GENERAL PROBLEM: On Computer Application

SPECIFIC PROBLEM: The following table of scores are obtained from 5 Male
and 5 Female candidates on an Achievement Test. Test the null hypothesis and
show is there any impact of Gender on Achievement.
Male Scores: 25,30,34, 40, 29
Female Scores: 27,33,29,38,32
BASIC CONCEPT: Statistics is a summary value or numerical index like
mean, median, standard deviation or variance of scores of a variable in sample.
It can be classified as- Descriptive statistics, inferential statistics and prediction
statistics. Inferential statistics include statistics like standard errors which are
not restricted within the limits of the sample, rather go beyond the sample and
help to make inferences and generalize them from the sample to entire
population. They find applications in testing of hypotheses, finding the
significance of difference between statistics of different samples and working
out confidence interval of parameters.

Example of Inferential Statistics- Inferential statistics is very useful and

cost-effective as it can make inferences about the population without collecting
the complete data. Some inferential statistics examples are given below:

Suppose a coach wants to find out how many average cartwheels sophomores
at his college can do without stopping. A sample of a few students will be asked
to perform cartwheels and the average will be calculated. Inferential statistics
will use this data to make a conclusion regarding how many cartwheel
sophomores can perform on average.
The t distributions were discovered by William S.Gosset in 1908. Gosset was a
statistician employed by the Guinness brewing company which had stipulated
that he not publish under his own name. He therefore wrote under the pen name
‘Student’.A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine whether
there is a significant difference between the means of two groups, which may be
related in certain features. A t- test is a hypothesis testing tool which allows
testing of an assumption applicable to a population.

Types of t-test

❖ INDEPENDENT SMALL t-TEST – is a statistical technique

that is used to analyze the mean comparison of two independent
groups. In this test when we take two samples from the same
population then the mean of the two samples may be identical.
But when samples are taken from two different populations, the
 mean of the sample may differ. It is used to draw conclusions
about the means of two populations. And used to tell whether or
not they are similar.
❖ Paired t-Test- determines whether the mean change for these
pair is significantly different from zero. This test is an
inferential statistics procedure because it uses samples to draw
conclusions about populations.
❖ One Sample T-Test – a statistical hypothesis test used to
determine whether an unknown population mean is different
from a specific value.

T test assumptions include-

1. Scale of measurement- The scale measurementapplied to the data

collected in a t test follows a continuous or ordinal scale, such as the
scores for an IQ test.
2.Simple random sample - the data is collected from a representative,
randomly selected portion of a normal population.
3. Normal distribution- the data, when plotted, results in a normal distribution,
bell shaped curve.
4. Homogeneity of variance- Homogeneous, or equal variance exists when the
standard deviation of samples are approximately equal.

Some important aspects of measuring t test-

Size of the sample- The sampling distribution of the differences between means
may look like a normal curve or t distribution curve depending upon the size of
the samples drawn from the population. If the samples are large (N= 30 or
greater than 30), then the distribution of differences between means will be a
normal one. If it is small (N is less than 30), then the distribution will take the
form of a t distribution and the shape of the t curve will vary with the
number of degrees of freedom. Similarly, for large samples, statistics
advocating normal distribution of the characteristics in the given population will
be employed, while for small samples, small sample statistics will be used.
Hence in case of large samples possessing a normal distribution of the
difference of means, the value of standard error used to determine the
significance of the difference between means will be in terms of standard
sigma (z) scores. On the other hand, in the case of small samples possessing a t
distribution of the difference of means, we will make use of t values rather than
z scores of the normal curve. Accordingly, in case of large samples, we make
use of the normal curve of Appendix: Table B (Statistics in Psychology and
Education, S K Mangal) to decide the critical value of the z scores of the
standard error to reject a null hypothesis at the 0.05 or 0.01 level.
If a computed z value of the standard error of the differences between means-
approaches or exceeds the values 1.96 and 2.58, then we may safely reject a
null hypothesis at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels.
To test the null hypothesis in case of small sample means, firstly the t ratio is
computed in the same manner as z scores in case of large samples by referring
table of t distribution given in Appendix : Table C (Statistics in Psychology
and Education, S K Mangal) with n1+n2- 2. If the computed t ratio-
approaches or exceeds the values of t read from the table, we will reject the
established null hypothesis at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels of significance,
respectively.
For small and unequal size independent groups: For two independent groups of
unequal sizes (n1 ≠ n2), either or both being small in size (<30), the observed
difference ( x̄ 1 - x̄ 2)between their means is converted to a t score using a pooled
SD or a common variance.
For bothsmall and large independent groups of equal size: If two independent
groups possess the same size (n), and t may be computed irrespective of the
group sizes.
For large groups of unequal sizes: Where both the groups have large but
unequal sizes (n1 > 30, n2 > 30; n1 ≠ n2), the t score is computed for (x̄ 1 - x̄ 2)
using the SDs of the individual groups, instead of the pooled SD.

