ELEC 4430

Integrated Power Electronics

Chapter 5: Magnetics

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-1

 1. INTRODUCTION
In low-power microelectronics, inductors are seldom used as the rest of the
other components, e.g. capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc., can be
fabricated on a single chip to minimize the size and cost. However, in power
electronics, inductors, transforms and coupled-inductors are essential.

Inductors are used:

1. for efficient (lossless) energy storage and transfer;
2. for low loss filtering (e.g. recall the application in rectifier circuit).
Transformer are used:
1. for efficient changing of AC voltage
2. for electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuit. (To meet
safety requirement, all electrical appliances that use line power must have
isolation transformers)
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-2
 2. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS & RELEVANT EQUATIONS
Electromagnetic (EM) waves are governed by the Maxwell’s Equations and they
can be written in many different ways. For magnetic systems, the relevant
expression are:
(i) Faraday’s Law    d
l E  dl  dt
 = B A
where E is electric field,  is magnetic flux,
B is magnetic flux density, and A is the area
(ii) Ampere’s Law    
 H  dl   J  ds
l s

where H is magnetic field intensity and J is current density

(iii) Gauss’s Law (for magnetism)
 
 B  ds  0
s

where B is magnetic flux density

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-3

 2.1 Right Hand Rules
When a current flows through a straight wire, a circular magnetic field H is
generated, which is related to the magnetic flux . The direction of the flux is
according to one version of the right hand rules (RHRs), where the right thumb
points in the direction of the current then your other fingers will be curled in the
direction of the flux as shown in the figure below.

When current flows through a circular coil, another version of RHRs can be used
to tell the direction of the flux. In this case, the right thumb points in the
direction of the flux then your other fingers will be curled in the direction of
current running through the coil.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-4

 2.2 Lenz’s Law (of electromagnetic induction)
When the applied magnetic flux density B is decreasing in magnitude, the
current induced in the loop is in such a direction as to produce a field which
tends to increases B, Fig. 2(a). On the other hand, when B is increasing, the
current induced in the loop is in such a direction as to produce a field opposing
B, Fig. 2(b). Thus the induced current in the loop is always in such a direction
as to produce flux opposing the change in B (Lenz’s Law).

- +
vi

Fig. 2
As current flow is due to electric field, changing magnetic field produces an electric field Ee.
Integrating this electric field around the loop yields induced voltage vi
𝑑∅
where 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐸𝑒 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = − (Faraday’s Law, -ve sign is due to Lenz’s Law)
𝑑𝑡

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-5

 2.3 Faraday’s Law of Induction
Refer to Fig. 3 and with the RHRs, the time changing current (cause) flowing
through the coil generates time changing flux . From Faraday’s law induced
voltage is generated to against this time changing flux (e.g. vi = - d /dt).
Hence, by KVL the voltage (effect) measured across the current source can be
expressed as v = d /dt.

𝑑∅ 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣= = =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

di
⇒ if i is a DC current,  0 and v  0.
dt

Fig. 3

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-6

 2.4 Parallelism between Electricity & Magnetism

Electricity Magnetism
N turns
V Hl  Ni
1 1 l
Ni  Bl  
A  A I
l
Ni   area
H =A
  resistivity 1 l
l   reluctance
R   resistance A length = l
A

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-7

 2.5 Inductance of an Inductor
Consider an inductor constructed by a wire wrapped around a coil.

Ni  Hl  H  2r
where l  2r
N turns

1 1 l
Ni  Bl  
 A
where A  a 2

Ni   and 1 2r a

 a2

d N di N 2 di di
Since v1   and v  Nv 1  L ,
dt  dt  dt dt
N2
then L .


Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-8

 Example 1:
Let N = 22, r = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, a = 0.5 cm = 0.005 m, o = 410−7 Hm−1,
r = 1000.

1 l 1 2  0.015
Then    4.775  105
H 1

 A 4   107  1000   0.0052

N2 222
L   1.01 mH
 4.775  105

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-9

 Example 2:
Consider an EI core used in transformer application.

