitroaromatics and nitramines are much more
prevalent at military sites than primary explosives and are often used as main charge or bolstering
explosives.

Propellants or low explosives (LE) include both rocket and gun propellants. They are
combustible materials containing within themselves oxygen needed for their combustion. One group of
gun propellants is called “single base” (principally nitrocellulose), “double base” (nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine) or “triple base” (nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine). Common examples are
black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechnics.

Pyrotechnics include illuminating flares, signaling flares, colored and white smoke generators,
tracers, incendiary delays, fuses and photo-flash compounds. It is usually composed of an inorganic
oxidizer and metal powder in a binder, illuminating flares contain sodium nitrate, magnesium, and a
binder. Signaling flares contain barium, strontium, or other metal nitrates.

Primary explosives or initiators explode or detonate when heated or subjected to shock. They do
not burn but the materials themselves explode. Common examples are mercury fulminate, lead azide
which is usually found in blasting caps.

High explosives (HE) explode under the influence of shock of the explosion of a primary
explosive of initiator. It is a compound or mixture which, when initiated, is capable of sustaining a
detonation shockwave to produce a powerful blast effect. A detonation is the powerful explosive effect
caused by the propagation of a high-speed shockwave through a high explosive compound or mixture.
During the process of detonation, the high explosive is largely decomposed into hot, rapidly expanding
gas. Ammonium nitrate which is the cheapest salt of nitric acid is readily available is a good example.

Plastic explosive means an explosive material in flexible or elastic sheet form formulated with
one or more high explosives with a binder material, and is a mixture malleable or flexible at normal
temperature. C-4 is often referred to as a plastic explosive.

The energetic material used by the military as propellants and explosives are mostly organic
compounds containing nitro (NO2) groups. The three major classes of these energetic materials are:
nitroaromatics (e.g., tri-nitrotoluene or TNT); nitramines (e.g., hexahydro-1, 3, 5 trintroazine or
RDX); and nitrate esters (e.g., nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine).

Explosive and incendiary (fire) bombs are further characterized based on their source.
“Manufactured” implies standard military-issued, mass produced, and quality-tested weapons.
“Improvised” describes weapons produced in small quantities, or use of a device outside its intended
purpose. Manufactured (military) explosive weapons are exclusively HE-based. Terrorists will use
whatever is available – illegally obtained manufactured weapons or improvised explosive devices (also
known as “IEDs”) that may be composed of HE, LE, or both.

Molotov cocktail which is an incendiary and is petroleum- based consists of a fragile container
like glass bottle filled with petroleum with a piece of absorbent cloth as wick or fuse.
Chloroacetophenone (CN) is commonly used as a tear gas.