Reproductive Structures in Plants
Receptacle - flower is a reproductive structure of
an angio-sperm.
Sepals - photosynthetic and inconspicuous; they
enclose and protect internal tissues before the
flower opens.
Petals - typically the largest and most brightly
colored parts of a flower.
Inside the corolla is a whorl of stamens, the
reproductive organs that produce the plant's male
gametophytes.
A typical stamen is a thin filament with an anther
at the tip.
A typical anther consists of four pouches called
Pollen Sacs.
Pollen grains, which are immature male
gametophytes, form inside pollen sacs.
A carpel is commonly called a pistil.
In seed plants, an ovule is the part of the carpel
where the female gametophyte forms.
Pollination is the arrival of pollen on a stigma or
other pollen-receiving reproductive part of a seed
plant.
The production of female gametes begins when an
ovule starts growing on the inner wall of an
ovary.
Then undergoes meiosis and cytoplasmic division
to form four haploid megaspores.
One cell results from these divisions, and it has
eight haploid nuclei.
Mitosis and differentiation of a microspore
produce a pollen grain.
After the pollen grains form, they enter a period of
suspended metabolism dormancy.
When the pollen sacs split open a pollen grain that
lands on a receptive stigma Germinates.
The pollen tube together with its contents of male
gametes.
SEED FORMATION
Seed is a mature ovule, a self-contained package
that consists of an embryo sporophyte.
Types Of Seed
 Monocotyledonous Seed
 Dicotyledonous Seed
Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to give rise
to a new individual organism.
Gymnosperms are plants that produce cones.
Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants
and having seeds enclosed within their fruit.
Fruit is a seed-containing mature ovary, often
with fleshy tissues that developed from the ovary
wall as the seed formed.
Parts of Fruit
Exocarp - the outermost skin or covering
Mesocarp - middle part of the fruit
Endocarp - the inner part of the fruit
True Fruit - are fruits that develop only from the
ovary wall and its content. Example: Mango,
Banana, Tomato
Accessory Fruit - are fruits that have tissues
derived from other floral parts that expand along
with the developing ovary. Ex Apple, Fig
Simple Fruit - are fruits produced by a single
ovary or a few fused ovaries of a single flower.
Dry Fruits - fruits in which the coat becomes dry
at maturity.
Capsule - a dry dehiscent fruit developed from
several carpels.
Poricidal Capsule - one which opens with round
holes. (poppies).
Silique - a special long slender capsule of 2
carpels. (mustards).
Silicle - a special short broad capsule of 2 carpels.
(mustards).
Pyxis - a capsule which has circumscissle
dehiscence. (Plantain, amaranths, purslane).
Indehiscent fruits - dry fruits which do not open
when mature to shed their seeds.
Grain - a one-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in
which the fruit wall and the seed coat are fused.
Schizocarp - a fruit formed from several carpels,
each carpel of this pistil enclosing a single ovule.
Fleshy Fruits - fruit in which the wall becomes
soft and fleshy as it matures.
Berry - a simple fruit in which the ovary wall or
at least its inner portions become enlarged and
usually juicy.
Aggregate Fruit - fruits that develop from
multiple ovaries of a single flower and overwinter
as a cluster.
Multiple Fruit - are fruits that develop as a unit
from several individually pollinated flowers.
Seed Dispersal require adequate sunlight, water,
space, and minerals for proper growth.
Wind Dispersal seeds of a few plants such as
dandelions have feathery bristles and can be
carried away by the wind.
Water Dispersal The seeds float away in water
from the parent plant and get dispersed.
Animal Dispersal Animals disperse seeds in a
variety of ways.
Reproduction is the biological process by which
new individual organisms which are known as
“offspring” are produced from already existing
individuals known as “parents”.
Sexual reproduction is the production of a new
organism from two parents by making use of their
sex cells or gametes.
Asexual Reproduction is a type of reproduction
by which offspring arise from a single organism
Types of Asexual Reproduction
1. Binary Fission
2. Budding
3. Sporogenesis
4. Fragmentation
Hermaphrodites an individual animal or flower
that has both male and female reproductive
organs.
Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual
reproduction in which an egg develops into an
individual without being fertilized.
External Fertilization, which occurs outside the
female body.
Internal Fertilization, which occurs inside the
female body.