Given r = 1000, N = 100

Now for center pole: A  10 mm  10 mm  0.01 m 2
l  25 mm  0.025 m
l 0.025
p    1.99  105 H 1
r o A 3 7
10  4   10  0.012

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-10

 For side limb: A  5 mm  10 mm  0.005  0.01 m 2
l  17.5 mm  25 mm  17.5 mm  0.06 m

l 0.06
l    9.55  105 H 1
r o A 3 7
10  4   10  0.005  0.01

1
  p  l  6.77  105 H 1
2

N2
1002
or L   14.8 mH
 6.77  105

Note that the reluctance  is a useful parameter for a core.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-11

 3. FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS AND CORES
In our previous two examples, the cores are made of ferromagnetic material
which has a very large relative permeability r (r = 1000). Since the
reluctance is inversely proportional to  (  1/), the reluctance for free
space is much larger than that of the core and the magnetic flux will find the
easiest path to flow, i.e., the one with the least reluctance.

Hence, the following assumptions hold:

1. All the magnetic flux is confined within the core

2. The magnetic flux density across any cross section perpendicular to the flux
line is uniform.

3. The flux density B is proportional to the magnetic field strength H.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-12

 3.1 Widely used Ferromagnetic Material
Three general types of magnetic materials can be identified:

Diamagnetic - the material tends to exclude magnetic fields slightly.

Paramagnetic - the material is slightly magnetized by a magnetic field.

Ferromagnetic - the material contains small regions, knows as domains, that

are strongly magnetized.

Two groups of ferromagnetic material are widely used in magnetic cores:

metallic alloys based on iron and ferrite, and metallic dust.

They are chosen based on the frequency of applications:

- power line frequency, under 1 kHz: laminated metallic cores

- high frequency, up to 1 MHz range: ferrite material

- low MHz region: metallic dust, usually has a rather low permeability

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-13

 3.2 Hysteresis and Permeability
For free space, B and H bears a linear relation, i.e. B = oH. However, for
all ferromagnetic materials, they show non-linear characteristic with
hysteresis, i.e. the present value of B not only depends on H, but also on the
magnetic history.

Bm - maximum flux density

Hm - maximum magnetic field
Br - remanence: the residual flux density when mmf (the driving current) is
removed
Hc - coercivity: the magnetizing field (H ) that must be applied to reduce the
residual magnetic flux to zero

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-14

 Note:
1. To make a good permanent magnet, hard magnetic material has to be
used, i.e. Br must be large so that even current is removed, strong residual
flux exists. Also Hc has to be large, so that the magnet is not easily
demagnetized by external magnetic field.
B

2. For applications such as inductor and transformer, soft magnetic material

has to be used, i.e. Br and Hc area as small as possible.
B

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-15

 Consequence of the Hysteresis Loop
Energy will be dissipated as B travels around the loop (1 cycle).

Recall that v = dt /dt  [] = Wb = Vs (volt-sec)

 = BA  [B] = Vsm-2
Hl = I  [H] = Am-1
then [BH] = VAsm-3 = Wsm-3 = Jm-3,
i.e. [BH] is the energy density
 
Hence, energy (per m3 ) dissipated per cycle is Edis   B  dH

Hence, if the magnetic component is used to transfer energy, we need the B-H
curve to be as linear as possible such that the hysteresis loop is as small as
possible to minimize energy loss  use soft magnetic material.
Clearly, if a large current (a.c.) is applied, Hm will be higher and loss will be
larger. Actually, for a magnetic component, the rating is determined by the
heat that it can dissipate without failure. Hence Em (max. energy) determines
im , (i.e. Em  im  Hm  Bm )

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-16

 Bm
and the permeability r is determined by r  .
o H m

In some applications, we may have a large DC current with a small AC current

ripple (CCM operation), in such case, we define
B
inc  (inc means incremental).
o H

Note that a hysteresis loop is formed even the excursion is not centered at the
origin.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-17

 3.3.1 Eddy Currents
Electromagnetic wave has a very special characteristic. Changing current i
induced magnetic flux , and the changing magnetic flux will be opposed by an
induced flux e if there is a path for a current ie that accompanies e to flow
(Lenz’s Law). This circulating current ie is called eddy current, which will
dissipate energy and heat up the component.

