Ways To Study and Research Urban, Architectural and Technical Design: Naming and Describing

son).
This can also be used in order to specify which internal or external study programmes
will be linked to.
F Ability to be criticised and to criticise

Ability to be criticised (ability to be refuted) offers others the opportunity to selectively make
progress by building upon technical scientifical know-how and knowledge (accumulation)
obtained through study. Statements are only of a scientific interest when they are bold and do
not solely use risk-free citations, self-evident aspects or even clichés, on the contrary, state-
ments must question these. This daring must not only be apparent in the project design but in
particular during execution.
Ability to be criticised can be shown from a readiness and initiative to expose the re-
sults in their consecutive phases, to publish them for instance on the internet in a refutable
manner, and in this way open them to criticism in all phases of the research even though
these phases are unripe. Drawings and arguments must not conceal their weaknesses.
G Convergence and limitations

A proposal for the nature of the end product is required with a summation of the sub-projects.
Questions to be answered in the proposal are:
- Who is ultimately responsible, who takes part, how often do they meet, what do they or-
ganise, how do they divide the common tasks, how is a synergy created, which facilities
are desired?
- How is it to be represented (on the website, in book form, in a conference)?
- How do the sub-projects converge?
30 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

NAMING AND DESCRIBING
A NAMING AND DESCRIBING
An important condition for scientific work is a conceptual framework and careful descrip- 4 Naming components and Concepts 35
tion of the subject to be studied. Naming, describing and referring are also essential constitu- 5 Retrieval and reference 43
6 Descriptive research 53
ents of study related to design. 7 Historical research 61
8 Map study 71
Naming components and concepts 9 Casuistry resulting in laws 79
In their contribution, De Jong and Rosemann stress the importance of concepts in design, as
well as their focus, supposed scale, possible overlaps. The lack of concepts in naming the
mountain of possible forms and transformations whilst communicating on design actually is
a problem for the science of designing. It causes a proliferation of neologisms, often not to
be fathomed by outsiders. Definition does not always offer a solution. For that purpose the
constituent concepts fail that are presumed when a definition is in the making. Defining is
preceeded by the conditional positioning of concepts A and B vis-à-vis one another: which
concepts A pre-supposes concept B to be defined? May concepts A be named?
It is important to avoid a change of level of abstraction in a discourse or use of ‘legenda’,
the ‘things to be read’, in construction. Mistakes preceding logical ones like these often play
a rôle when designs are discussed. Designers tend to use rather paradoxical expressions whilst
commenting on their design, like ‘concentrated deconcentration’. Words often fail to suggest
the world of shapes.
Retrieval and reference

The contribution of de Jong and van der Voordt dovetails both practically and theoretically
with suggestions vis-à-vis citations of scientific results and facilitating that.
Descriptive research
Lans and Van der Voordt explore the value of a painstaking description of reality for theory
development and the practice of designing. They argue to describe facts or designs in such a
way that, ‘ex ante’, a minimal amount of inter-connections is suggested. That description
should be clearly distinguished from the interpretation of facts and the establishment of rela-
tionships. Criticism by way of comparing different interpretations of the same material de-
pends on this in order to exist at all. Concrete examples of study illustrate advantages and
disadvantages of the phenomenological approach. The authors advocate to raise the domi-
nant form of design study – analyses of plans and comparison of previous cases – to a higher
level. In addition, process description is discussed by way of two examples: the planning
process of the ‘Bijlmermeer’ project of the City of Amsterdam in the sixties, and the indi-
vidual one, and one of thought as well, of a designer of architecture. Both studies yielded
relevant insights for the theories of planning and of architecture.
Historical research
Mácel shows that the results of historical research depend on the interpretation of history as
a science. His contribution consists of three parts: 1) heuristics (how to deal with historical
sources and references), 2) analysis (how to analyse text and drawings dating from the past),
and 3) interpretation (focusing on issues such as context, typology, style and meaning). Fi-
nally he reflects on architectural history as a social science and the relationship between his-
torical research and architectural criticism.
Map Study
Moens’ contribution focuses on the formal and functional description of the earth’s surface,
on the basis of aerial photographs and maps. It discusses several types of maps; how they
33
are made and how they may be used as support of design decisions. In addition, traps and
foot holes are indicated in order to prevent faulty interpretation of the towers of map-making.
Without interpretation, it could not be done at all. Just think about the ‘things to be read’, the
units of the legend and choosing them. The degree and measure of interpretation is then at
stake; and to what level they are suggested. Only after description the topographical facts
should be placed into mutual relations according to a model. In the case of topographical maps
of the military the problem becomes clear. Different connections are already pre-supposed in
them; no longer susceptive to design decisions.
Casuistry resulting in laws

Most ancient social application of induction, a distinct set of cases within one general ruling,
is the law. The juridical method where casuistry leads to jurisprudence is a predecessor of
the scientific method. Facts, their modelling, debate and inter-subjective judgement play an
important rôle.
Hobma and Schutte discuss the importance of legal study in the context of designing.
On one hand they make practical distinctions, based on straight application of legal research:
essentially retrieval and sorting; for instance for getting a building license. On the other, they
deal with scientific legal study, explicitly aiming for a more general kind of knowledge.
The Chapter is consolidated in this section, while this prolegomenon from quarters not
exclusively empirical gives a feeling for a scientific approach as it applies in the domain of
architecture. An exclusively empirical approach fails to give a solution for many problems in
this respect.
Conclusion
Together, the five sections reflect the value of descriptive study, the necessity of a clear,
unambiguous terminology, and checking points to pre-empt all too subjective interpretations,
or even faulty ones, of reality.

4 NAMING COMPONENTS AND TAEKE DE JONG
JÜRGEN ROSEMANN
CONCEPTS
Specific terminology exists in each scientific discipline enabling effective description and 4.1 Components and concepts in
specialist communication. In some disciplines the number of defined concepts is relatively drawings 36
4.2 Focus: Seed of components and concepts
small (as in logic, mathematics, physics, history and geography, even though with the last 36
two the number of names is uniquely large), in others (chemical nomenclature, medical sci- 4.3 Unravelling scale 37
ence and above all in biology and ecology) this is very large. This has partly to do with vari- 4.4 Context: ground of components and
ation in the phenomenon to be explained. concepts 38
4.5 Unravelling overlaps 38
What can be done when a designing discipline, such as architecture, is expected to
4.6 Naming transformations: instruments of
create these phenomena and to increase their variation (especially in form and structure)? concept formation 40
4.7 Conditional positioning of concepts 41
A few technical architectural dictionaries exista (concepts) and encyclopaedia (concepts and 4.8 Conclusion 42
names); however there is little interest for them in architectural design; they are mainly of
historical interest. This by no means covers the topicality of new design assignments. In ar-
chitecture there is an infinite number of proposals created; partly expressed by drawings and
pictures. It is thought that from each drawing new concepts and conceptions may be derived
allowing parts of the design process to be subject of discussion. However, their number is so
large, that this vocabulary will never become widely accepted.
a Venturi, M. (1950) Town Planning Glossary; 10.000 multi-
A research project into reference words, which summarise the competence of profes- lingual terms in one alphabet for European Town Planners;
sors in architectureb , brought to light that many subjects and dilemmas of study by design, - Kay, N.W. (1955) The Modern Building Encyclopaedia, an
authoritative reference to all aspects of the building and
design, design research and typology could hardly be reproduced in everyday language or alied trades;
- Graf, Huber et al. (1956) Das Kleine Lexikon der Bautechnik
technical language. The number of new terms (neologisms) in this profession is, therefore, (im Anhang DIN-normen im Bauwesen);
large. - Saylor, H.H. (1962, 1952) Dictionary of Architecture;
- Académie D’Architecture (1963) Lexique Des Termes Du
Batiment;
- Barbier, M., R. Cadierques et al. (1963) Dictionnaire Tech-
Designers show a distinctive creativeness in using neologisms for the explanation of their nique du Batiment et des Travaux Publics;
designs, neologisms like that empirical researchers simply dismiss as of no use in their jargon - Burke, A.E., J. Dalzell et al. (1963 / 1959 / 1955 / 1950) Ar-
chitectural and Building Trades Dictionary;
(family structure, age, income). However, it is of utmost importance that these concepts are - Kinniburgh, W. (1966) Dictionary of Building Materials;
- Frommhold, H. (1967) Begriffsbestimmungen aus dem
taken seriously because they show the inadequacy of empirical jargon. They can herald a Bauwesen;
change in focus demanding another concept definition. Intensive defining is, therefore, not - Koepf, H. (1968) Bildwörterbuch der Architektur;
- Koch, W. and G. Kötting (1971) Termen en Begrippen in de
always the right thing to do. Conditional positioning is an alternative for precise defining. Bouwkunst;
The sheer size of the Index of this book (see page 531) is an indication of the prime - Cowan, H.J. (1973) Dictionary of Architectural Science;
- Killer, W.K. (1973) Bautechnisches Englisch im Bild;
importance of naming in the science of design. The first naming of components, concepts - Meling, G. (1973) Naturstein Lexikon; Werkstoff, Werkzeuge
und Machinen, Wirtschaft und Handel, Gestaltung und
and design activities in the transformation of the earth’s surface is determining the focus from Technieken von der Antike bis heute;
where the remainder is named and considered. That this focus may be chosen differently, - Walker, J.A. (1973) Glossary of Art, Architecture and De-
sign since 1945;
implies that a number of vocabularies are possible and desirable. Naming, typing and making - Hall, J. (1974) Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art;
- Harris, C.M. (1975) Dictionary of Architecture and Con-
legends are hiding an implicit, often blockading classification within which both study and struction;
design will express themselves subsequently and necessary. Already a seemingly objective - Villena, L. (1975) Glossaire Burgenfachwörterbuch des
mittelalterlichen Wehrbaus;
description comprises in its terms at least one tacit pre-supposition that one should be con- - Curl, J.S. (1977) English Architecture;
- Baumgart, F. (1978) DuMont’s kleines Sachlexikon der
scious on in order to be able to speak in a different language about the same phenomenon. Architectur;
The importance of naming and therefore implicit classification for design comes no- - Stein, J.S. (1980) Construction Glossary an Encyclopedic
Reference and Manual;
where so directly to the fore as in the Chapter of the section technical study ‘Classification - Bak, L. (1983) Vademecum ruimtelijke planning;
- Mohr, A.H. (1983) Vestingbouwkundige Termen;
and Combination’ (see page 345). In it, the discussion, of a standing measured by decades, - Logie, G. (1986) Glossary of land resources;
about naming the building materials and components is described as well as the shortcomings - Stichting Bouwresearch, P. Erasmus et al. (1989) Termino-
logie van de voorbereiding en de kwaliteit in de bouw;
of any classification for a design opting for a different selection of building blocks in order to - Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut (1991) Algemene ter-
men in de bouw;
get to new designs. Any designer is facing, in each compositional task, such tacit, sometimes - Reinders, C.G. (1992) Vaktaal; vaktermengids bij kerkge-
stimulating, but usually blockading pre-suppositions with which components have been named bouwen;
- Renes, J. (1992) Historische landschapselementen;
or imagined traditionally. - Wilde, E. de and H. Volker (1995) Prisma Vakwoordenboek
This Chapter gives some indications how the components of an image and their re- Bouw;
- Haslinghuis, E.J. and H. Jense (1997) Bouwkundige ter-
construction into a concept may be delimited and named. This way it is becoming possible to men.
b Jong, T.M. de (1997) Hoogleraren Bouwkunde in trefwoor-
talk about them and to retrieve them. den.
NAMING COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS 35

4.1 COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS IN DRAWINGS
A picture says more a thousand words, but which words are these? This question is of im-
portance for the scientific status of drawing, its documentation and retrievability.
A drawing is made in order to read something from it. Legibility is dependent upon
explicitness and expressiveness. That is not the same. An explicit drawing, like a black circle
on a grey field with for legend units ‘black = built’ and ‘grey = vacant’, for instance, may be
very explicit, but is not expressive. The upper plot divisions are more expressive, while their
legends (vocabulary) are more comprehensive and have been spread in more than one legend
plane in the drawing (information content). When the borders between the legend units are
drawn vaguely, the drawing may be more expressive, but it is less explicit. The precise posi-
tioning of legends planes has more tolerance (see paragraphs 24.10 and 24.11). Less explicit
drawings make sense for creating an impression, but say less in a scholarly than in a poetical
sense. Nevertheless they are essential in the designing process.
While consulting an archive of drawings it is only important to retrieve the drawing
from which may be read what one wants to know. So it is not only important from a schol-
4 Information content of a drawing
arly viewpoint to know what a drawing is depicting, but especially which properties, attributes
and operations may be read from what is depicted.
4.2 FOCUS: SEED OF COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS

The chosen focus primarily determines the viewpoint from which components and concepts
are defined. During the design process, the interpretation of the location determines in a major
way the first components with which the composition of the design is created. This way,
over the years the interpretation of the urban area in the Randstad has changed focus. During
the process the selection of the constituting and surrounding components of the image and
the concepts related thereto did change. In the figure below the Randstad is represented in
units of 100 000 and 10 000 people (large and small circles) in 1965 and 1995 respectively.
The large circles have a radius of 3km and represent reasonably well the urban surface
area, which on average in the Netherlands is occupied by 100 000 inhabitants. This also ap-
plies to the small circles of 10 000 inhabitants. Where the circles overlap a higher than aver-
age population density for the Netherlands exists. The interpretation of this urban area through-
out the years is similar to the formation of a different structure of the stars into a different
constellation. Through this a different political, design technical and scholarly grasp on the
composition also originates. In 1965 the Randstad was made up of a few large and a few
small towns, recognisably separated by buffer zones and a ‘Green Heart’ between them. In
1995 it was mostly called a ‘north-wing ‘ and a ‘south-wing’. The Green Heart is becoming
thought of less as a component. The ‘focus’ is shifting. Now it is generally called a ‘Delta-
metropolis’.
A different focus is created upon the surrounding landscape based on the concept of a
Deltametropolis, than one based on the concept of a north- and south-wing of the Randstad
with Green Heart. The placing of the first components in the composition of the Netherlands
determines the concept formation for the rest. In the figure below these concept shifts are
5 Succession of sprawl represented using larger units (agglomerations, regions, parts of the country).
6 Big cities around the Green Heart
7 North and South wing
8 Deltametropolis

Historical sciences show more examples of limited object constancy. Languages, people, nations
and social categories appear, thrive, diminish, disappear or shift on the map in relation to their
territory. The ability to free oneself from old categories, to choose a new focus, is the hall-
mark of creative researchers and designers (see also page 390).
4.3 UNRAVELLING SCALE

Changes in abstraction within a reasoning can lead to paradoxes like the statement “I am ly-
ing”. If I am lying, I speak the truth and vice versa. It is a statement and at the same time a
statement about the statement itself. Such self-reflexive statements were banished from the
set theory at the beginning of the last century by Russell.a He would not allow changes in
abstraction using a mathematical argument: “A set of sets may not contain itself”. This wis-
dom has by no means entered into everyday language, not even in science.
The accompanying figure shows a spatial example of concept confusion, based upon
a difference in the scale of consideration (scale paradox). It is shown here that identical spa-
9 Scale paradox
tial patterns allow different conclusions to be drawn when elements are involved in the con-
sideration using a differing scope (scale level, largest frame, smallest texture grain).
FRAME NOMINAL RADIUS
For example if in figure 9 one takes one circle each time and the surroundings into considera- Global 10000
Continental 3000
tion then one must ascertain a difference, although equality should be ascertained when one
Sub-continental 1000
repeatedly compares groups of seven with the surroundings. Something similar applies to the National 300
consideration from inside to outside and from outside to inside. The paradoxical concept Sub-national 100
Regional 30
‘homogenous mixture’ indicates precisely which dilemma this entails: it is homogenous at a Sub-regional 10
specific scale level, at a lower abstraction level it is heterogeneous. Local | District | Borough 3
The concept ‘bundled deconcentration’, well known in Dutch urban planning, is an- Area | Village 1 km
Neighbourhood | Hamlet 300
other example. For concepts like that the question must be asked immediately: “using which Ensemble 100
scale for one, and which scale for the other?” Moreover, this figure shows that such confu- Building complex 30
Building 10
sion of tongues is possible using a factor three linear scale level difference. Between the grains
Building segment 3
of sand and the earth lie 7 decimals; therefore there are more than 14 concept confusions Building part 1 m
lurking. Building component 300
Superelement 100
This gave rise to allocation of a frame and a grain which differ systematically to other Element 30
scale levels by a factor of around three for architectural categories, (discourses, drawings, Subelement 10
uniformity in legends, concepts and objects) in the urban developmentb and the technology Supermaterial 3
Material 1
of buildingc in order to enable the context of the category in question to be defined (such as Submaterial <1 mm
on other scale level).
10 Scale articulation
The frame stated is labelled with a measurement, e.g. ’10 m radius’. Such a ‘nominal
measurement’ may be interpreted as ‘flexible’ up to the measurement of the adjacent radius,
e.g. ‘3m up to 30m radius’.
11 Scope of nominal measures
a Russell, B. (1919) Introduction to mathematical philosophy.

b Jong, T.M. de and M. Paasman (1998) Een vocabulaire
voor besluitvorming over de kaart van Nederland.
c See Eekhout, A.C.J.M. (1998) Ontwerpmethodologie.