Application of independent sample t -test:

● The independent samples t-test is probably the single most widely used
test in statistics.
● It is used to compare differences between separate groups.
● In psychology, these groups are often composed by randomly assigning
research participants to conditions.
● However, this test can also be used to explore differences in naturally
occuring groups.
Advantages

● Essentials for Generalizations – The results achieved after the t-test are
useful for concluding if they are actually correct, they can be applied to
the entire population.
● Easy to interpret – It is very easy to interpret the output of independent
samples. The output tells us hoe different the mean of one sample is from
the mean of another group. It also indicates the mean of each group and
the average difference between the groups. A large t score indicates the
groups are different and a smaller t score and the smaller t score indicate
the groups are similar.
 ● Robustness- It assumes that the independent samples normally
distributed and have the same variance. The T test is fairly robust to the
violation on the first assumption since there are two samples from a
population that have unequal variances.
● East to calculate – It is easy to calculate data from two samples with the
aid of a computer. Standard software programs that support statistical
functions like Microsoft Excel can be used to calculate t-test data.
● Easy to gather Data – A small number of subjects for independent t test
samples are required. Only one value from each subject is needed. It
requires values of subjects from the two sample groups on a quantitative
variable.
● Determine source Data – T-test enables us to compare the average
values of two data set samples and determine whether sample subjects
come from the same population.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult to find subjects: Getting the subjects for the sample data is
very difficult and also a very expensive part of the research process.
2. Carry-over effects: When relying on paired sample t-tests, there are
problems associated with repeated measures instead of differences
between group designs and this leads to carry-over effects.
3. Small amount of noise: Although you might not worry about individual
differences between the group data sets, there is still an individual
difference between the groups, and not every sample will react the same
way, thus creating a small amount of noise.
4. Environmental impact: Independent t-test can help you determine the
difference between sample groups but cannot help in controlling the effects
of the environment. Environment changes may affect the output of the
t-test.
5. Multiple comparisons: T-test cannot be used for multiple comparisons
because it results in type I errors. When conducting a paired t-test among a
group of samples, it will be difficult to reject the null hypothesis.
6. A loss in degrees of freedom: When the df of a group test becomes
lower, you need a higher t-value in order to reach the t-test significance and
this creates a greater trade-off between the greater power leading to fewer
degrees of freedom.
7. Reliability of data: If the data collected violates the assumption of the
t-test, then the output is unreliable

The aim of the present work is to find out the any impact of Gender On
Achievement.

Statistical treatment:
● Rational selection of tool:

Since the present problem consists of two equal sized samples (N1=N2=N=5)
which are small in size (N<30); One IV (Gender) which have only two levels
(Male & Female); and we need to know the significance of only the magnitude
of the observed difference between the means of two groups, irrespective of the
algebraic sign of that difference, hence a two tail 't'- test of
Independent-Small-Equal sample is undertaken to estimate the mean difference
between the two variables.