Now, ferromagnetic material has large r so that

magnetic flux can flow easily, and it should have large 
(resistivity) such that eddy currents are minimized. For
ferrite materials, it has large r and large , but are very
expensive. For iron, it has relatively large r but very low
 (r = 1000,  = 510-8 m).
Hence, if the core is made of one whole piece of iron, a
big problem with eddy current arises. One way, to
prevent the eddy current is to use laminated core.
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-18
 3.3.2 Skin Depth
For a big piece of iron, clearly the circulating current ie at the center will have
a shorter distance to travel  smaller resistance  larger current  opposing
field e is stronger, thus limiting the penetration of  into the core.

The penetration decays exponentially,

2
i.e., 𝑒 −𝛿/𝑥 with  .
 r o 

The thickness of the laminations should, ideally, not exceed the skin depth.
For iron core at line frequency,

2  5  108
 7 3
 5  10 4
m  0.5 mm .
4   10  10  2  50

Thus, the thickness of the laminations should be around 0.5 mm.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-19

 Note:
1. With the same argument, for copper = 1.710−8 m  copper = 0.29 mm,
it is no use to have a cable diameter much larger than 1 mm. Hence,
cables carrying heavy currents are made hollow so as to cut down the
cost and weight.

2. Recall that induced emf v = d/dt  v  f and power P = v 2/R 

P  f 2, the higher the frequency, the more the energy loss. Therefore, iron
core, even with laminations, can only work up to 10 kHz.

3. For high frequency applications, ferrites with very high resistivity ( = 1010
m) have to be used.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-20

 4. AIR GAP AND MAGNETIC DESIGN
4.1 Air Gap and Linearity
Ferromagnetic materials are highly non-linear and its permeability are not easy
to tightly control. By adding an air gap in the magnetic path, linearity can be
greatly improved. Effective reluctance can be easily designed according to
core geometry.

  c   c  g 1   c  g 2
l l g1 l g2
    
 r o A r o A o A r o A o A
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-21
 Note that:
1. When the gap is small, all flux lines flow through the gap without much
distortion.

2. When the gap is large, the field at the gap spreads out, and may even
escape from the core, causing flux leakage.

3. Although adding the gap makes the magnetics behave more linearly, yet the
reluctance also increases, causing a reduction in inductance
(since N2 )
L
c  g
and thus reducing the capability of the magnetic to store energy.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-22

 Example:
Consider the EI core in the previous section, with a non-magnetic spacer of 0.1
mm thick inserted between the bar and the main body. If N = 100, calculate L.

Clearly, g 104
gl    1.592  106 H 1
o Al 7
4   10  0.005  0.01
g 104
gp    7.96  106
H 1

o Ap 4   107  0.01  0.01

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-23

 1  1 
   p  gp   l  gl   1.99  7.96  9.55  15.92  105

2  2 
 22.69  105 H 1

N2 1002
L  6
 4.40 mH
 2.27  10
1002
If the spacer is removed, then L(no spacer )  5
 14.77 mH .
6.77  10

Therefore, the thin spacer reduce the inductance to 30% of its original value.
Now consider this example again when r = 500 (r was 1000)
𝑙 0.025
ℜ𝑝 = = −7 2
= 3.98 × 105  𝐻−1
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴 500 × 4𝜋 × 10 × 0.01
𝑙 0.06
ℜ𝑙 = = −7
= 19.1 × 105  𝐻 −1
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴 500 × 4𝜋 × 10 × 0.005 × 0.01

1002 1002
𝐿(𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑟) = 13.53×105
= 7.39 𝑚𝐻 (-50%) 𝐿= 2.945×106
= 3.4 𝑚𝐻 (-22.7%)

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-24

 4.2 Air Gap and Stored Energy
Consider the power related to the magnetic component:
dt d dB dB dB
P  iv  i  Ni  NiA  HlA H V
dt dt dt dt dt
where V =Al = volume of the core.
dB
Therefore, the power density p is given by p  H .
dt

To calculate the energy stored in the magnetic element, we have

B
e   P dt   H dB where e = stored energy density
0

B 1 1B2 1 B2
If we further assume that B = H, then e  BdB   .
0  2  2 r o
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-25
 If the flux reaches a maximum of Bm, then the maximum stored energy in the
core is
2
1 Bm
E max  V .
2  r o

Now if the mmf (current) is removed, the core will have a residual flux of Br,
and not all the stored energy can be recovered. The useful stored energy is
thus given by
2 2
1 Bm  Br
E  V
2  r o
which may be much less than the maximum energy stored in core.