4.4 CONTEXT: GROUND OF COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS
As soon as one has ‘placed’ an architectural proposal, object, concept, conception, research
or design on a scale level or ‘radius’, the rest is ‘context’. The concept has obtained an ‘in-
terior’ (everything which is smaller than the texture grain of the object) and an ‘exterior’
(everything which is greater than the frame of the object). This does not just mean in the
widest sense of ‘spatial context’, but, also, more specifically, an ‘ecological’, ‘technical’,
‘economical’, ‘cultural’, or ‘managerial’ context. These contexts are also scale sensitive.
When naming the scale boundaries a concept is, from a particular viewpoint, spatially
‘placed’, regardless of the way a similar problem exists in the time. The concept ‘Perspec-
tive’ in time exists here as an analogy for ‘context’ in space, which becomes significant when
the intended and unintended effects of a design are to be interpreted, named and estimated.
In which perspective does this happen, with which plan horizon and under which assump-
tions with regard to external developments (initiating or controling government, an opportu-
12 Object and context
nity- or tradition directed culture, growing or stagnating economy, technology which is suc-
cessful using function combinations or on the contrary using function separation, an increasing
or decreasing spatial pressure).
Articulation of scale can clarify the concept ‘goal’ and ‘mean’ on the level of policy: if the
State wants to reach a goal through a subsidy, this mean may be a goal for more local au-
thorities. In this way economies are sub-divided in micro, meso and macro economies. Con-
cepts like ‘loss’, ‘profit’, ‘savings’ and conclusions about them may not be inter-changed
between them, even if the used words sound the same. Something similar is valid in time: if
a goal has been reached, the result has become a mean for a goal further away. It needs no
mentioning that the meaning of a concept depends on the context and the perspective within
it is used and that it is often used ‘removed from its context’.a
The building process always takes place in a social and material context and in a per-
13 Different dynamics and perspectives
spective based thereon. Each stage can have a different political, cultural, economical, tech-
nical, ecological and spatial context and employ, by the same token a language game.b The
resulting conceptual confusion can often be solved by asking on which scale level the am-
biguous concepts have been intended.
4.5 UNRAVELLING OVERLAPS

Once the perspective and context of the architectural system of concepts have been deter-
mined, one must check as to how far the concepts overlap. Overlapping concepts are lucra-
tive in the acquisition of research, because one is allocated a budget in order to research the
same thing using another name and possibly with slightly different limitations. However, they
actually hinder retrievability and accumulation of research results and therefore growth of
knowledge and proficiency. With this in mind one must not disallow new concepts (and then
for example create a ‘thesaurus’ using permitted and well-defined concepts.) After all, the
14 The context during the building process
value of university research is in extending boundaries, shifting perspectives and changing
focus.
The domain of overlapping concepts can be divided by giving the overlap a new name
of its own. Supposing that, in a building one makes a distinction between load bearing, divid-
ing and finishing structures to determine their effect on the required design-effort, their ef-
fect on manpower by production or to divide the budget between three participating parties.
Then overlapping can lead to disagreement.
a The functional CIAM separation ‘living, working, recreation

and traffic’ resulted into separation of living and working on
a much larger distance (1000 metres) than was called for
by the hinder between both (100 metres).
b A term of Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophische Unter-
suchungen. Recent edition: Wittgenstein, L. and G.E.M.
Anscombe (1997) Philosophical investigations.

Set theory offers in this case symbols for ‘without’ (asymmetric difference, represented us-
U
ing \) and the ‘overlapping between’ (diametre, represented using ). This results in 5 exclu-
U U
sive concepts: (1) supporters\partitions (2) supporters partitons (4) partitions finish, (5)
finish\partitions and (3) partitions\(supporters U finish), whereby U stands for ‘union’ (in this
case from two disjunctive sets which are not considered to be overlapping). One can here
also use concepts like (1) ‘non-partitioning supporters’, (2) ‘partitioning supporters’ etc.
Things become more complex, when a designer creates (6) a bearing construction as a fin-
ish. The Venn-diagram then indicates three overlapping circles with the categories ‘bearing
and finishing’ and ‘bearing and dividing and finishing’ If this was unforeseen during the budget
apportionment, to which budget must the time spent on the design be charged? Who makes
the profit during execution? Therefore, in practice, an incorrect concept formation leads to
confusion, let alone in science. This is very much the case when one wishes to compare
different situations whereby the overlapping areas are not specified. It is also plausible in this
case that an implicitly overlapping system of concepts is an obstacle for combined architec-
ture innovations. 15 Overlapping concepts
Neologisms may be required on the road to unambiguity, if one locates their domain in
such a manner with respect to other concepts, (for example using Venn-diagrams) in order to
accomplish a system of concepts. The requirement to avoid overlapping areas applies again
to the other concept location.
The procedure is: to divide the domain of overlapping concepts once again into exclusive
concepts and, if required, summarise them in order to accomplish a system of inclusive con-
cepts giving insight into abstraction levels. The question “can one imagine ‘B’ without ‘A’ “,
combined with the reverse question can aid this and yields surprising results especially with
an inclusive system of concepts.a If the answer to both questions is negative and/or affirma-
tive then these are respectively overlapping and/or exclusive concepts. If the answer is dif-
ferent, these are inclusive concepts with an asymmetric relation. 16 Exclusive and inclusive concepts
An irritating concept confusion exists when one places non-equivalent categories of different
abstraction level against each other such as ‘man and society’ or ‘man and the environment’
and then also includes this in a schedule, which conceals more than it clarifies. A good exam-
ple of this is Udo de Haes’b environmental definition, however, almost every scientist was an
accessory to this.
However the technical environmental professors (Duijvestein, De Jong and Schmidt) 17 Environment according to Udo de Haes
present a ‘technical definition’.c After all, one cannot imagine a society without an environ-
ment, but one can imagine an environment without people. The first schedule is, therefore,
misleading from a technical point of view. Maybe this definition difference is typical for a
contrast in language games between empiricists and designers, the way in which they reduce
reality. The example puts the problems of the relations between concepts up for discussion.
The second representation implies an actual asymmetry in the relationship between man and
the environment, lacking in the first representation.
Does defining consist of making connections with other concepts? Are concepts there-
fore nothing more than a summary of potential connections (valencies) with the rest, their
context? Is a property something different from a relation, an action that shows the feature? 18 Environment in technical sense
What name should we give to such actions? Does the naming of actions form another sort of
concept than the naming of objects? It is quite similar to the physics argument: whether light
is a wave- (action-) phenomenon versus is light a particle- (object-) phenomenon.
a Jong, T.M. de (1998) Sustaining design.

b Boersma, J.J., J.W. Copius Peereboom et al. (1984) Basis-
boek Milieu.
c Jong, T.M. de (1997) Inleiding technische ecologie en
milieuplanning.

4.6 NAMING TRANSFORMATIONS: INSTRUMENTS OF CONCEPT FORMATION
Figure 19 shows a reference plot division0 with 48 houses on one hectare with an operation
O1..3 transformed into another plot division1..3 with the same number of houses per hectare
(ceteris paribusa ).
All representations (images, nouns, adjectives and verbs) in this figure are concepts,
abstract representations. They represent a collection of examples in reality (extension of the
concept) and do not form the image of one specific situation. The square images are plot
divisions: possible layout distribution of built-on space and a few categories of open spaces
with mutual bearing. The open space is split into public landscaped areas and private grounds
(light and dark grey) and public road space (white). They maintain a bearing upon each other
within the plot divisions in the sense that if the built-on area (independently) varies, then the
open space will also (dependently) vary. It can also be said that: open space y is influenced
by, or an action of, built-on space x: y(x) open space(built-on space). The expression y(x) is
called a sentence function. As soon as this connection is operational then the concept has
19 Three transformations on one reference become a function: y=f(x), composed of operations between variables (see paragraph 24.19).
A Mathematical operationalisation would be: open space = total space – built on space. How-
ever, there are innumerable qualitative design-operationalisations (transformations) possible
within this quantitive rule.
From the diagram with the plot division transformations the operation of lengthwise
joint construction, can be read on a reference: long blocks(plot division). Such a notation
object(subject) where the brackets mean ‘as operation of’, is also a full-sentence function
that has become independent.b The operation is dependent on the way in which one builds
adjacently: in the length, the width or the height of the building block. The function can be
used as key-word for the drawings specified by transformations.
The noun ‘plot division’ and its depiction are comprising here this way the constituent
legend units c (constituent concepts) and (spatial) connections between the legend units. In
the word ‘plot description’ this stays implicit, in the picture it is explicit. Focus can change
by alternative grouping if ‘private space’ is a legend unit composed of built-up area and gar-
dens. The meaning of ‘plot-division’ changes accordingly, perhaps better named by ‘parcel-
ling’.
The verb (evoked in the circles) pre-supposes an imaginary connection within time
between the plot divisions mutually: first, the reference, then the operation and then the re-
sult. If one is opting for a different reference (for instance neighbourhoods rather than houses),
the same operations would have a different result. This connection can more generally be
described as ‘plot division’ as operation of a reference: plot division(reference).d
The adjectives give one property of the plot division, or actually of the built part of it
(pars pro totoe ). However the concept ‘plot division’ is a set of properties; most of them lack
verbal equivalents. A property can be described as an operation. Zoning is an operation of the
plot division: resulting in a property zoned(plot division(reference)). If a property serves the
identifying of a depiction, this property is termed an attribute.
In figure 20 operations are visualised using the same reference plot division, however these
can not be reproduced using just an existing verb. However, naming the transformation by a
sentence function result (origin) could be efficient for retrieval.
20 Transformations difficult to name
Design operation4 could be called ‘compact building’ or ‘concentration’ in three di-
mensions (length, height, and depth) on a scale level of one quarter of a hectare. This results
a Latin for: ‘other things being equal’.
b In logic it is usage to place in this notation (full-sentence
in urban villas measuring 15x15x15m. On a scale level of the hectare as a whole, however,
function) the operations (the verbs) outside the brackets. In the concentration (ceteris paribus) would accommodate one building measuring 24x24x24m.
order to be able to retrieve drawings with such full-sen-
tence functions, it would be better to place the result (the So, the term ‘concentration’ is a scale sensitive transformation
object) outside the brackets. Operation5 is a form of concentration in length. The result being a narrow and deep
c The legends for a drawing may be regarded as its vocabu-
lary. dwelling when using an equally sized plot division surface (ceteris paribus). This has a number
d Between the result and the reference no space is written.
e Latin for ‘part for the whole’. of effects upon the open space and its technical facilities.

Operation8 results in southerly directed strip plot divisions, therefore, enabling all of
the houses to be orientated towards the sun and, therefore, can also be internally zoned for
warm and cold rooms. This operation is difficult to describe using a verb; this is why it is
visualised with the aim of this operation (zoning), which requires a reference point outside
the plot division (the sun, the south).
The adaptations of the plot divisions are mainly geared towards the built-on space, but at the
same time they also have a spatial effect, which is difficult to define, on the public landscaped
areas, paving and the open private space. The result is known as an effect on the built-on
space, but the result of the adaptation is much broader.
In architectonic and urban development, designing always contains an intervention in
an existing situation, focusing on specific effects. When one is in the position to name these
interventions as design operations (transformations), then one can summarise many patterns
as result of a few transformations on every reference. The concept ‘concentration’ is an
example, if one specifies this concept per scale level and direction.
4.7 CONDITIONAL POSITIONING OF CONCEPTS

What is called ‘assumption’ in our imaginative capacity is, in reality, a ‘pre-condition’. If I
am driving a car, I assume that there is petrol in the tank. This is also a pre-condition to ac-
tually being able to drive. If something does not ‘work’, then one of the conditions for its
working is lacking, in this example the petrol. Such a pre-condition is a ‘cause of failure’, the
‘cause’ of a non-event that one had indeed expected (assumed). Yet, the classical notion of
‘cause’ does involve an ‘occurring event’, even though one does not expect it (for example,
the cause of a fire). With the concept of ‘cause’, then, one is actively thinking about an event
that has come before and that caused perceived consequences (active cause).
All these causes are a condition for something to happen, but not all conditions are also 21 Not every condition is a cause, but every
cause is a condition for something to happen
causes.
There are many more conditions than there are causes. Petrol, for example, is not the only
pre-condition necessary to be able to drive a car. There also have to be pipes that supply the
petrol to the engine, there must be an engine, and this engine must be able to transfer its ca-
pacity to the wheels. And, indeed, the car must have these wheels. The design of the car is
actually the collection of pre-conditions needed for one to be able to talk about a car. These
are object pre-conditions, but there are also a basically infinite number of context pre-condi-
tions. I cannot drive a car if I am sick, if there are no cars or roads for me to drive upon, or
if someone prevents me from doing so for whatever reason. Thus, the context is a collection 22 Any probable event is per definition possible,
of pre-conditions for the architectural object. but there are improbable possibilities
Studying the context and object pre-conditions does not result exclusively from the linear
logic of causal thinking. Under certain conditions, something can happen, or in the case of a
certain cause it probably will happen. Conditional logical does not always unlock the prob-
able, but it does unlock the possible.
This logic fits in with study by design. Just as there are chains of cause and effect,
there are also pre-conditional chains by which, under certain circumstances, patterns and
processes are not so much predictable, but rather imaginable. This imaginability is introspec-
tively verifiable using the test, “if I can imagine A without B, but not B without A, then A is the
pre-condition for B”.a We call it ‘conditional analysis’. 23 ‘A not imaginable without B’
Petrol is the pre-condition for a working petrol engine, but a petrol engine is not a pre-condi-
tion for petrol. This is not a case of causality since petrol is not the cause of the working, but
only one of its conditions. A load-bearing structure is the pre-condition for a roof, but a roof a Jong, T.M. de (1992) Kleine methodologie voor ontwerpend
onderzoek. Here, quite a few concepts from design and re-
is not a pre-condition fort a load-bearing structure. Thus, one can pre-conditionally position search are compared by conditional analyses.