● HYPOTHESIS:

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant impact of gender on achievement.

Alternate Hypothesis: There is a significantimpact of gender on achievement.

● STEPS FOR CALCULATION:

1) Open SPSS.
2) In the ‘Data View’, put the data of the Achievement test values of both MALE
and FEMALE gender categories in the first column. In the second column, for
the first 5 cells, enter the value ‘1’ (indicating data obtained from MALE
candidates) and for the next 5 cells, enter the value ‘2’ (indicating data
obtained from FEMALE candidates).
3) Go to ‘Variable View’.
4) Rename the first variable to ‘Achievementscores’, set the ‘Measure’ option
to ‘Scale’ type. Rename variable 2 to ‘GENDER’. In the ‘Value’ column, add
Value ‘1’ for ‘Male’ and Value ‘2’ for ‘Female’. Press the OK button. Set the
‘Measure’ option for this variable to ‘Nominal’ type.
5) Now, click on ‘Analyze’ button.
6) Click on ‘Compare Means’ and then select the ‘Independent Samples T Test’
option. A window will appear on clicking the ‘Independent samples T Test’
option.
7) Select the variable ‘Achievement score’ and bring it under ‘Test Variables’
(Dependent Variable). Select the ‘GENDER’ variable and bring it under
Grouping Variables (Independent Variable).
8) Go to ‘Define Groups’ option. Enter the value ‘1’ in Group 1, indicating MALE
candidates, and enter the value ‘2’ in Group 2, indicating FEMALE candidates.
Then click on ‘Continue’ button.
9) After clicking Continue button, it is found that the values of the groups, i.e.,
1 & 2, displayed in the bracket beside ‘GENDER’.
10) Then, click on ‘Options’ button. Set the Confidence level at 95%. Click on
‘Continue’ button.
11) Finally, click on the ‘OK’ button. A window will appear, displaying the Result
Tables.

● Result Table :

Group Statistics
GENDER N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
Mean
ACHIEVEMENTSCORES MALE 5 31.6000 5.68331 2.54165
FEMALE 5 31.8000 4.20714 1.88149

Independent Samples Test

 Levene’s t-test for equality of means
Test for
Equality
of
Variances
Mean Std. Error 95%confidence
F t df Sig.(2 differences difference interval of the
-tailed difference
Sig.
) Lower Upper

ACIEVEMENTSCORES Equal
variances -7.4922
-.06 8 .951 -.20000 3.16228 7.09223
assumed 3
3
Equal .542 .483
variances 7.371 .951
not -.20000 3.16228 7.20188
-.06
assumed 3 -7.6018
8

INTERPRETATION:
The aim of the present work is to be find out that, if there is anysignificant
impact of gender(male (n1=5) and female (n2=5) on achievement.The result
table can be interpreted as follows:
From the ‘Group Statistics’ table, we found that the mean and SD obtained by
the male in an achievement test is 31.600 and 5.68331 respectively. The mean
and SDobtained by female in an achievement test is 31.8000 and 4.20714
respectively.
From the ‘Independent Samples Test’ table, it can be seen that Levene’s Test
for equality ofvariance has been used to assess the equality of variances for a
variable calculated for two ormore groups. It tests the null hypothesis that the
population variances are equal (calledhomogeneity of variance or
homoscedasticity). As the resulting F-value (0.542) of Levene’s test is significant
at 0.483 level, thus the null hypothesis of equal variances is accepted
andparametric statistics (t-test) is used.
The results of the independent t-test, namely the t-value (t), the degree of
freedom (df) andthe significance level [Sig (2-tailed)] were -.063,8 and .951
respectively. Since the p-valueis greater than 0.05 thus the null hypothesis will
be accepted and alternativehypothesis will be rejected, which indicates that
there is no significant impact of gender on achievement.

CONCLUSION:Thus, it can be concluded that there is no significant impactof

gender on achievement.