If the magnetic element has an air gap, clearly a linear B-H relation exists in
the gap, and the stored energy in the gap is
2
1 Bm
Eg  Vg
2 o
where Vg is the volume of the air gap.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-26

 1 1
Even V g V , we have  ,
o  r o

so much energy is stored in the gap that can be recovered.

If the B-H curve is plotted for a coil with an air gap, it is tilted over with
respect to the B-H curve for the ungapped core. The coercivity is unchanged,
but the remanence is reduced. However, the total area enclosed by the loop is
unchanged. I.e. the energy lost in cycling the flux in the core is unchanged.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-27

 5. SATURATION IN MAGNETICS
Saturation is the phenomenon that as H increases, the corresponding change
in B decreases,
dB
i.e.  decreases as H increases.
dH
Except for very special applications, magnetic components are designed
to avoid saturation. Here are some reasons:
1. Inductance changes as  changes.
2. The permeability drops quickly to o at saturation, a core becomes
magnetically transparent, i.e. indistinguishable from the outside air.
Most of the flux then leaks through the air and the core offers no
benefit.
3. At saturation, H increases rapidly with B, resulting in large changing
current with small change in B  causes overheating.
4. Saturation reduces coupling between windings in transformer (more
details later).

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-28

 6. LOSS IN MAGNETICS
(i) Conduction Loss (copper loss)
- due to the resistance of the copper wire of the winding Rcu, and
the loss is Pcu = i 2Rcu .
(ii) Core Losses - two mechanisms result in core losses: hysteresis and eddy
currents.
(a) Hysteresis loss: the loss per cycle per volume is given by
 
E hys   H  dB .
(b) Eddy current loss: this is the i 2R loss caused by eddy currents. If
laminations are used in iron cores or high resistance ferrite cores are
used, then this loss is very small.
The losses in the inductor can be modeled in the following figure.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-29

 7. TRANSFORMERS
7.1 Ideal Transformers
For an ideal transformer, we assume:
1. no losses in the core and windings, i.e. magnetics does not exhibit
hysteresis and Rwire = 0
2. primary inductance is infinite ( r =  or  = 0, i.e. magnetizing current
H = 0)
3. magnetics does not saturates
4. no flux leakage, i.e. perfect coupling
5. no stray capacitance

An ideal transformer has two ports, the primary and the secondary, and are
reciprocal. The port driven by a source is the primary, while the port driving
a load is the secondary.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-30

 Voltage Ratio
Consider an ideal transformer.

d
The flux  for each turn is the same, i.e. v
dt
v 1 N1
Now, v1 = N1v’, v2 = N2v’ , then  .
v 2 N2

Hence, the voltage ratio is the same as the turns ratio.

N2
Sometimes we let N  , and v2 = Nv1 .
N1

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-31

 Dot Convention
Dot convention is used to differentiate the direction of the windings. The
currents flow into the dotted ends of the windings produce aiding fluxes.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-32

 Current Ratio
Now consider a transformer with source at the primary and a load at the
secondary.

N 1i 1  N 2i 2
Hl  N 1i 1  N 2 (i 2 )  H  .
l
i1 N 2
Since magnetizing current H = 0, N1i1 = N2i2 or  N (i 1  Ni 2 )
i 2 N1

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-33

 Circuit Model of the Ideal Transformer
v1 1 i
With  or 1  N , we can construct the following transformer models:
v2 N i2

This is the normally used transformer model

model as a 2-port network (note the different

in current direction)

since the transformer is reversible, it can be

modeled like this

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-34

 Impedance Transformation
Consider the impedance seen by v1 when another terminal is loaded with an
impedance z2 .
2
v v v 1 v1 1 N 
z1  1  1  1  z 2  2 z 2   1  z 2 .
i 1 Ni 2 N v 2 N v 2 N N2 
z2