design elements in regard to one another. Aspects of the context can be studied as pre-con-
ditions for parts of the design. Design study and study by design considers variations in pre-
conditions. Within the design process, results from certain design phases are pre-conditions
for a continuing of the design.
Mutual conditional positioning of concepts shows the very possibility of definition itself. One
can not define a concept in terms that pre-suppose the concept itself. Whether the concept to
define is contained in the defining terms or not is brought into light by conditional analysis.
24 Terms A pre-supposed in a definition of B
The conditional analysis goes:

1 “Could you imagine terms A without B?”
2 “Yes.”
3 “Could you imagine B without terms A?”
4 “No.”
5 “Then terms A are pre-supposed by B.”
B could be defined using terms A.
Conditional analysis can help positioning terms for defining abstract and vague concepts. A
useful example is given in figure 266 ‘From possibility to norm’. In the next sections of this
book crucial concepts in describing design processes could be positioned like in figure 25.
However, in this figure the focus is on imagination of not yet existing objects produced in a
design process. It is a designer’s focus defining a model in terms of design. An empirical
scientist perhaps pre-supposes a reality without which s(he) can not imagine models. S(he)
will position the terms the reverse and define a design in terms of a model. To understand
differences in focus one should enter a higher level of philosophical abstraction of discussing
such differences on itself. In Chapter 44 (see page 413) we will discuss them in the perspec-
tive of idealism and materialism.
4.8 CONCLUSION
In this Chapter we tried to discuss naming concepts and components in a conditional way. It
started with focus as pre-condition of choosing components, frame and grain, getting grip
on context, unraveling overlaps, naming transformations and conditionality in technical de-
sign and in defining concepts. So the sequence supposes conditionality on a higher level of
abstraction than the subjects discussed, the level of the discussion itself. Should we start on
that level of discussing discussions with conditionality and end with focus? That kind of fo-
25 Stairs of imagination cus perhaps goes beyond imagination. Anyway, the Bible starts with naming.

5 RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE TAEKE DE JONG
THEO VAN DER VOORDT
Knowledge from study may be transferred in different ways: in words and images, via lec- 5.1 References 43
tures and exhibitions, in the form of articles or books; and electronically. 5.2 Register of Key-words 45
5.3 Image search on Internet 49
For the time being, the form used most frequently is written publication in text and 5.4 Referees 52
illustration. However publishing on CD-ROM and the Internet are witnessing rapid develop-
ment. Maybe this is going to have important consequences for the way in which people are
searching for information. In this contribution we discuss some points needing attention for
optimal accessibility of knowledge from study and suitably dealing with the sources used.
We refer to handbooks for the conventional playing rules of reporting in writing such as clear
and interest evoking titles of chapters and paragraphs, clear structure and table of contents,
avoiding unnecessary jargon, a clear summary and their like.a,b The emphasis in this Chapter
is on adequate pointers to references and the use of key-words.
Before embarking, first, something about the way to stimulate potential readers to take
notice of the information. It starts already with the cover and the titlepage. These give a first
impression of what is waiting for the potential reader. With this author, text or images present
themselves. One glance should make clear what the subject is; although it is sometimes at-
tractive to confuse the reader. Starting from cover and title page, the reference data (copy-
right notice, year of publication, ISBN number, place of issue and publisher), table of con-
tents, foreword (written by a recommending outsider or referee) and introduction, the reader
is introduced from his own world into the world of the author. The author and those respon-
sible for the lay-out should picture themselves in this process and shape the publication from
the vantage point of potential readers (the target audience), their questions, their pre-suppo-
sitions, or lack thereof.
Possible pre-suppositions of the reader should be supplemented or corrected. With this
it is prevented that potential readers are thinking after a while “What the hell is this?” A clear
text on the back cover, an index of key-words, a list of references and a sensible use of foot-
notes and final-notes are important conditions as well in order to achieve a publication that
invites reading.
5.1 REFERENCES
Reference to texts, illustrations or electronic publications is an important condition for the
possibility of judging a publication. To the reader it is an indication of the degree to which the
discourse of the author is supported by insight from other sources, or checked against them.
Referencing employs key-words. The name of the authors and year of publication are the
most important ones. With these two data: for instance (Jong, de and Van der Voordt, 2002)
the text of a publication usually refers to a list of literature or a reference list in the final part
of the publication: it is a citation. At that spot more key-words per publication should be pro-
vided in order to enable the reader locating it in a library or ordering it in a bookshop. For
architecture, images and electronic publications are greatly important, so that ‘References’
should rather be used as a term than ‘Literature’. This chapter is usually not numbered along
with the chapters of content, although just on conventional, not rational grounds.
List of references
The place of issue, the name of the publisher, the ISBN number and possibly the web address
(URL) are important key-words in order to find the publication. If these have been left out in
a Elling, R.B., B. Andeweg et al. (1994) Rapportagetechniek.
the referral data or in the list of references, the potential reader is de-motivated to look for the Schrijven voor lezers met weinig tijd. Tips and tools for writ-
publication and consult it himself. When one, for instance, wants to point at this article (Jong, ing reports, feasability studies, procedures and so on, par-
ticularly focussing on technical and business administra-
T.M. de and D.J.M. van der Voordt, 2002) this can be done by including in the reference list tion education.
b Blokzijl, W.J. (2001) Schriftelijk rapporteren voor
the following data: bouwkunde.
RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 43

Book section:
Jong, T.M. de and D.J.M van der Voordt (2002) Retrieval and Reference in: Jong, T.M. de
and D.J.M. van der Voordt; eds. (2002) Ways to study and research urban, architectural and
technical design (Delft) Delft University Press.
Edited book:
Jong, T.M. de and D.J.M. van der Voordt; eds. (2002) Ways to study and research urban,
architectural and technical design (Delft) Delft University Press.
Time and place have here been bracketed and are separating in this way clearly authors, title
and publisher. This reference has been made with the computer programme Endnote. This
database programme is popular in academic circles and used in Maastricht, Rotterdam and
other places. It is plugged in in the word processor, and is maintaining all references, pre-
serves them for future publications, provides access to the literature databases on the Internet
and edits them according to any desired lay-out (different for each author or publisher) of the
reference list in the document processed.
Making a personal database

The present list of reference was made first in Excel, and then exporteda to Endnote. It is
recommended to start a personal list of books and articles, read or consulted, from the start
of a study and to maintain it, keeping it up-to-date. It does not only serve recollection of what
has been read; it is also lowering the threshold of referring to others when reporting. In Excel
the list looks as showed in the enclosed table.
Per publication (row) 30 data may be stored, e.g. number of pages, ISBN-number,
abstract, key-words, notes and so on. They need not all to be taken up into the list of litera-
ture of a book or article to make the reader find the publication. They are of especially good
service in electronic retrieval, if they have been filled in correctly. It is not always necessary
to fill in all columns. However, it is important that this possibility remains open. It may also be
used collectively. b Some staff members of the Faculty of Architecture of TUD ordering a
book are supplying key-words with which the content of the book may be characterised
according to him. These are added to the list, with the name of this reviewer and are made
available to students of certain modules of the curriculum. If they find a title, they may ask
the staff member with this title on his shelves: ‘Is this a publication answering my question?’
Filling in a list like this requires following some conventions in order to come to a con-
sistent list of literature, so that a computer programme can do its work later. Names of the
authors or editors that wrote or edited a publication should be separated from one another by
a semicolon (;). One mentions first the surname of the author, without prefixes (like ‘Van
der’) and after a comma (,) the Christian names or initials with prefixes (see the example
given).
Different reference types

The first row of the preceding list contains standard fieldnames a computer programme can
26 Conventions of reference according to recognise. In database jargon each next row is a record (a document card in a box) with 30
Endnote fields (data on each card).c The first field is each time the reference type (a book, book sec-
tion, edited book, article in a magazine, conference proceeding, etc.) In the example two ref-
a Excel files may be translated in text-files (.txt) with tabs and erence types have been used. In the first row (record) the first field reads ‘Book Section’.
may be ‘imported’ along these lines to practically all data-
base programmes. Endnote only needs adding one line
This is an article in a book with articles by different authors, put together by editors (listed
with the word ‘Generic’ at the start of such a textual file. under ‘Secondary Author’). In the second row an ‘Edited Book’ is listed. Herein the editors
b On the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Tech-
nology such a list of some 1300 titles used in education are included as ‘Author’. In the literature list they can be recognised as editors by the added
(also in the first years) is available; occasionally with as ‘ed.’. A computer programme such as Endnote adds this automatically to an Edited Book, but
many as 100 ‘key-words’ per title.
c In a database stored as a textual file (.txt) the fields are usu- not to a reference type ‘Book’. This type has just one author, unless his book is part of a
ally separated with tabs, while each record starts on a new
line. series with series’ editor. In that case this editor is mentioned in the column ‘Secondary Au-

thor’. If an Edited Book is part of a series with a series’ editor, he is mentioned in a field
‘Tertiary Author’.
Endnote can distinguish sixteen reference types with their own lay-out requirements:
Journal Article, Book, Book Section, Edited Book, Magazine Article, Newspaper Article, Con-
ference Proceedings, Thesis, Personal Communication, Computer Programme, Report, Map,
Audiovisual Material, Artwork, Patent and Electronic Source. Also to those who do not use
Endnote, it is important to be aware of these differences. Each reference type uses in a dif-
ferent way the available fields. This way, in the case of Conference Proceedings the name of
the conference is mentioned in the field ‘Secondary Title’ and the venue in the field ‘Place
Published’. Each publisher has his own conventions for making the literature list. A consider-
able number of these lay-out conventions is digitally available in Endnote and on the Internet.
Article and publication

A published book also mentions an ISBN number: a sequence of 10 digits ordered in 4 groups.
The publisher (407 is Delft University Press) and his language (90 is Dutch) may be derived
from it. If the ISBN number starts with a 0 or 1, it is an Anglo-American publisher (3, 4 and
9942 are respectively German, French and Surinam publishers, regardless of the language
they are publishing). The final digit is a control digit. Remaining digits are provided for the
publisher and the numbering given to the publications himself. A programme like Endnote can
not mention ISBN numbers in Book Sections. Therefore, it makes sense to enter the Edited
Book as a whole on its own separately. One must select then between key-words of all sepa-
rate articles. If one is referring to different articles separately, it is superfluous to indicate all
the time the data of the publication in which they appeared; furthermore, the articles may be
found via key-words immediately.
Many key-words
A few key-words per publication is insufficient nowadays. In a library a search for publica-
tions can be carried out using author, title, and a few other reference words. This seldom
produces the content required. Edited Books, sometimes extremely important for students,
are often characterised by a few reference words.
These reference words characterise the whole book, but do not refer to a useful chap-
ter, for anyone especially a lay-person, which summarises the whole field of study. When
carrying out a search in a library, one very quickly chances upon extensive standard books
for this field of study, which as a first point of contact with the subject for a lay-person is too
complex. Architecture does not have an unambiguous nomenclature which in Chemistry, for
example, makes searching pleasurable. This problem is intensified when carrying out a search
for images (Maps, Artwork) that are of significant importance for Architecture. An image
can say more than a thousand words, but which words are these? Very often an image can
portray a tremendous number of concepts in mutual relation (see page 36). It is almost im-
possible to characterise them using singular reference words. A method invented for this is
the Faculty of Architecture’s Interactive Image Archive (IAAI, see page 49), which, in time,
will also enable texts to be retrieved in a more goal-orientated manner. This method is inspired
by formal logic (sentence functions) and the mathematical concept of function a simplified
manner. (See page 40 and 225).
5.2 REGISTER OF KEY-WORDS

The last chapter of a book or its end is ideally a complete alphabetical list of key-words for its
contents (list of key-words, register, index). Although not usual, a register like that would be
quite appropriate for an article as well. Since a register per key-word is pointing to consecu-
tive pages where the key-word is occurring, it is a good author’s habit to give in the case of
a first occurrence of a professional term in the text its most important definition, description
or context. This provides the best possible link to the experiential world of the reader, by

giving first a description and only then (between brackets) the professional term. This may
be done unobtrusively, without cumbersome sentences ‘defining in passing’, for instance:
‘In this series of drawings one sees a process of increasing accumulation of the built en-
vironment (concentration).’
‘Concentration’ is here the key-word to which the index refers. After such a phrasing, this
shorter professional term can be used, since the index is referring the reader directly to the
first page where the term is used. If all is well, the context (built environment), description or
definition (process of increasing accumulation) is given there.
Not sub-dividing list of key-words