Placenta is an organ that forms during pregnancy.
A HERO DOG'S GOLDEN CAUSE
Eukaryotic chromosomes are thread like
structures made of protein and a single molecule
of DNA that serve to carry the genomic
information from cell to cell.
The DNA in a human cell has about 3 billion base
pairs, which would be about 2 meters (6.5 feet)
long if stretched out.
A karyotype is an image of an individual cell's
chromosomes.
The body cells of typical human females have
two X chromosomes (XX); those of typical
human males have one X and one Y
chromosomes (XY).
The four bases in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine
(C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
"Cloning" means making an identical copy of
something, and it can refer to deliberate
interventions intended to produce a genetic copy
of an organism.
Reproductive cloning refers to SCNT and any
other technology that produces clones of an
animal from a single cell.
An individual whose genome has been engineered
is a genetically modified organism (GMO).
Some GMOs are transgenic, which means a gene
from a different species has been inserted into
their DNA.
Genetic engineering is a process by which a
genome is deliberately modified with the intent of
changing its phenotype.
Genetically engineered microorganisms also make
proteins used in food production.
For example, we use enzymes produced by
modified microorganisms to improve the taste and
clarity of beer and fruit juice, to slow bread
stalling, and to modify fats.
Energy in physics is defined as the ability to do
work, by virtue of the position or motion of the
body.
Types of Energy
 Potential Energy stored energy that
depends upon the relative position of
various parts of a system.
 Kinetic Energy property of a moving
object or particle and depends not only on
its motion but also on its mass.
Thermodynamics the study of the relations
between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
Entropy is a measure of how much the energy of
a particular system has become dispersed.
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds
between atoms are formed or broken.
Synthesis Two or more elements or compounds
combine to form one compound.
Decomposition A complex molecule breaks into
simpler ones.
Displacement One element replaces another in a
compound.
Double Displacement reaction Cations and anion
sex change partners.
Chemical Bond Energy is a lasting attraction
between atoms or ions that enables the formation
of molecules and crystals.
Ionic Bonds is a type of chemical bonding which
involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or
molecule to another.
Covalent Bonds indicates the sharing of electrons
between atoms.
Hydrogen Bonds Compared to ionic and covalent
bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of
chemical bonding.
Bond energy is the amount of energy needed to
break the atoms involved in a molecular bond into
free atoms.
Endergonic reactions require energy input to take
simple, low energy reactants and build complex,
high energy products.
Exergonic reactions release the energy bound up
in the reactants and yield simpler, low energy
products.
Photonics a tiny particle that comprises waves of
electromagnetic radiation.
Pigment is an organic molecule the selectively
absorbs light of specific wavelengths.
The most common photosynthesis pigment in the
plants, cyanobacteria, and photosynthetic protist is
chlorophyll a.
Autotrophs an organism that can produce its own
food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other
chemicals.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create
oxygen and energy in the form of sugar.
A heterotroph an organism that consumes other
organisms in a food chain.
Light-dependent reactions happen in the
thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts.
The " photo " in photosynthesis means light, the "
synthesis " part of photosynthesis refers to the
reactions of the2ndstage, which build sugar from
CO2 and water.
The thylakoid membrane is the site of photo
chemical and electron transport reactions of
oxygenic photosynthesis.
Stroma is the fluid-filled internal space of the
chloroplasts which encircle the grana and the
thylakoids.
Chloroplast are descendants of ancient
cyanobacteria, which is why photosynthesis in
eukaryotes is similar to cyanobacterial
photosynthesis.
BIOENERGETICS
Plastids are double-membraned organelles that
function in photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic cells of plants and many protists
contain chloroplasts, which are plastids
specialized for photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts, pigments inside these plastids
impart color to cells and the structures they
compose.
A system of interconnected protein filaments
collectively called the cytoskeleton.
Long, hollow cylinders called microtubules are
cytoskeletal elements that function in movement.
Fine fibers called microfilaments consist
primarily of subunits of the protein actin.
In many cells, a mesh of microfilaments is part of
the cell cortex, a region of cytoplasm just inside
the plasma.
Intermediate filaments form a stable framework
that lends structure and resilience to cells and
tissues.
Motor proteins that associate with cytoskeletons
elements move cell parts when energized by a
phosphate group transfer from ATP.