Hence, the impedance z2 is transformed by the square of the turns ratio

(inverted).
1:N

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-35

 Passivity
Observe the input power Pi = v1i1 , output power Po = v2i2
Po v 2i 2 1
and  N 1.
Pi v 1i 1 N

i.e. Po = Pi  there is no generation nor loss of power

 transformer is a passive element.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-36

 7.2 Non-ideal Transformer

Our circuit model of the ideal transformer suggests that it works at DC, yet a
practical transformer can only work with AC, the reason being that in order for
the two windings to be magnetically coupled, a B must be created by one
winding and linked to the other. For a finite r , then magnetizing current H ≠ 0,
and transformer cannot work at DC.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-37

 Magnetizing Inductance
For H ≠ 0, if the secondary is an open circuit, then Hl = Ni1 and we get an
inductor at the primary. This inductor is called the magnetizing inductance L1 .

Since we always want to approach the ideal conditions as much as possible, we

want to use core with very high permeability with no gap. The model is shown
in Fig. 23 (a). We may shift L1 to the secondary as shown in Fig. 23(b) with

2
N 
L2  N 2L1   2  L1 .
 N1 

Note that the model only needs either L1 or L2 , but not both.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-38

 Leakage Inductance
Unlike conductor, which has a conductivity 10 to 12 orders higher than air,
magnetic material only has a relative permeability in the order of thousands
(103). Hence, some magnetic fluxes may not be contained by the core and
complete its path through the air, leading to leakage inductance.

For an inductor, accounting for leakage fluxes only increases the inductance,
since the total inductance is the sum of the leakage inductance and the core
inductance.
L = Ll + Lc
But for a transformer, these leakage fluxes may not pass through both the
primary and the secondary windings and gives rise to imperfect coupling. The
model of transformer becomes:

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-39

 Modelling of Non-ideal Transformers
If we treat the transformer as a 2-port network,
then
di di
v 1  L11 1  L12 2
dt dt
di1 di
v 2  L21  L22 2 .
dt dt

Clearly, L11  L1  L1  L1

self inductance of primary
L22  L 2  L 2  L2
self inductance of secondary.

We state without proof that

L12  L21  M mutual inductance.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-40

 Note that if the transformer has the opposite dot location, then
di1 di di 1 di
v 1  L1 M 2 v 2  M  L2 2 .
dt dt dt dt

It is convenient to define M as M  k L1L2 , where k is called the coupling

coefficient, and it can be proved that k 2 ≤ 1. (The proof is to consider that the
transformer is passive and it cannot generate power). With the introduction of
k, the model finally reads as

where Lp = L1 = primary inductance, and Ls = L2 = secondary inductance.

With the addition of winding

resistance Rp and Rs, and core
losses Rc, a more realistic model is
as shown in the figure.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-41

 7.4 Perfect Transformer

As the name implies, a perfect transformer has perfect

coupling, i.e. k = 1. Disregarding all the losses, the
perfect transformer is actually an ideal transform with a
magnetizing inductance in parallel with either the primary
or the secondary winding.

Note k = 1  M  L1L2  L1N 2L1  NL1

L2 L2
M  L1L2  L2 
N2 N

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-42

 Example:
Consider a source driving a load through a
transformer as shown below, calculate i1(t )
and v2(t ). Given N1 = 20, N2 = 30, r = 4500,
r = 2 cm, a = 0.5 cm, k = 0.99 with
v1(t ) = 4 sin 250kt, R = 90 , and the
winding resistance and core loss are neglected.

l 2  0.02
   2.83  105 H 1
r o A 7
4500  4   10    0.0052

2 2
N1 N2
Lp   1.41 mH and Ls   3.18 mH
 

Next use the transformer model and use phasor

analysis.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-43

 v1
i1 
  R  s (1  k )Ls 
s (1  k )Lp  skLp // 
  N2 
4

  90  j 250  103 (0.01)3.18m 
j 250  10 (0.01)1.41m   j 250  10 (0.99)1.41m //
3 3

  9/4 

4 4
 
j 4.43   j 439 //40  j 4.44 j 4.43 
j 17600  1950
40  j 443

440  j 443 40  j 443

 4
j 177  1960  j 17600  1950  3910  j 17800

44584.8 1
4 4   17.6
18200102.4 40.9

 i 1 (t )  0.098 sin( 250  103t  17.6)