By including on a standing basis the index in the final pages of the publication the reader may
intuitively find it at once. State-of-the-art word processors are putting together an index like
that automatically when one marks the words concerned in the publications an index word
and mark the place where the list should be generated. In the present text the marked key-
words are printed with a wide spacing, except in the head-lines. An index is an alphabetical
gate to the publication, the table of contents is a systematic one. Therefore it is not logical to
make in the alphabetical list of key-words a distinction between a ‘register of persons’ and a
‘register of subjects’. This complicates retrieval without necessity. Since the word proces-
sor can assist us in this regard, it is worth the effort to mark author’s names, as well for the
index, even if they have been collected already in the list of references. This allows the reader
to readily return to where he or she has been reading about a given author. An author’s name
can be used as a label for a line of thought. There is a lot to say for including in the index in
addition to key-words and (place) names also crucial adjectives and verbs or words in a dif-
ferent language. These words may be integrated in alphabetical sequence in the index. By the
same token it is superfluous to make, for instance, a separate register of English or Latin
terms. Let it not be forgotten also, to make images retrievable with key-words; so give each
illustration a title with crucial key-words to which the index can point. The word processor
can also produce a separate list of illustrations; useful if provenance has to be acknowledged
in terms of intellectual property and copyright.
Headings
The table of contents with its pagination in the beginning of the book or article gives
systematical entrance to the publication and can contain the central key-words in their con-
text (the headings). This table of contents can be generated in a word processor automati-
cally with any desirable number of levels (chapters, paragraphs, sub-paragraphs), if the chapter
and paragraph titles are head-marked at the right level (heading 1, 2, 3). Do not exceed 3
numbered levels and use logically decreasing letter sizes (like 16, 14 and 12 point). Headings
should assist the reader in navigating through the publication, should arouse curiosity in the
text and represent its content in crucial key-words. In the rules already marked for the table
of contents as a heading, the key-words can not be marked once again for the index. After
the heading one should return to that key-word in the text, in order to be able to mark it for
the index. By starting a paragraph by explaining the heading in different words, legibility is
enhanced; especially desirable when the rule is followed that a heading may never exceed one
line. When the heading is a good rendering of the content, the table of contents is a concise
survey of the proceeding of the discourse. When the table of contents is regarded this way,
the line of discourse may show up in a reversed way.
Combined key-words
Next to author and year of publication the title is the third important key-word allowing re-
trieval of a publication. We talk here deliberately of a ‘key-word’, although the title of a pub-
lication is usually composed of more than one word. In this contribution we recommend key-

words comprising several words, since the number of professional publications has increased
the previous century to such an extent, that just one single word is pointing to too many
publications for convenient retrieval. That is quite clear on the Internet. Just type the word
‘building’ and one is faced by the task of visiting some 30.000.000 sites. Search engines al-
low connecting words to the logical terms ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ or ‘NEAR’. The disadvan-
tage of single key-words is that they can not transfer relations between concepts even with
those tools, while they are the essence of a scientific document. So see to it, that the most
important relations addressed by the publication may be recognised in title and headings and
possibly in matching illustrations. Two illustrations next to one another may clarify effec-
tively by their differences and similarities what can be hardly expressed in words. For that
purpose poetical means and ambiguous evocative use of language or images is also used.
Although this might be functional, it is loosing its aim if it does not connect to the pre-suppo-
sitions of the potential user.
Choosing key-words
Making a text retrievable begins by marking reference words which touch on the very core
of the matter in question and may be chosen, at some point, when carrying out a search. This
must not be limited to substantive nouns. Names of places, persons, adjectives, verbs and
even dates can often fulfil an excellent rôle when searching for a text or an image. Articles,
conjunctions and prepositions must not be marked, unless these change the meaning of adja-
cently situated words significantly. Imagine that, in the text fragment belowa, the following
reference words have been marked with a marker or by the word processor for the index:
‘If you ask a constructor what a hybrid bearing construction is, then he will reply with
definitions which have nothing to do with the hybrid character of buildings. Because hybrid load
bearing constructions are, according to constructors’ definitions, just load bearing construc-
tions that include different construction systems or various materials.’
This provides the following register (using the sortfunction in the word processor if required)
- Construction systems
- Load bearing constructions
- Hybrid
- Materials
Compiling key-words
The relationships between these concepts can be expressed partially by re-arranging the words
and coupling some groups to one reference word. A classical way of doing this is the hyphen
(-), as used in ‘Zuid-Holland’. The hyphen also keeps the compiled terms together during
electronic selection in an index. This is different with the concept of ‘hybrid load bearing
construction’. These four words must be considered as one concept with its own meaning,
but are separated in the case of alphabetical selection and than loose their meaning.
It is standard practice in the world of computers to replace spaces with an underscore
(_): hybrid_load_bearing_constructions. Due to this, reference words, which are of no use
as searching terms, are not split into three reference words when placed in alphabetical order
or when read by a computer:
- Construction_systems
- Hybrid_load_bearing_constructions
- Materials
The question is, will the term hybrid actually be used in order to search the section stated? If
it is thought that the passage will more readily be sought using the term ‘load bearing’ con-
structions, load_bearing_construction_hybrid can also be used.
a Weeren, K. van (1999) Hybride gebouwen en hybride
draagconstructies.

Syntactic connection
Most relationships, when attempted to be conveyed using a scientific text or an image, are
not relationships within concepts or variables; they actually lie in between. These relation-
ships are seldom symmetrical: there is a primary active variable (independent variable) (x)
and resulting from this a passive (dependent variable) (y), an input and an output, a cause and
a consequence, but also a condition and a possibility created through this, such as insulation
and internal temperature, columns and beams.
Colloquial language almost always establishes such a relationship in the syntax of a
sentence with an active subject, (who or what does what?) a predicate, (what is being done?)
and a passive direct object (who or what undergoes the action?) In formal logic, such a sen-
tence is abbreviated to a sentence function: y(x). See also page 40 and 225 This can be inter-
preted as: y as an action or working of x. This abbreviated representation is suitable for use
as a reference word, when the bracket is used as a special syntactic coupling symbol and all
spaces are omitted: direct object(subject). Van Weeren’s text can therefore be represented as
follows:
load bearing construction(hybrid construction system and material).
The load bearing construction is determined by the hybrid construction system and material,
not the reverse, expressed as:
construction system and material(hybrid loadbearing construction).
This would imply that the construction system and material could have been chosen as a
consequence of hybrid uses of the load bearing construction. If both are to be considered
(inter-action) then both have to be mentioned as a key-word.
‘Nested’ summaries
A representation of A as an action of B as an action of C, A(B(C)), is known as ‘nesting’ in the
world of computer programming. Van Weeren continues his text using an example from the
municipality of Zoetermeer.
‘Hybrid load bearing construction: furniture mall Zoetermeer

The Furniture mall in Zoetermeer can probably be called a hybrid building. The build-
ing is used for three different functions: basement parking, large-scale shopping areas above,
and above this, residential housing. Co-incidentally, here too, hybrid constructions are present,
but they have little to do with the fact that there are different functions in the building. At the
entrance, in one singular detail different construction elements come together: a pre-fabricated
concrete column, a pre-fabricated concrete beam, a steel beam and a steel column with an spe-
cial form, covered by a pre-fabricated floor, which in some areas is extended with concrete floor
segments which were poured on-site.
The fact that steel, on-site poured concrete and pre-fabricated concrete are inter-mingled
with each other has nothing to do with the hybrid character of the building. This is just a con-
sequence of insufficient space below the ceiling. The (cheap!) pre-fabricated concrete construc-
tion system did not generate enough space. Therefore, an on-site change to an integrated steel
beam in the floor was implemented. It was also impossible to realise the required form of floor
finish using (cheap) pre-fabricated concrete; this however was possible using on-site poured con-
crete.
Construction costs are a major factor for the design, especially with projects such as a
furniture mall. This is even more so for the load bearing structure. The floors account for most
of the cost of the load bearing construction. An unbeatable alternative in the area of floors in
this situation is pre-fabricated concrete hollow core slabs. These elements cost Dfl. 70.— per m2
for a span of approx. 7m, which was implemented in this case, with total construction costs of
around Dfl.2000.— per m2. If a form cannot be constructed in one go, with this material (rec-

tangular slabs), then the special segments of the form are created using on-site poured concrete.
This hybrid is cheaper than opting for a total system which could be manufactured in the form
desired.’
This relatively compact text can be summarised using three reference words. The actions
within actions are made explicit using ‘nesting’.
furniture mall(parking, sales area(furniture), housing, entrance(pre-fabricated versus on
site pouring), Zoetermeer)
pre-fabricated(concrete(column, beam, floor(hollow core slabs, costs, steel(girder))
on site poured(floor segment(lack of space(ceiling versus floors), floor finish form), costs)
In the index, the content of this book is retrievable this way.
The syntax of a text

Research proposals can be analysed in this way. Using the reference words of such a text
could be more efficiently and concisely re-written and contextually assessed. It could then
be seen at a glance if too many, too few or too complex (multiple nested) relationships are
made and how operational they are for research (computable, measurable). In the interim
reports, analysed in the same way, new relationships can be involved in the research and oth-
ers removed. One can also train oneself in making notes and making summaries of the read-
ings. In the future intelligent linguistic databases will be created, which can comprehend ‘sum-
maries’ such as these. Besides this, the content of a record could be represented as follows:
Recordname(fieldname1(fieldcontents), fieldname2(fieldcontents)…)
The most important area of application and also the reason to change to syntactically com-
piled key-words is the problem of the retrievabliltiy of images.
5.3 IMAGE SEARCH ON INTERNET

The Internet is the largest image archive in existence. The images are inexpensive, quickly
retrievable from any location, sometimes in motion (animated GIF) and mostly in colour.
Animated gifs are excellent for placing transparencies over a drawing in order to show alter-
nating images: all locations remain at the same place, therefore, no-one has to overcome any
27 Shopping mall in Zoetermeer, under construc-
locational comparability problems. However, internet images are coarse (the screen repre- tion; entrance and construction detail
sentation varies from 72 dots per inch (dpi) to extremely rough images (quick loading thumb-
nails), or they cost too much download time (for high resolution images). The Saariste website,a
for example, gives numerous photos of historical architectural examples per architect. High
quality photos can be ordered via the site. Many architectural offices have a similar websiteb
from which simple images of their work can be downloaded directly from the web (refer to
source and web site!) and used in a word processor or a drawing programme.
These coarse images are only suitable for printing small images. Line drawings with-
out filled-in colour areas are often not very clear. It is possible to obtain drawings as CAD-
files (DXF-format or otherwise) from the web.c This is not a raster file, but a vector file with
an unlimited zoom focus, which can easily be edited personally.
The Architecture Faculty buildingd in Delft, for example, can be obtained from the web
in layers for educational purposes. In order to do this you need a special programme on your
computer (a plug-in). The global map of the Netherlands can also be downloaded in many
layers and in various file formats without using a plug-in.e If you have access to a drawing
a http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/d-arch/agram/
programme such as CAD, Corel Draw or Adobe Illustrator, this can be used to compile vari- b http://www.architectenwerk.nl
http://www.archined.nl, http://www.luna.nl/~xino/
ous layers, colour, cut out details and, if necessary, re-convert into a raster file which can c http://www.greatbuildings.com
then be used in a written report using a word processor. d http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/users/barendse/internet/
onderwijs/bk_dwgf_2d/bk_dwg_2d_frm.htm
e http://www.ai.bk.tudelft.nl/projects/data/top_data.html

Research shows that Internet users become depressed due to the sheer volume. The main
problem of this medium is the search function. The images are poorly documented and there-
fore difficult to retrieve using scientific image properties. Image recognition using colour and
global composition is possible;a image recognition by means of architectural structure is still
in its infancy.b The Interactive Image Archive is dealt with below in order to give insight into
which image characteristics are of primary importance as reference words in order to enable
image retrieval.
Image and image characteristics

The TU Delft’s Faculty of Architecture has developed an Interactive Image Archive (IAAI),
the purpose of which is to store images using scientifical characteristics and in doing this
making the images retrievable for students, graduates and researchers. It comprises a de-
central input programme and a central programme for data processing and output to the
Internet.c In future development the 100 best documented and the 100 most consulted im-
ages will be automatically shown on the Internet site.d
A committee then chooses monthly the scientifically or esthically best for a top ten
which serves as a homepage. When one of these images is clicked upon, an enlarged image
appears with many key-words. These reference words can be clicked on in order to show
the images (small images), which comply with that characteristic. These thumbnails are also
‘clickable’ which shows enlarged images with reference words etc.
Not every image has an equally good provision of reference words. This depends on the in-
dividual effort of suppliers (students and researchers) at the time of input. The input pro-
gramme is for Architecture students (ca. 3000) and staff (ca. 300) and can be downloaded
from the stated website using every computer within the faculty. The image, to be entered
from the computer, is shown and a series of questions is asked, both scientifically relevant as
image characteristics, from construction drawing to regional plan. Not all reference words
are required to be filled in. Student number or log-in name, authors name, frame and grain
(scale) are compulsory, and location, if possible. The date is automatically recorded. The
Faculty of Architecture is considered as the copyright publisher and the place of publication
is Delft. At the end, the opportunity is given to enter free, syntactically compiled reference
words, possibly using simultaneously provided professors’ much used terminology or those
of the Faculty library. The input programme sends the data to a personal server space of 50Mb,
which is allocated to each student and to the central data processor, which continually com-
piles the Internet page.
Scale
One of the most powerful search functions for images in the IAAI is scale. Scale indications
such as ‘1:1000’ are dependent on the paper format when determining what is readable. This
is why for computer images the radius of the ‘frame’ and the ‘grain’ (see also page 210) of
the image replace these usual indications. The radius of the frame means the smallest circle
described (from the series 1,3,10,30…mm, m, or km, see page 37) which the image por-
trayed can contain in every direction or the largest registered circle within the boundaries of
the image. The radius of the grain means the radius of a described circle (in the same series)
that could in reality contain the smallest detail readable from the image. The relationship be-
tween grain and frame determines whether the image concerns a contract drawing (grain/
frame = 0.001), a sketch plan (0.01), or a rough draft (0.1). When choosing grain and/or
frame the search assignment can not only be limited to construction drawings, architectural
or urban development drawings from the archive, but within this, distinctions can be made
a http://disney.ctr.columbia.edu/WebSEEk/ between rough drafts, sketch plans, final designs or contract drawings.
b http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/Informatica/koutamanis/
onderwijs/index.html
c http://ai.bk.tudelft.nl/
d http://ai.bk.tudelft.nl/

Location, concept and perspective
If during the input into the IAAI, geographical co-ordinates or postcodes have been entered,
the location is automatically mapped on the Internet site. A location on the map of the Neth-
erlands can then be clicked on, in the IAAI website. The output programme then shows every
entered project situated at this location. In time this map can be ‘filled’ with three-dimen-
sional CAD drawings, which can be zoomed in upon, into the actual rooms. In this way within
a few years the Netherlands will be virtually transformed by the designers of the 21st century
into a sort of flight simulator scenery.
Some locations are popular for many projects resulting in an overlap of designs in this
landscape. The total image must then be limited to a specific future perspective.a For example,
one may only wish to view designs which are intended for the context of shrinking European
Economy, a steering national government, a traditionally orientated local culture, etc. The input
required for this per image, must place the image in one context (everything which falls outside
the framework and structure) and in a future perspective (see diagram on page 38).
This is not only important for such selections in futuristic spectacular computer applications;
it also has crucial functions for utilisation and supply of an image archive. When nothing is
known about the context and the perspective in which an image has been placed, the external
effects cannot be assessed, it is taken out of context and is mostly of no other use than inspi-
ration. A design may fit in and function in a particular context, and not in another. The image
supplier, usually the designer, is, therefore, requested during the input programme to enter
the intended functional period for the image portrayed (plan horizon) and which perspectives
per scale level it provides as probable future (see page 7).
This awareness appears to have a high educational value and aids systematic creation
of a graduation thesis. If, on the other hand, the user or assessor has totally different per-
spectives regarding the probable future, this does not automatically mean that this will be judged
as a poor assessment, if the designer has explicitly stated his perspectives. In turn, the asses-
sor is challenged, to make future pre-suppositions explicit and to compare this with what the
designer or researcher had in mind outside the design. Subsequently it can be assessed as to
whether the design in various perspectives of various assessors holds its ground or not, therefore
allowing the ‘robustness’ to be determined for various scenarios.
Readability
Various actors in the construction process want to be able to read various effects (environ-
mental, ecological, technical, economical, cultural and administrative) using the design draw-
ing. Images are sought in which these effects are ‘readable’. The majority of effects are only
readable within a specific context and in a well-described perspective.
Only when such questions have been answered, can questions be asked regarding the
effects, which in that specific context and from that perspective can be read from the drawing
or image. In the input programme of the IAAI the diagram on page 38 is used. Which effects
are precisely readable is not asked, but of which nature (environmental, ecological, technical,
economical, cultural, administrative) and scale (1,3,10,30…. mm, m, km) their action is.
Distinction is made between intended and unintended effects. The intended effects are
desired by definition, they contain (if present) the programme. The unintended effects may
be desirable and undesirable. The unintended effects cannot all play a rôle in the designing,
however the image producer can involve them in the accountability of his design in retro-
spect. It is only of a scientific interest to specify by scale and nature in advance, even though a It is requested that within the plan horizon and per scale
they do not yet play a rôle in the designing. The awareness of such effects is important when level the environmental
(concentration<>deconcentration), ecological
choosing participants in the construction process and for references during research. (homogenous<>heteregenous), technical
(combination<>specialisation), economic
(shrinking<>expanding), cultural
(tradition<>experimentally directed) and administrative
(directive<>following) perspectives are specified. They
are noted as syntactically compiled reference words.