Cilia (singular, cilium) are similar to flagella
except they are shorter, and they often occur in
clumps that beat in unison.
The microtubules grow from a barrel-shaped
organelle called a centriole, which remains below
the finished array as a basal body.
Some eukaryotic cells, including the amoeba at
left. form pseudopods, or "false feet."
Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex
mixture of molecules that often includes an
example of ECM.
Animal cells have no walls, but some types
secrete an extracellular matrix called basement
membrane.
Despite the name, basement membrane is not a
cell membrane because it does not consist of a
lipid bilayer.
A covering called cuticle is a type of ECM
secreted by cells at a body surface.
Cell junctions are structures that connect a cell
directly to other cells or to its environment.
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS
The functional components of photosynthesis are
called photosystems.
The thylakoid membranes contain photosystems
in terms of physical location.
Special pairs – Different wavelengths of light are
absorbed by the two photosystems' different
pairings of chlorophyll a.
Primary acceptor – The special pair of each
photosystem passes electrons to a different
primary acceptor.
Source of electrons – Each photosystem receives
electrons from a distinct source to replace any lost
ones.
Stomata are tiny, microscopic and critical for
photosynthesis.
Photorespiration refers to a process in plant
metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO
oxygenates RuBP.
Stem cells are the key to producing new or
replacement tissues.
A tissue is an array of cells of a specific type or
types that interact in a collective task.
Four types of tissue occur all vertebrates.
• Epithelial tissue
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines
internals cavities such as the digestive tract.
Connective tissue holds body parts together and
provides structural support.
Muscle tissue a specialized tissue found in
animals which functions by contracting.
Nervous tissue it monitors and regulates the
function of the body.
The Extracellular fluid Is the environment in
which body live.
An Organ is a structural unit of two or more
tissues organized in a specific way
Homeostasis is the process of keeping conditions
in a body within the range that the body cells can
tolerate.
Sensory Receptor is a cell component that detects
a specific stimulus.
BIOMES AND ECOSYSTEMS
Biome is a group of land ecosystems with similar
climates and organisms.
There are 6 major land biomes and 2 major
water ecosystems?
LAND (6): Rainforests, Deserts, Grasslands,
Decidous Forests, Boreal Forests, & Tundra
WATER (2): Freshwater & Marine Ecosystems
An area’s biome is determined mostly by its
climate (temperature and precipitation).
There are 2 main types of rain forests:
Temperate Rain Forests - “Temperate” = having
moderate temperatures.
Tropical Rain Forests - Found in regions close to
the equator. Warm and humid all year long.
Canopy: A leafy roof formed by the tallest trees.
Marine ecosystems include estuaries, intertidal
zones, neritic zones, and the open ocean.
Estuary: Where freshwater of a river meets
saltwater of the ocean.
Intertidal Zone: The area between the highest
high tide line and the lowest low tide line.
Neritic Zone: The area below the low tide line
which extends over the continental shelf.

Understory: A second layer of shorter trees and Open Ocean: Separated into two zones:
vines. Surface Zone: The first few hundred meters deep
DESERTS of the ocean (where light penetrates).

• Desert = An area that receives less than Deep Zone: Below the surface zone (totally dark
and home to many BIZZARE organisms).
25 cm of rain per year.
• Some deserts receive NO precipitation at all
during one year.
• Deserts often undergo large shifts in
temperature during the course of a day.
The scorching Namib desert in Africa cools
rapidly after the sun goes down.
The Gobi Desert in central Asia is cooler and
even experiences freezing temperatures in the
winter.
Grassland (prairie) - An area that is populated
mostly by grasses and other non-woody plants.
Deciduous trees - Trees that shed their leaves and
grow new ones each year (Oaks, Maples…)
Boreal Forest (taiga) - Mostly contains
coniferous trees (trees that produce their seeds in
cones and have leaves shaped like needles). Ex.
Fir, Spruce, Hemlock…
Tundra - Extremely cold and dry biome. Usually
receives NO more precipitation than a desert
biome.
Freshwater ecosystems include streams, rivers,
ponds and lakes.
Lakes are larger and deeper than ponds.
Ponds: Shallow enough for sunlight to hit bottom
(allowing plants to grow there).
Lakes (and large ponds): Too deep for plants to
grow on the bottom, so algae grows and floats on
top of water.