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-44

   R  s (1  k )Ls  R
and v 2  i 1 skLp //  N
  N2  R  s (1  k )Ls

Note:

If r = ,  = 0, Lp = ,
4
then i t (t )  sin( 250  103t )  0.1 sin( 250  103t ) .
90
9/4

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-45

 8. APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS
Recall the topology of the flyback
converter. The output voltage is
negative with respect to the ground
defined by the generator voltage Vs.
If a positive output voltage is
needed, then we may use a
transformer with turns ratio 1:1 to
achieve the goal.
The flyback converter can be constructed as shown in the figure.

However, one question comes up. How does the circuit operate? In state 1, Vs
charges up the transformer, but when the switch opens in state 2, does the
current drop to zero instantaneously?
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-46
 To explain the operation, let us assume the transformer is a perfect
transformer with primary inductance L.

State 1:
When the switch is closed, current il flows
through the inductor L according to

di l di v V
vl  L  l  l  S .
dt dt L L

The current also tries to flow into the

primary at the dot. Since the secondary
is connected to a load resistor R, the
corresponding current tries to flow out
of the dot of the secondary, yet this is
blocked by the diode since it is now
reverse biased.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-47

 State 2:
When the switch is opened, il still wants
to flow, and so it “forces” current out of
the primary at the dot, consequently,
current flows into the dot at the
secondary. Moreover, since the turns
ratio is 1:1, the output voltage Vo is
forced upon the primary in the direction
as shown.

Now, di l v l VO
  .
dt L L

So, in state 1, di l V S V
  i l  S DT ,
dt L L
di l VO V
in state 2,    i l   O (1  D )T .
dt L L
The changes in current in both states have to be the same, then
VS V V D
i l  DT  O (1  D )T  O  .
L L VS 1  D
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-48
 The application of the transformer in the flyback converter has two advantages.
We can move the switch from the floating position to have it reference to
ground, and we can have turns ratio other than 1:1.

In state 1, di l V S V
  i l  S DT ,
dt L L

In state 2, di l VO / N V /N
   i l   O (1  D )T
dt L L

VS V V ND
 i l  DT  O (1  D )T  O  .
L NL VS 1  D

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-49

 APPENDIX
Core Styles and Their Merits

Basic Core Gapped Winding Core Manufacturing

Style Shielding Cost Cost
Toroid Yes/No No Low High
E-Core Yes No Low Low
U-Core Yes No Low Low
Pot-Core Yes Yes High Medium
EP-Core Yes No Low Medium

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-50

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-51
 Hysteresis loss:

PH = khv f (Bmax)2
where kh is the hysteresis loss constant for the material
v is the volume of the core
f is the frequency of operation
Bmax is the maximum flux density.

Eddy current loss:

Pe = kev f 2 (Bmax)2
where ke is the eddy current loss constant.

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-52

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-53
 Appendix - Parallelism between Electricity and Magnetism

   
 E  dl   E  dl  V  H  dl   H  dl  I

Ed  V 2rH  I

E  V d [Vm–1] H  I 2r  [Am–1]

Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-54

    
 D  ds   D  ds  Q  B  ds   B  ds  0
D 4r 2  Q There is no “magnetic charge”

D    E , (electric flux density) B   H , (magnetic flux density)

where   r o , permittivity [Fm−1] where   r o , permeability [Hm−1]

Note that both D and B are surface densities.

Now, since [Q] = C , Coulomb ⇒ [D] = Cm−2.

For B, if the surface is not a closed surface,

then,  = BA, where  = magnetic flux, flux linkage.
Now, [] = Wb (Weber) ⇒ [B] = Wbm−2
Dr. MAN, HKUST Ch. 5: Magnetics 5-55