5.4 REFEREES
Texts and images get a scientific status when they are actively exposed to the possibly refut-
ing judgement of experts outside the personal circle (referees). This is pre-supposing in any
case that they can be judged; in its turn this is pre-supposing that they can be found again.
With images pretending at any moment a possible future (designs) this potential to be judged
presents a problem that may be partly solved by making the context, perspective and demon-
strable effects on the presented (future) image explicit. The designer should actively start
searching critical referees. One who is not interested in criticism and critique is not fit for
scholarship. To the student this is the teacher or researcher recognised as a judge for a cer-
tain professional area by his appointment; possibly within the Faculty itself. For the univer-
sity researcher this is someone outside his own university. Up to now editorial boards of highly
regarded journal or publishers are catering for such a judgement (peer review). With the rise
of the Internet, Internet-‘journals’ are coming into being, only to be distinguished from nor-
mal web-sites by organised peer review.
A publication with scholarly ambitions can be recognised by the circumstance that the
referees can be traced. For referees it is vital that all aspects of a study: texts, images, refer-
ences (which is not the same as referees) can be retrieved.

6 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH WENDELIEN LANS
THEO VAN DER VOORDT
A lot of knowledge is needed for a good design; one that is functional, affordable, with 6.1 Characteristics of descriptive research 53
architectonic interest etc. The same applies to a wealth of other activities within the architec- 6.2 Methodological choices 54
6.3 Methodological points of attention 54
tural discipline; as there are policy development, spatial planning, formulating programmes of 6.4 Examples of descriptive research 55
requirement, building and maintenance. Knowledge may contribute to well-considered and 6.5 Conclusion 60
well-founded decisions. A methodological way to collect knowledge is the precise descrip-
tion of reality. The subject of description can relate to facts and wishes, to people and mate-
rial objects, to plans and realised buildings. Examples are charting the housing preferences of
potential inhabitants of VINEX-locations a , a careful description of a building,b or plan
documentations.c
A lot of insight may also be derived from detailed description of processes; as there
are the thinking process of a designer or the decision making process concerning large projects
in infrastructure. Two questions are of prime importance: ‘What is going on?’ and ‘How is it
going?’d The results may be presented as texts, drawings, tables, graphs, statistical notions
(mean, spread), maps like the one of a city or a function chart, web-sites and databases. The
description may be focused on individual variables and on relations between variables. Sup-
pose, that local authorities want to know the opinion of the community on different designs
resulting from a prize contest. Then it could be interesting to find out whether the prefer-
ences are differing per age category, or that ‘laymen’ and professionals are differing in pref-
erence.
In the present contribution we are describing firstly some characteristics of descrip-
tive research. Next, we present examples of descriptive research and show how results can
contribute to development of the architectural discipline. We conclude with recommenda-
tions.
6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

It is characteristic for descriptive research that it is restricted to factual registration and that
there is no quest for an explanation why reality is showing itself this way. In principle, de-
scriptive research is not aiming at forming hypotheses or development of theory. Another
characteristic of descriptive research is objectivity or neutrality. Descriptive research is about
describing how reality is. In this regard descriptive research differs from prescriptive research
that is primarily concerned with the question how the reality should be. Descriptive research
is making inventories; prescriptive research is normative.
With descriptive research in its purest form explaining and evaluating is left to the reader or
to other disciplines. This applies for instance to the statistical surveys of Statistics Nether-
lands (CBS). Disciplines like geography (description of the earth) and social geography (de-
scription of the spatial aspects of social phenomena) are largely based on descriptions of re-
ality. However, in practice there is a gliding scale from pure description to analysis, interpre-
tation and evaluation. The same applies for the dimension objective <> subjective. Analysis
and interpretation of the data are seldom completely objective. As a consequence, a biogra-
phy (description of a life), or a plan documentation, is always partly, or even strongly col- a See e.g. Wassenberg, F.A.G., H.M. Kruythoff et al. (1994)
Woonwensen en realisatie van VINEX-locaties in de Rand-
oured by the selective perception of the author. stad. Priemus, H., F.A.G. Wassenberg et al. (1995) Mozaïek
woningmarkt stadsregio Rotterdam.
b See e.g. Tettero, W. (1991) Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en
When a study is explicitly focused on looking for explanation or on formulating a hypothesis Werkgelegenheid.
c See e.g. the collections of building plans of Risselada et al
or theory, we talk about ‘exploring study’ or ‘study(explorative)’. Explorative study starts and Barbieri et al, that are discussed in subsection four of
without clear preliminary ideas, at best with vague suspicions, looking for linkages and con- this Chapter.
d Baarda, D.B. and M.P.M. de Goede (2001) Basisboek
cluding with a careful explanation for what is found. In the case of testing study there is methoden en technieken. See also Bechtel, R., R. Marans
et al. (1987) Methods in environmental and behavioural re-
already in advance a coherent body of statements on reality (hypotheses). Next, whether the search.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 53
theory is supported by observations in reality is checked by study. That type of study is try-
ing to provide more certainty as to the correctness of the hypotheses. When the results of
study are providing more and more support for the hypotheses (in the jargon: confirmation of
the hypotheses), the confidence in the theory is increasing. The tripod descriptive – explora-
tive – testing is closely related to the empirical cycle as described in the classical monograph
‘Methodology’ by A.D. de Groot.a Descriptive study and research is predominantly orienting
on the observation stage, explorative study on the induction stage, testing study on the stage
of deduction and testing.
6.2 METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES

The approach of descriptive research can vary greatly. Usually a choice must be made, given
the limited means of study, between research aiming for study in width (a limited number of
data on a lot of objects) and study in depth (for instance thorough description of one single
case). The advantage of a case study (casuistry) is that it allows deeper penetration into the
core of the matter. The corresponding disadvantage is that it is often difficult to generalise on
the basis of one single case and to draw general conclusions.b
A second methodological choice is related to systematics. A lot of descriptive research is try-

ing to describe reality according to a systematic approach rigorously followed. Usually it is
based on theoretical considerations and is dependent on the objective of the study as well.
Our own study of the decision making surrounding a pilot project in office innovation made
use, for instance, of the study scheme presented here.c It was endeavoured to get, per stage,
a picture of the agents concerned, their tasks and commissions, (changes in) objectives etc.
In contrast, the phenomenological approach is refraining from a systematic approach on
purpose. One wants to get into the heart of the matter and is trying to let the data speak for
itself as much as is possible. It is only afterwards that an ordering is made on the basis of the
findings. The phenomenological approach is particularly suitable for explorative study, when
it is of prime importance to develop new ideas and insights. The emphasis is then not so much
on generalising, but on generating knowledge and on building hypotheses.
When one does not look with a certain distance (‘from outside’) at phenomena, but
via introspection (‘looking within’) a significant degree of subjectivity may well result; par-
ticularly when the introspection of the student himself is concerned and not the introspection
Initiative Prepa- D e si - Con- Use and
of his respondents. This need not present a difficulty; as long as the material is primarily used
ration gn struc- mainten- for building hypotheses and the student is open to objective checking by other people or ob-
tion ance
Players and jects.
responsibilities
Objectives
Activitities A third methodological choice is the one between quantitative study and qualitative study. A
Aimed result
Time schedule
The cells include a study of demographic developments or a description of the stock of homes according to certain
description of the items
Time actually spent per phase characteristics is suitable for a quantitative approach. Advantageous in a quantitative approach
Costs
Information is the possibility of analysing data statistically with the assistance of advanced software like
and tools
Positive and nega-
Excel and SPSS.d Vast quantities of data may be summarised succinctly in central magnitudes
tive experience such as ‘mean’ and ‘spread’ (see page 219) and in graphs and tables. Another advantage is
28 Possible framework for a systematic descrip- the high degree of objectivity. However, not all phenomena can be expressed in numbers
tion of a plan process (‘imponderabilia’). A description and analysis of the oeuvre of an architect is calling for a
more qualitative approach. For a practical guidebook for the approach of qualitative study we
a Groot, A.D. de (1961) Methodologie: grondslagen van refer to Baarda et al.e
onderzoek en denken in de gedragswetenschappen. Eng-
lish edition: (1969) Methodology: foundations of interfer-
ence and research in the behavioural sciences. 6.3 METHODOLOGICAL POINTS OF ATTENTION
b Swanborn, P.G. (1996) Case-study’s: wat, wanneer en hoe?
c Voordt, D.J.M. van der (1999) Universitair Vastgoed: de A description of an object or process is realised from a specific context or perspective. By
leer- en werkomgeving. the same token, every description is in a certain sense subjective. This applies to the choice
d Ronden, J. den and W. van Nieuwenhuysen (1996) Hand-
boek SPSS voor windows. of aspects to be described as well as for operationalisation (the way of ‘measuring’, see also
e Baarda, D.B., M.P.M. de Goede et al. (2001) Basisboek
kwalitatief onderzoek. page 92) and interpretation of the results. By making the context or line of approach explicit

the results of descriptive study can be better judged as to their value. Checking them against
the judgement of others increases reliability and objectivity. In this context the term ‘inter-
subjectivity’ is often applied.
In addition, it is important to define concepts used clearly; this precludes interpretation
problems. A topic of attention is the change in meaning of a concept in the due course of
time. This may cause that results from study from different historical periods are difficult to
compare. Striking examples are the standard company classification with which CBS is de-
scribing industrial development, the legends of maps and borders between municipalities. When
these are changing over the years a calculation factor is needed in order to make them com-
parable. A related point of attention is the size of the grain of the measurements and the units
used for measuring. Is utilisation of space described per postal code, per municipality, or per
sub-municipality? Are the project costs of a plan description referring to the costs of invest-
ment or to the costs of construction? Is the scale of the graph a multiple of ten, or of hun-
dred? Which operations on the data (adding, calculating a mean or ratios) are permitted? Are
we dealing with data on individual people or objects, like year of construction or its state, or
with aggregated data, like the average year of construction for a range of buildings? These
are important questions to ask, not only while defining and measuring variables, but also while
being informed on results of study by other parties. Subconsciously – or maybe even con-
sciously – the presentation of data may give a distorted picture of reality. A booklet such as
‘How to lie with statistics’ speaks in this regard for itself.a
6.4 EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research is often used in the Faculty of Architecture as well as outside it. It partly
concerns study linked to individual projects and direct application, with the aim of being able
to solve the design task: think of a description of urban characteristics of a building location
or an inventory of the number of parking lots in the direct environment. However, in these
cases rather finding out and registration than study proper is called for. The examples we will
be discussing have been chosen on the basis of sufficient depth, methodological approach
and the intention of contributing to the body of knowledge of the architectural discipline. Two
examples relate to a project description; in the present case objects from the built environ-
ment. The other two examples concern descriptive study of an individual thought process
and a collective decision making process.
a. Phenomenological studies
An example of a phenomenological approach is the introspective study of Van Lennep of the
hotel room.b In it, the author is in search of the essence of inhabiting a room. For that pur-
pose he analyses what it is that makes a room a ‘room of one’s own’; and why it is possible
to feel at home – after a while – even in a hotel room. On the hotel room:
I have paid for it. In that sense it is ‘my’ room, but in no other respect. Just hours before,
it was someone else’s room. His traces have been wiped out with care. The hotel room is for eve-
ryone, so it belongs to no one. Even if I do not approve of the engravings on the wall that does
not disturb me, for it is not my room after all. While unpacking, the room is already belonging
more to me. If I have slept in it and return in the evening, the feeling increases. The hotel room
does not only give me the experience of inhabiting in an original form, it is teaching me a form
of existence that I hardly know at home; or not at all. I do not have any obligation. My activi-
ties are having a freedom, a being loose from everything that I do not know in this form at home.
The hotel room is still indicating something of the adventure, a new task, after which one goes
home contentedly. Dirty hotel rooms or with shoddy furniture do not evoke the sense of feeling
at home. If a hotel room is too expensive, the same is true.
a Huff, D (1954) How to lie with statistics.
A second example is the PhD. thesis of Pennartz.c The subject of the study is the significance b Lennep, D.J. van (1956) De hotelkamer.
c Pennartz, P.J.J. (1979) Mensen en ruimte, een studie naar
of space and spaciousness for the social conduct of people. The author describes three em- de sociale betekenis van de gebouwde omgeving.
pirical studies, one quantitative and two qualitative. The study is aiming at building a theory
on the influence and experiencing of the built environment with regard to habitation. Theories
and concepts from the social sciences are those predominantly used. Space and time are seen
as framework for human activity. By way of an analysis of the relation between spatial char-
acteristics of the home, characteristics of its inhabitants and the interest they are taking in
privacy (studied via a written questionnaire) the aspects have been formulated influencing
most strongly the wishes and appreciation with regard to privacy in the home. It is shown
that the importance people associate with privacy is hardly dependent on spatial characteris-
tics of the situation in the home; if at all. However, as a part of human behaviour, privacy is
influenced by it, especially in the case of children. In addition, privacy proves to be an impor-
tant aspect of valuing the home.
For the qualitative part of the study 25 families were interviewed on feeling at home, the func-
tions of the different rooms in it and cosiness at home. The talks have been recorded and
typed out. On the basis of a content analysis items have been selected for further working
out; like ‘knowing one’s way around everywhere’, ‘having control over your own time’, or
‘the meaning of the place of the space’. Per item, texts were collected from the interviews
and summarised. In this the original data has been maintained as long as possible in its con-
text intact, receiving minimal interpretation. Finally ‘constant structures’ have been distilled
from this. For situations within which people are feeling at home this is, for instance, “being
free from social control, not needing to respond to certain expectations of others and being
able to withdraw from observation by others”, and also “being significant to others, getting
assistance from them and giving it to them, belonging to them”. The structures have been
largely formulated in terms of relationships with other persons. Spatial characteristics have
been made hardly explicit, while these are in fact the conditions determining to what extent
certain human activity can take place. For the theme ‘cosiness’ spatial characteristics were
more explicitly taken into account.
By inquiry in time and place, or when and where the home is at its cosiest, data was collected
on the significance of the place of activity, the structure and size of the space. All this is illus-
trated on the basis of parts of the interviews. Closure of spaces, the possibility to partake in
collective activity and to observe one another determine largely whether a space is experi-
enced as being cosy. In this, size and shape are important factors. Work and great emphasis
on efficient facilities are lowering cosiness. Next to spatial characteristics, the characteris-
tics of the activities are influencing the experience of cosiness as well. Taking pleasure in
activity, beyond obligation and absence of boredom are enlarging the feeling of cosiness.
Pennartz relates his findings to future developments in the area of work and leisure time and
the significance the home is going to have in the future.
Comment
Both studies are providing a deeper insight in – at first sight – very common phenomena.
However the conclusions are very global and have been translated hardly in spatial implica-
tions: that is largely left to the policy makers and the designers themselves. Often the thread
is picked up by different studies, like the one by Marja van der Werf focussing on inhabitant
preferences and usage quality.a On the basis of studies by others – Pennartz among them –
she is providing realistic guidelines for a usage-orientated home. Another example is given by
Franceline de Jong.b She ordered the results from a large number of habitation preference
studies per part of the home; on this basis she put forward a theory on the relation between
inhabitant characteristics and habitation preferences.
One disadvantage of the phenomenological approach is its labour-intensity and the risk
a Werf, F. van der (1993) Open ontwerpen. of a lack of balance between a lot of material and few conclusions ready for application. Per-
b Jong, F. de (1997) Woonvoorkeurenonderzoek: theorie,
empirie en relevantie voor de praktijk.
haps this is the reason that the phenomenological approach is not often applied in the environ-

ment of the designer’s discipline. Usually the wishes and preferences for habitation are en-
quired into as directly and concretely as possible.a A descriptive study by Wassenberg et al.,
for instance, is addressing the question what should be built on VINEX locations and for whom.
Attention is also given to policy and boundary conditions. Use has been made of study of the
literature, discussions with parties in the market and a poll among those who are considering
to move to a VINEX home. The pre-suppositions of the market parties prove to differ from
the results of the poll in several respects. This underlines the usefulness of empirical study.
Building in high densities will not be accepted by many consumers. For most of the candi-
dates high-rise apartment buildings are not a good solution. Particularly people who intend to
move to a suburb want a garden. Its absence can only be compensated for by an extra high
quality of the immediate surroundings (water, exceptional quality of greenery). Parking ga-
rages are not appreciated. The most important requirement is a lot of space within the home.
Consequently, less surface space is not a good solution for building in high densities.
b. Architectonic studies
Between 1985 and 1991 the Faculty of Architecture TUD produced seven ‘Architectonic Stud-
ies’, edited by Leen van Duin et al.b It was tried, on the basis of plan analyses and interviews
with designers, to get better insight into the objectives and design methods of architects. The
series is a next step following four notebooks in the education module ‘Architectonic Design-
ing’ (1981–1984). Around the change of the millennium a book was published on hundred
years of Dutch architecture 1901-2000’.c In it, a large number of plan discussions was col-
lected once again. In the plan analyses, intensive use is made of a systematic thematic four-
fold structure: 1) effectiveness, 2) intention (programmatic analysis, focused on functional-
ity), 3) material form and, 4) image. This ordering is derived from an article by P. Frankl
dating from 1914.d The interviews with the designers are following the design process be-
tween the commission and the final design.
In contrast to architectonic studies, the collections of building plans of large and industrial-
ised housing projects, libraries, homes and theatres restrict themselves largely to description
of the plans.e In the preface to the ‘Collections of building plans: libraries’ Barbieri states
that this collection intends to offer students the wherewithal needed for formulating and then
solving the problem of the ‘construction’ of the architectonic design of a specific building
type. The book is meant to be an educational instrument for architectonic designing. It is pre-
supposing a methodology and apparatus of epistemological means and techniques. Point of
departure is that a design, following selection and combination of a sequence of parts and
elements, can be constructed into an architectonic whole. The collections of building plans is
providing the ingredients for this, by describing for an array of libraries a number of func-
tional, constructive and formal aspects. Criteria for the selection of the plans are lacking. In
the ‘Collections of building plans for the basis’ however – with photographs, blue-prints,
cross-sections and details of forty homes – it is indicated which aspects are the basis for
selecting the plans; for instance type of home, floor plan, type of articulation. By making this
visible the plans become better legible and comparable. In addition the introduction is provid-
ing a number of questions, clustered in themes like technique, process, environment, type,
a See Kempen, R., H. Floor et al. (1994) Wonen op maat.
situation and programme. These questions establish a handy utensil to study the plans sys- Wassenberg, F.A.G., H.M. Kruythoff et al. (1994) Woon-
tematically. wensen en realisatie van VINEX-locaties in de Randstad.
b Duin, L. van (1985-1991) Architectonische studies 1-7.
c Barbieri, S.U. and L. van Duin (1999) Honderd jaar archi-
tectuur in Nederland, 1901-2000.
Comment
d Frankl, P. (1914) Die Entwicklungsphasen der neueren
The plan documentation in architectonic study can be seen partly as a descriptive study. Baukunst.
e Risselada, M. (1993) Plannenmap: het ontwerp van het
However, they are going a step further by putting the plans in a social context, by tracing grote woonhuis; Risselada, M. (1996) Plannenmap: het
underlying arguments and comparing plans to other plans. There is a lot to be learned from ontwerp van het geïndustrialiseerde woonhuis; Barbieri,
S.U., L. van Duin et al. (1997) Plannenmap: bibliotheken;
this. An evaluation in the form of a valuing judgement, drawing lessons from plusses and Haaksma, S.H.H. (1999) Plannenmap voor de basis; Bar-
bieri, S.U., L. van Duin et al. (2000) Plandocumentatie
minuses and distilling designing principles and representative variants of solution is neverthe- theaters.
less largely absent. This is applying even more for collections of building plans. Apart from
modest inroads into plan analysis, it largely concerns a description of the plans. This can be
defended as an educational means for students. But for the development of the profession it
is a missed opportunity. Studies like this would increase in value by adding a comparative
analysis of the plans and by Post-Occupancy Evaluation (see page 151) of realised buildings.
This is giving better insight into alternative approaches of design, relations between means
and objectives of designing and advantages and disadvantages of variants of solution.
c. Architectural thought
An example of a clear and systematic description of a process is Hamel’s’ study of designing
processes from a cognitive-psychological point of view.a Based on a review of literature on
design methodology, Hamel developed a descriptive model that represents experienced archi-
tects reasoning during the design process. The next step was an empirical test of this model
using verbal protocols of architects thinking aloud while working on a design. The author
concludes that a design process consists of repeated cyclic processes with three principal
steps: analysis, synthesis, and choosing of forms.
- Analysis includes a review of the task, collecting additional information and dividing the
total problem into sub-problems. This decomposition is based on different dimensions, like
functional aspects, aesthetics, construction aspects and town planning.
- The synthesis focuses on solving sub-problems, an integration of sub-solutions for each
dimension and subsequently integrating these sub-solutions into one overall solution.
- Choosing forms is described as giving shape to the solution in such a way that the design
can be considered as ‘architecture’.
According to Hamel each step includes three stages: orientation, execution, and evaluation.
The designer’s task consists mainly of transformation (from text to drawings, from user’s
activities to square metres), switching (from concept to detail and vice versa, from one sub-
problem or dimension to other sub-problems and dimensions) and feedback (from solutions
to objectives).
Hamel’s descriptive model fits in with other design methodology models that are partly
descriptive, partly prescriptive. Lawsonb discerns five tasks: preparation, analysis, synthe-
sis, evaluation and communication, which continually inter-change. However, some differ-
ences appear between Hamel’s (a psychologist) the models and the other authors (mostly
architects or engineers):
- In prescriptive models, ‘analysis’ consists of compiling and structuring the problem, in-
vestigating data and identifying objectives, whereas Hamel’s descriptive model highlights
gathering information, decomposing the problem and solving sub-problems.
- In most prescriptive models, synthesis is conceived as generating solutions, whereas in
the descriptive model the search for solutions is divided into two separate steps. Step one
is searching for a solution for each sub-problem separately (analysis), step two is finding
a combined solution for the design problem as a whole (synthesis).
- In prescriptive models, shaping is primarily directed towards aesthetic experiences, whereas
according to Hamel, the designer is also looking for ‘elegant’ solutions, using no more means
than necessary.
- In the prescriptive models evaluation is interpreted as overall activity, as a means of weigh-
ing up solutions against objectives. According to Hamel evaluation is a part of every step in
the process: each sub-solution is evaluated with reference to relevant criteria. As such,
design processes explicitly show characteristics of problem solving processes and are re-
a Hamel, R (1990) Over het denken van de architect: een lated to the TOTE cycle of systems analysis: Test → Operate → Test → Exit (see page
cognitief psychologische beschrijving van het ontwerp-
proces bij architecten. 254).
b Lawson, B.R. (1997) How designers think: the design proc-
ess demystified.

According to Boekholta the sequence is not fixed. Processes are drifting from formulation of
objectives to generation of solutions and (in between) evaluation of solutions. It may also
happen that a solution is generating new objectives, or that an evaluation necessitates new
analyses, before new (partial) solutions may be thought out.
Comment
Descriptive models of the designing process can be used for testing prescriptive models and
founding them empirically. Furthermore, designers can mirror their own activities in them.
Hamel also analysed for all steps in the designing process what a designer should know and
what he should be able to do. This is making his study not only theoretically interesting, but
also socially relevant, particularly for education in designing. The difference in problem for-
mulation, use of language and framework of concepts of scholarly students and architectonic
designers is posing a problem. Hamel’s suggestion for shared authorship would perhaps alle-
viate this problem.
d. History of the emergence of the Bijlmermeer

Amazement about the radical break in the Dutch building of cities caused Maarten Mentzelb
to start a search for the backgrounds and motives for designing the Bijlmermeer. That settle-
ment in Amsterdam was designed in the late sixties. The aim was an exceptional example of
modern town planning, inspired by Le Corbusier’s ideas. Soon after completion, the quarter
became problematic. His thesis contains a systematic description of the process of realisa-
tion and the habitation history, demonstrating a cleavage between the expectations of the planners
and architects and reality. His most important sources are existing documents and articles in
newspapers and the professional media. In contrast to Pennartz, postponing the selection of
data as long as possible, Mentzel is orientating his study primarily on continuity and on changing
designing ideas, as well as on factors influencing them. He is paying attention to the (habita-
tion) buildings as well as to the environment, motives and ideologies and the planning proc-
ess. The results have been placed in a theoretical framework with three dimensions: knowl-
edge, group and organisation, and planning. For this dimension of knowledge a study is made
of what the importance and influence of knowledge and ideology has been and how insights
from the sciences and the arts have been dealt with. The dimension ‘group and organisation’
is high-lighted from social-psychological mechanisms, with special attention to the function-
ing of the small group that was charged with the formulation of a plan. The study of the
planning dimension is focused on the initial stage during which the objectives were formu-
lated.
With regard to the knowledge dimension Mentzel concludes that a small group of people
dominated the planning process. The choice for high-rise building is purely based on the ideas
of (urban) architects and planners. Second thoughts generated by urban studies and results
of studies in habitation preferences have not played a rôle of any importance. The same is
valid for socio-economic developments like an increase in spending income, leisure time and
mobility. Ideas from outside were only admitted if they fitted into the shared striving for a
‘daring’ design, leading to distinction. The planning group felt itself supported by pleas for
systematic building and labour-saving building devices – among others from the national
Minister at the time, Bogaers – and by a report from the High-rise / Low-rise Committee stat-
ing that high-rise is requiring for broad segments of the population ‘just’ an adaptation of
style of living and its civilisation.
The dimension ‘group and organisation’ is analysed according to the theory of Janis and Mann.
They formulated seven criteria for an ideal process of decision making. It is essential that
a Boekholt, J.T. (1984) Bouwkundig ontwerpen: een beschrij-
decision shapers should study with the information from experts objectives, and the values ving van de structuur van bouwkundige ontwerpprocessen.
b Mentzel, M. (1989) Bijlmermeer als grensverleggend ide-
associated with them, and audit alternative solutions in terms of costs and risks. According aal.
to Janis and Mann, reality often differs strongly from a rational decision process and the shaping
of decision is characterised by thinking as a group. This applies in particular when there is a
strong coherence within the group, isolation, no procedures for methodical searching and
little willingness to look for different solutions, see also page 389. Conditions like these can
readily lead to decisions with great disadvantageous consequences. Mentzel is showing that
the conditions mentioned were emphatically present in the planning process of the Bijlmermeer.
With regard to the planning dimension Mentzel demonstrates that insufficient attention
has been devoted to the strategic stage: the global determining of objectives and means. Dur-
ing the stages of an increasingly more specific determining of objectives and means alterna-
tive plans have hardly been discussed; if at all. Lack of time certainly played a rôle.
Comment
Careful description of a planning process can shed light on what makes a project more, or
less, successful; certainly when the description is related to the comments of planners, de-
signers and users, as well as placed in a theoretical framework. This creates a better under-
standing of the case, while the study is contributing to the furthering of theory, building on
the processes shaping decision. In spite of the social-historical approach, Mentzel’s study
offers a thorough reflection on planning principles and designing strategies. In studies by urban
architects the intention is often more strongly focused on understanding spatial forms. An
example is the study by Han Meyera, for an important part a set of descriptions of the relation
between city and harbour in London, Barcelona, New York and Rotterdam and the differ-
ences in cultural appreciation of the spatial form of this relation. On this basis Meyer formu-
lates a number of agenda points for the design of intermediary open spaces. Among other
topics, Meyer is pleading for designing a new typology of public spaces enabling a symbiosis
between large-scale networks and the small-scale of urban fragments.
6.5 CONCLUSION
Descriptive research and study can assist designing in several ways. In the first place as a
basis for the programme of requirements. On the basis of demographic and socio-economic
data, for instance, it can be decided to reserve a supply of homes for elderly people, to trans-
form a neighbourhood school into a community centre, or to build a new hospital with x beds.
Data from descriptive study are used then to make predictions on a situation that is in the
future desirable or probable. In the second place, descriptions of plans and of realised build-
ings may be an important source of inspiration for the development of a plan. Architects and
city-builders often get their inspiration from references in the past; i.e. precedents, see also
page 401. Implicitly a designer is trying to distil from the descriptions hypotheses and predic-
tions on the functioning of the partial solutions selected by him or her as they relate to wishes
formulated by the commissioners or by him/herself. In the third place the results from de-
scriptive research can be used as a means to test designs. By comparing a design to other
designs and realised buildings it may be considered on which points this design matches or is
standing out. Maybe, on this basis predictions can be made on the functioning of the building
to be realised. Linked to an evaluative moment, this may, or may not, necessitate adaptations.
Descriptions of processes can also teach a lot. They can give insight in factors for success
and failure and in the significance of study for decision making. Descriptive research is in-
creasing in value when it does not limit itself to mere description, but also contains initiations
to interpretation and evaluation of its findings. A more intensive co-operation between those
who study and those who design could enlarge the application potential in the design proc-
ess. This seems to apply particularly for the start of the study – the formulation of the prob-
lem and of the objective – and for the finalisation of the study: the formulation of conclusion
and recommendations, together with making the results accessible.
a Meyer, H. (1996) De stad en de haven. English translation:

(1999) City and port.

7 HISTORICAL RESEARCH OTAKAR MÁCEL
The methodology of study in the history of architecture is permeated by fundamental pre- 7.1 Use of sources – Heuristics 61
suppositions with regard to the arts and architecture itself. Since the history of art – with the 7.2 Analysis 63
7.3 Interpretation 63
history of architecture as one of its constituent parts – does not feature its own universal- 7.4 Literature 68
historical systemisation, but is one of its parts, the methodological problem is permeated by 7.5 Remarks 68
the concept of history as a branch of learning. This sees to it that a systematic rendering of 7.6 Significance for designing today 70
the method of the history of architecture is complex; and, in a historical perspective, by no
means conclusive.a The present text is a first attempt to formulate the methodological start-
ing points of the study of the history of architecture based on its practice and the literature:
a systematic formalisation along the lines of a model. This entails that the practice is more
‘synthetic’ and demonstrates more methodical cross connections.
I depart from the object, the building. On that basis I try to explain the different steps
of the study of architectural history: heuristics, analysis and interpretation. Firstly the use of
sources (heuristics) is dealt with, next the methodology of analysis and interpretation and
finally the ‘usefulness’ of the methodology for designing.
In accordance with my education as an art historian, I regard the history of architec-
ture as one of the parts of the history of art. This means that my methodological discourse is
presented before the background of the methodology of the history of art. It also implies that
architecture is regarded here as a member of the ‘family’ of the visual arts. This may be re-
strictive. Wherever possible I will draw attention to this restriction of the methodology when
it comes to architecture. On the other hand, I would like to make clear from the start that the
way to proceed as described should be applicable for an object dating from the fourth cen-
tury B.C. as well as for an object of the fifties of the twentieth century.
7.1 USE OF SOURCES – HEURISTICS

a. Sources and Literature
The use of sources is an essential point of departure for the study of the history of architec-
ture. With this a distinction may be made between the sources themselves and the literature
on them. ‘Literature’ means here the architecture-historical studies on the subject of the study
which have already been written. The documenting material, printed or not, from the era of
the subject of the study falls under the category ‘sources’.
In an Architecture Faculty the study of architectural history is usually restricted to study
of the literature, particularly when it concerns the work of students. This may be sufficient,
seen within an educational perspective, but it certainly is not seen fundamentally, while only
the sources are witnesses of the past; not the interpretations of the present.b Also, where the
study of the literature is concerned the source material is called for: not by way of personal
experience – autopsy – but, ‘second-hand’, pre-processed by others. Study of literature is a
pre-requisite, but can not replace in any way the study of the sources. However, it may point
the way towards the sources.
Clear separation between sources and literature as described has a demonstrative pur-
pose. In practice things may be more vague. The borderline between a documentary source
and the literature does not always resemble a honed razorblade. Furthermore, it is not always
possible to consult all kinds of sources personally.
a As far as is known Dutch historians of architecture have
written seldom methodological treatises. An attempt to it
b. Kinds of sources was made in the inaugural address of Grinten, E. F. van der
(1963) Bouwkunst-geschiedenis of bouw-kunstgeschiede-
The sources themselves may be differentiated as primary and secondary. Primary sources nis: grenzen en mogelijkheden in de geschiedschrijving
include the building itself, design drawings and models: the building of course, since only by der bouwkunst; or: Mekking, A.J.J. (1986) De Sint-Servaas-
kerk te Maastricht.
its materiality it embodies architecture. The blue-print and the model are admittedly no build- b See for instance the different descriptions en floor plan il-
lustrations of the same building (San Carlo alle Quatro
ings, but represent in a visual form the concept of the building. Texts on architecture, regard- Fontane), Grinten, E. F. van der (1963) p.8-9, 22-23.
HISTORIC AL RESEARCH 61
Examples of ordering are the following: less of their importance, belong to the category of secondary sources. They are words, not
Topographical ordering buildings. They lack the significance of visual information. This applies in a general sense.
Published descriptive lists of monuments, topog- When texts on architecture are an object of study themselves they should be viewed as a
raphical inventories like: primary source.a Secondary sources are then ‘addenda’; e.g. the texts of the designer him-
- Maiocchi, R. (1937-1949) Codice diplomatico-
self, illustrations, letters, testimonies and opinions of contemporaries, business documents
artistico di Pavia dell anno 1330 ad 1550 I+II.
Also, under this heading are collection catalogues of
like bills, licences, legal papers, correspondence on the commission, etc.b Finding source
museums and other collections, particularly impor- material often requires special effort, particularly in archives, since many archives follow their
tant for architectural drawings and models, e. g.: own systematic approach and are usually not focused on architecture.
- Egger, H. (1903) Kritisches Verzeichnis der A different systemisation of sources is also possible. In that case the works of art – by
Sammlung architectonischer Handzeichnungen
der K.K. Hof-Bibliothek; the same token works of architecture – are seen as objects of the study as an independent
- Drexler, A. (1986) An illustrated catalogue of the category and positioned outside of the sources. The distinction between primary and second-
Mies van der Rohe drawings in the Museum of ary sources then looks different.c
Modern Art;
- Blau, E. and E. Kaufman (1989) Architecture and
its image. Four centuries of architectural repre- c. Critique of sources
sentation, works from the collection of the Cana- This entails the assessment of sources in terms of their value to yield information; at the same
dian Centre for Architecture.
time the factual data of the literature already existing may be checked. Questioning the use-
The last one mentioned is an example of a com-
bined topographical-monograph ordering.
fulness of the sources relates to the following problems: the correctness (possible ‘falsum’,
the partiality of the source vis-à-vis the subject, etc.), the provenance (may seem obvious,
Chronological ordering but sometimes it is not)d, the time (dating), the author or origin and the originality of the in-
Editions of sources, with or without commentary,
relating to a specific era, like: formation. In that last case the question must be answered whether the source is a primary
- Schloßer, J. von (1924) Die Kunstliteratur. Ein one in terms of content and chronology, or that it reproduces data already known. Some data
Handbuch zur Quellenkunde der neueren Kunst- will probably never be found. In that case an answer must be reconstructed from contextual
geschichte;
data. In the case of an anonymous building inquiries concerning the author or time of con-
- Lefaivre, L. and A. Tzonis (1984) Theorieën van
het architektonies ontwerpen or struction may only be answered approximately by a comparison of style criticism.
- Ockman, J. (1993) Architectural culture 1943 -
1968. d. Ordering the source material
Systemising the data obtained depends on the subject of the study. Usually ordering the source
Bibliographic ordering
Lists of documentary sources, e. g.:
material first in terms of elementary information, like time, place, subject and author or a combi-
- Senkevitch Jr., A. (1974) Soviet architecture nation thereof, is the thing to do obvious. Thematic ordering of primary sources as to type,
1917 - 1962: a bibliographical guide to source based on its functional use or on form (form typology) or on material and construction is
material. specific to architecture. This stage is occasionally the final objective of the study. Arranging
the source material may already encompass an element of analysis and interpretation, espe-
Monographic ordering
Catalogues of collected works, e. g. cially in the case of editions of sources containing comments. However, the emphasis of editions
- Boesiger, W. (1946-1970) Le Corbusier et Pierre like that rests on representing the sources. Examples of ordering are listed alongside.
Jeanneret: oeuvre complete;
to one project, e.g.: e. Adjacent disciplines
- Neutelings Riedijk Architecten (1998) Minnaert-
gebouw Universiteit Utrecht.
In addition to general history, here considered as an obvious background, processing and or-
Reprints of tracts and theoretical observation also
dering source material often needs support by other disciplines of learning. In part special-
belong under this heading. ised branches within the historical discipline are concerned, the traditional disciplines ena-
bling it being, among others:
- Paleography ( the learning associated with the development of lettering and writing) ena-
bling reading old sources.
- Diplomacy, devoting itself to the origination, kinds and dating of legal sources and writs
a E.g. Kruft, H.W. (1991) Geschichte der Architekturtheorie.
- Chronology, that might assist in re-calculating old types of time keeping to our current
Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. English translation: one, dating. This is particularly important for the history of architecture of previous ages
(1994) A history of architectural theory: from Vitruvius to the
present. up to and including the eighteenth century.
b For a very extensive and systematic treatise on source ma-
terial and criticism see Tietze, H. (1913) Die Methode der
Kunstgeschichte. p.184-278. In the case of material sources help from chemical and physical technologies is sometimes
c Compare e.g. Bauer, H. (1976) Kunsthistorik: eine kritische
Einführung in das Studium der Kunstgeschichte. p.108, 120 needed. Computer technology may also be helpful in ordering and comparing sources. Cri-
en Badt, K. (1971) Eine Wissenschaftslehre der Kunstge- tique of sources may also call upon other areas of learning like legal studies, philology, eco-
schichte. p.64-65.
d See, for instance, the cumbersome and time-consuming nomics, mathematics (statistics) etc.
search for the provenance of the ideal monastery schema
from Sankt Gallen.

7.2 ANALYSIS Typological ordering
Usually surveys of kinds of building, like:
The first conceptual recording of the image and structure of a building (the drawing) is mor-
- Dimier, A. (1949-1967) Recueil de plans
phological and technical analysis. This should result in the description of the building with its d’eglises cisterciennes;
specific characteristics. - Sherwood, R. (1978) Modern housing prototypes;
- Barbieri, S.U., L. van Duin et al. (2000) Plando-
a. Morphological analysis cumentatie theaters.
A morphological analysis is an approach bound by an object. Its purpose is determining the
Material and construction
specific characteristics of the architectonic work (what and how), in order to interpret them Description and survey, e.g.:
later in a criticism and comparison of style and to put them in a broader perspective (why). - Leonhardt, A. (1964-65) Vom Caementum zum
A morphological analysis analyses the architectonic (visual) properties of a building or of a Zement I-III;
design drawing, the conceptual version of a building. Whether a drawing is the only render- - Quarmby, A. (1974) The plastics architect;
ing of the design, or when it has a complementing function might make a difference; in the - Oosterhoff, J. (1978) Constructies, momenten uit
de geschiedenis van het overspannen en onder-
second case it documents the existing building and eventually the stages of the design. steunen.
From the vantage point of systemisation one might make a distinction between formal
and structural aspects of the style-critical analysis in spite of the fact that in reality all aspects
of a building always relate to one another as a unity. The concept (disposition) of the blue-
print, the articulations of the elevation (the building mass rising from the blue-print) and the
ensuing spatial concept may be seen as structural aspects. The problems of the ordering of
the whole (composition, rhythm) and the visualisation of the constructive aspects (tecton-
ics) also belong under this heading. Formal aspects are, for instance, the ordering of the outer
walls, detailing and the architectural decoration (also of the interior) and the ‘use’ of visual
artworks within the building.
A morphological analysis of a building displays its specific, individual architectonic
characteristics: the materialisation of the design idea is charted.
b. Technical analysis
Since a building is bound to a concrete place and subject to physical laws as a material object
it also has technical and physical properties. Style critique can not determine them; at least in
an artistic, sublimated form (construction tectonics). Following Robert Hedickea one might
call the analysis of these properties the technical methodology. This type of analysis is di-
rected towards the properties characterising the building in terms of site, building materials,
and construction. Style-critical and technical analysis complement one another.
One may view the site as something outside of the work of piece of architecture proper.
On the other hand the site is physically insolubly connected with a building. Considering that
the site by its size, positioning (geomorphic disposition, adjacent buildings) and structure of
the soil is one of the determinants of the design and its actual execution these aspects always
require attention. Possibly references in terms of cultural history of the site might be important.b
The significance of the building material for the manifestation of architecture speaks
for itself, since the material chosen also determines the construction of the building and the
structure of the building surface. Information on the kind and provenance of the building
material may also provide insight into the building process and its history.
The building construction is a literal embodiment of the physical raison d’être of a
building. Vitruvius already mentions ‘stabilitas’ as one of the three necessary conditions for
architecture. That is the reason that the identification of the construction of a building is a a Hedicke, R. (1924) Methodenlehre der Kunstgeschichte:
ein Handbuch für Studierende, p.100-132. Although the
necessary step in the architectural-historical study while giving the background information book is rather dated, among the historians of art Hedicke
is from a methodological perspective an exception be-
for the analysis in terms of style critique. Not only the building itself, but also its drawings cause of his attention to the technical aspects of the visual
and blue-prints are an important source for this analysis. Usually building constructions dis- arts (including architecture). Remarkable is his still topical
observation: “Außer den Kreisen der Architekten-Kunst-
tinguish materials used and the construction proper. historiker und der Künstler ist heute das Technische in der
Kunstgeschichte verachtet, und äußert sich auch darin,
daß die Studenten der Kunstgeschichte für das technische
7.3 INTERPRETATION in der bildenden Kunst heute gar kein Interesse und Ver-
ständnis mehr besitzen.” l.c. p.102.
The interpretation of a building aims at determining and understanding the original architec- b For a widely ranging meaning of the building site see
Norberg-Schulz, Chr. (1981) Genius loci: towards a phe-
tonic intention of the work and its significance and place in the development of architecture. nomenology of architecture.
Any historical study – and, perforce, architectural-historical ones – always focuses on the
intentions and context at the time of the work itself. It is the only way to understand the work:
it is a conditio sine qua non. This way we may now experience a gothic church as impressive
by the materiality of its daring construction and the clear spaciousness, while in the middle
ages it was just surpassing materiality and the mutual symbolic functions of the parts estab-
lishing the ‘experiencing’ of this architecture. The ‘delight in art’ at that time carried much
more the stamp of theology than present-day appreciation; it was of a different order. How-
ever, this approach is only tentative: it is not only seldom that all data can be found, but a
complete experiential transition to the past is impossible; the work of a historian of architec-
ture is done by necessity in the present. The past is over. Although understanding sources in
their original significance results in some access to the history, historiography is an activity
of the present. Already in 1868 the historian Johann Gustav Droysen put it this way: “Unsere
ganze Wissenschaft beruht darauf, daß wir aus solchen noch gegenwärtigen Materialien nicht
die Vergangenheit herstellen, sondern unsere Vorstellungen von ihnen begründen, berichtigen,
erweitern wollen, und zwar durch ein methodisch verfahren, das sich aus diesem ersten Lehrsatz
entwickelt.” a Even when ‘our imaginings’ of the past are determined by today’s position of
the historian, the importance of the transient ‘social relevance’ is not always relevant for analysis
and interpretation of the sources. In the study the sources can only be understood within the
original context. In contrast, actuality can determine what is going to happen with the result
of the study. This may affect the selection of the theme of the study. It becomes clear then
where the historical approach and current social interests (‘relevance’) cross one another.
With problems of monument in the national trust, for instance, the knowledge of the original
significance of a building plays a leading rôle since it is a factual testimony of the past. At the
same time its value as a remembrance, decisive for putting it on the list of monuments, rests
on an interpretation in the here and now. The rôle of ‘social relevance’ (present context of the
building) comes much more strongly to the fore during renovation and renewed usage.
a. Context as a frame of reference

Where the stage of analysis addresses the question ‘what’ the characteristics are of the work
of architecture, the stage of interpretation addresses the question of the ‘how’ of these char-
acteristics and their original significance. Although the building embodies its characteristics
and, therefore, also its significance itself, it can not be understood by itself. The answers to
these questions can only be found in the inter-connection of the work with its contemporary
context: a building does not come into being in a timeless vacuum, but in a specific historical
situation. This entails that the pure object-driven approach of the architectural work must
yield to a broader approach, related to the historical context of its origins. This may call for
study of the relationship of the architectural work with the contemporary aesthetic norm(s),
technical know-how, the conventions and backgrounds of its use and study of (original) sig-
nificance of the architectural work transcending these categories. It may also be undertaken
on a more general level (school, area, era). Not only determining and interpreting the char-
acteristics and significance of the architectural work is important for study in architectural
history, but also their changes. In this way interpretation might have several aspects and lev-
els. Since these aspects and levels always relate to one another, rendering them systemati-
cally is a difficult and schematic exercise by necessity. It also depends on the theme of the
study. I have opted for arranging the interpretation according to the context of the architectural
work, in this case the context of factual originating, the context of the functional use, the
context of the style and the context of the iconographic and transcendental significance of
the work. It is admittedly a heterogeneous systemisation, but it attempts to encompass and
conclude the problem of interpretation. Allocating the architectural work within the history
of architecture would then require weighing all four contexts as they inter-relate.
a Droysen, J.G. (1960) Grundriß der Historik: eine Enzyklo-

pädie und Methodologie der Geschichte (1868), p.20.

b. Context of the originating
The most immediate context applicable to the architectural work is the one of the commis-
sioner, the author (designer) and the constructor (building company). Together they embody
the conditions for the building to get into being, so that their rôles in that process should al-
ways be studied. The factual data on the commission, the author and execution should al-
ready have been determined by the critique of the sources. Here their specific rôles vis-à-vis
the characteristics and intentions of the individual architectural work stand central. Studying
the commission, the author and the building company can be an independent objective of a
study – separately or not – focused on the individual building or on a general theme.
The commission
A commission, given by a principal, starts the designing and building. Compared to the art of See e.g.:
painting, for instance, this is specific for architecture and for arts and crafts. Historically - Panofsky, E. (1946) Abbot Suger on the Abbey
Church of St. Denis and its art treassures;
speaking, this difference is of relatively recent origin, since the nineteenth century. This com-
- Boorsch, S. (1982-83) The Building of the Vati-
mission includes the destination, so the kind of use (type) of the building and the specific can. The Papacy and Architecture;
wishes and conditions of the commissioner. These wishes are inter-related with his social - Ellis, R. and D. Cuff (1989) Architects’ people;
position and with his possible political ambitions. The study of the commission and the com- - Dijkstra, Tj. (1991) De kunst van het opdracht-
missioner may choose several directions, but this aspect always marks the specific history of geven.
the originating of the building. The kind of commission and the position of the commissioner
also point to typological considerations.
The author(s)
If the commission starts the originating of a building, then the commissioner is its cause. The The literary genres on authors most common are
the monograph, the biography and the texts of the
author (designer, architect, master builder) is the one who outlines with his knowledge, pur-
authors themselves. In addition historical studies on
pose and, perhaps, talent the building. At first sight the author seems as a person less impor- the profession and the education of architects are
tant where it comes to the history of art and architecture, since the object of this discipline is relevant, e. g.:
primarily the work of the author and not this person. In addition his alienation with the build- - Briggs, M.S. (1927) The architect in history
(Pevsner, N. (1930-31) Zur Geschichte des Ar-
ing commences with the completion of the work with regard to the intentions of the maker. chitektenberufs.);
From this moment on the work may be understood by others in a different way than the - Harvey, J.H. (1972) The mediaeval architect;
author had in mind. Although the author is the cause of the building, he himself is not always - Müller, W. (1989) Architekten in der Welt der
the most important source of information. Many buildings are anonymous or only associated Antike;
with just a name with a background. Nevertheless, the author is a crucial link in the chain of - Severin, I. (1992) Baumeister und Architekten.
Studien zur Darstellung eines Berufstandes in
the interpretation of an architectural work. Author related considerations with regard to the Porträt und Bildnis;
building include his training, professional experience and expertise, the relationship to the - Saunders, W.S. (1996) Reflections on architec-
commissioner and the intentions and ambitions inherent in the commission. tural practices in the nineties;
An intermediary problem between the categories ‘author’ and ‘execution’ is the opera- - Pfammatter, U. (1997) Die Erfindung des moder-
nen Architekten. Ursprung und Entwicklung
tion for its own profession (from construction hut to the architects’ office). Knowledge of seiner wissenschaftlich-industriellen Ausbildung.
this may contribute to the insights into the social status of the author, the task distribution
during designing and the relationship with the executor.
The execution
Without builders there is no building. In spite of that the building company plays a less impor- Examples in the literature on the execution include:
tant rôle in the history of architecture, while it plays only an intermediate rôle, in a certain - Grote, A. (1959) Der vollkommen Architectus.
Baumeister und Baubetrieb bis zum Angang der
sense a hidden one, however indispensable it may be. Nevertheless, a minimum of knowl- Neuzeit;
edge of this problem is needed from a factographic viewpoint. And what is more, the possi- - Colombier, P. du (1973) Les chantiers des cathé-
bilities of execution of the design may influence the resulting Gestalt of the building. The drales: ouvriers, architectes, sculpteurs;
organisational structure of a building enterprise may be of importance for conserving and - Binding, G. and N. Nußbaum (1978) Mittelalter-
licher Baubetrieb;
passing the knowledge of building to future generations like in the Middle Ages – where the
- Vroom, W.H. (1981) De financiering van de kat-
author and the enterprise worked together – in studying the building. If in the problem of the hedraalbouw.
execution the question of technical know-how is taken into account also, the significance of
this contextual aspect increases. The building enterprise may be seen as the carrier of con-
temporary technical knowledge. This knowledge determines, together with that of the au-
thor, the possibilities of materialisation of the design.
c. Context of use – Typology

A general typological survey is the one of Utilisation function is a characteristic difference between the visual arts and architecture. Ad-
- Pevsner, N. (1976) A history of the building types. mittedly paintings and pieces of sculpture are always used as well – their museum function is
Examples of monographical-typological literature relatively recent – but, the work of architecture is, in its assembled state, structurally deter-
include:
mined by its intended use. Already Vitruvius names ‘utilitas’ as one out of three fundamental
- D’Amico, S. and F. Savio (1954-1966) Enciclo-
pedia dello spettacolo (10 vol.); characteristics of architecture. The functional use is an essential property of architecture,
- Braunfels, W. (1969) Abendländische Klosterbau- but a building may loose that function temporarily – the Pantheon as a stable for horses – or
kunst; forever, or get a new one. Nothing new under the sun; witness the re-construction of mon-
- Thompson, J.D. and G. Goldin (1975) The hospi- asteries into hospitals, military barracks or industrial plants.
tal, a social and architectural history;
With the originating of the building the functional use is inherent in the commission. In
- Petersen, M.A. (1978) Gedetineerden onder dak;
geschiedenis van het gevangeniswezen in Ne- order to consider the commission within its own ‘kind’ requires comparison with different
derland vanaf 1795, bezien van zijn behuizing; building serving the same purpose: a typological comparison.a The answer to the question
- Geist, J.F. (1979) Passagen, ein Bautyp des 19. why a building has a certain appearance may be determined by historical experience already
Jahrhunderts;
existing (tradition) with the structure of buildings of the same kind. Next to this the ascer-
- Wesemael, P.J.W. van (2001) Architecture of
instruction and design : a socio-historical analy-
tainment of the possible provenance of a typological solution such a comparison may also
sis of world exhibitions as a didactic phenom- bring to light the specific contemporary expression of the function and change in the cus-
enon (1798-1851-1970). (Formerly published in tomary typology. The typological problem has dis-enfranchised itself within the history of
Dutch: (1997) Architectuur van instructie en
vermaak. Een maatschappijhistorische analyse architecture to a distinct type of study, addressing the development of the different kinds of
van de wereldtentoonstellingen als didactisch buildings. This needs knowledge of the specific functional usage; that is one outside the dis-
verschijnsel (1798-1851-1970).)
cipline of architecture. In this vein the development of the theatre-type can not be understood
without knowledge of the development of acting, nor the development of hospitals without
the history of the medical sciences, nor the development of prisons without the history of
penal law, etc. It is obvious that this type of study calls for different fields than history. Ty-
pological problems can be quite complex. Next to type-driven history the socio-economic
and political aspects play a specific rôle.
Typological literature is rather many-sided. Some publications have the documentary
nature of an edition of sources. Others concentrate especially on systemising the develop-
ment of the blue-print of the type concerned. The more synthetic publications regard the
development of the type as a whole and relate it to the historical backgrounds causing it.
Typological literature may also deal with the subject within a certain territory or time-period.
d. Context of Style – Style-critical interpretation

The literature based on style-critical interpretation Morphological analysis addresses the recording of the formal and structural attributes of the
may vary from monographic treatment to the history individual architectural work. The style-critical interpretation consists of a comparison of these
of a style period. The subject of the literature might
also be some elements of the interpretation, like tec- individual attributes to other works; in the first instance with contemporary works, but they
tonics, e.g.: may be earlier or later buildings as well, depending on the aspirations of the study. ‘Reflec-
- Frampton, K. and J. Cava (1995) Studies in tive’ sources, theoretical writings and criticism, are important for such a comparison. In this
tectonic culture : the poetics of construction in
nineteenth and twentieth century architecture. way the historian of architecture may get insight into the prevailing or usual aesthetic norm(s)
The interpretation of the concept of style is part of at that time and in the design toolbox. Then he can judge which position the building occupies
every systematic historical study of art. See e.g.: there – he can place the building in its context. This might mean that the work conforms to
- Bauer, H. (1976) Kunsthistorik: eine kritische that norm; which means that it is an example of a standard solution or an imitation, or copy.b
Einführung in das Studium der Kunstgeschichte,
p. 74-80, 87-89;
It may be that the work does not co-incide with the usual norm, while the author was looking
- Dittmann, L. (1967) Stil, Symbol, Struktur: Stu- in his work for new solutions of the design problem. It also may be that the author rejected
dien zu Kategorien der Kunstgeschichte. the norm and continued to base himself on an older point of departure, or did not understand
the new norm, like, for example, in some buildings of the Renaissance north of the Alps.
a Here, the concept ‘type’ is for the time being not identified
with the function of use; however it should be linked to this This enables the positioning of the work of architecture with regard to the contempo-
function exclusively. rary time. It should become clear which problems and challenges characterised the profes-
b In the practice of the study the deliberations should be
more subtle. On the related problems see, amongst oth- sion at that time and how the architectonic ambitions and the talent of the author as embodied
ers, Bakos (1991) Peripherie und die kunsthistorische Ent-
wicklung. in the building (drawing) relate to that. The concepts ‘contemporary’ and aesthetic norm are

not intended here as a static moment, but as co-eval development with temporal limits deter-
mined by the theme of study. This positioning of the work within the development of archi-
tecture may be realised on different levels. It may relate to the collected works of the author
himself (along the lines of a monograph), to the significance within certain territorial bounda-
ries (the cathedral of Chartres and Gothic building in Northern France, or the ‘Zonnestraal’
sanatorium and the ‘Nieuwe Bouwen’ in the Netherlands), or to a generalist tendency along
the lines of a general development (the significance of Borromini’s oeuvre for European Ba-
roque). The last example indicates that a contemporary comparison alone is not always suf-
ficient. Borromini’s oeuvre became very significant in Central Europe only a century after his
death.a
A generalist approach is the style-critical interpretation of groups of buildings in the
broader context of time and place. This may lead to determining the aesthetic norm and de-
sign tool box used to realise it (periodising) within a period, style or stream of development.
With a style-critical interpretation the concept ‘style’ has a historically normative char-
acter. It is an abstraction of characteristics of the individual works of architecture. That is
what is linking these works. The concept of style is necessary in the study of the history of
architecture for identifying the collective qualities. Further explanation of the concept of style
would require a separate, historically founded, exposé.b
The iconographic literature is heterogeneous and
partly overlaps style-critical considerations.
e. Context of the significance – iconography, iconology - André, G. (1939) Architektur als Gegenstand der
Formulating the significance is here related to what is admittedly depicted by the work of art, Ikonographie;
but what surpasses the style-critically formulated visual meaning of a work of art. In the general - Reinle, A. (1976) Zeichensprache der Architek-
tur.;
history of art that is the field of iconography and iconology. Originally, iconography was only
specific:
occupied with identification and analysis of the depiction. The concept of iconology, formu-
lated later, implies explanation of its symbolic meaning. From the time that iconography was - Duby, G. (1978) Les trois ordres ou l’imaginaire
de féodalisme. (English translation: Duby, G. and
considered more contextual-interpretativec, the difference between the two levels of inter- A. Goldhammer (1982) The three orders: feudal
pretation started to become vague. Both approaches were developed by studies of medieval society imagined);
art and the mythology of antiquity surviving in it. Since both approaches consider the work - Moos, St. von (1974) Turm und Bollwerk: Bei-
träge zu einer politischen Ikonographie der Italie-
of art, more often than not, as a carrier of meaning and content, without paying attention to nischen Renaissancearchitektur;
its appearance, they are sometimes regarded in the history of art as one-sided.d In the history - Vogt, A.M. (1974) Russische und Französiche
of architecture these terms are in a similar interpretation of significance infrequently used, Revolutionsarchitektur 1717-1789;
while they can be hardly distinguished from one another.e - Kähler, G. (1981) Architektur als Symbolverfall.
Das Dampfermotiv in der Baukunst;
- Kern, H. (1982) Labyrinthe, Erscheinungsformen
Iconography und Deutungen 5000 Jahre Gegenwart eines
Since architecture can hardly be reckoned to depict (mimetic) arts, iconographic study can Urbilds (English translation: (2000) Through the
orient itself especially on formulation and interpretation of the ‘pictures’ present in the build- labyrinth: designs and meanings over 5000
years);
ing within the architectural genre. They may be architectural motives; that is to say, the shapes
- Onians, J. (1988) Bearers of meaning: the Clas-
and details of other buildings having become independent, used as an element of composition sical orders in antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the
outside of their original context (the triumphal arch, the Palladio motive, columns, the dome Renaissance;
etc) for architectonic and / or symbolic reasons. They may also be elements originating out- - Schulte, A.G. and M.J. Kuipers-Verbuijs (1997)
Ruïnes in Nederland.
side of architecture, like the round windows in ships, or elements of utility structures, with
an allusion to attributes.
The interpretation of the ‘pictures’ of other buildings concerned as a total might also a From the end of the 17th century onward, architects from
the Middle of Europe travelled to Rome in order to study the
fall within the iconographic frame-work. An example is the visualisation of a ruin: the ruin of architecture of Borromini there, by that time ‘old hat’ to Ro-
an aquaduct as a folly, or a neo-medieval ruin of a castle as a hunting lodge. Other ‘depicting’ mans, rather than contemporary buildings.
b For the general definition of the concept of ‘style’ see
buildings may fit under this heading: e.g. a Chinese pagoda as a garden pavilion, or the church Gadamer, H.G. (1970) Wahrheit und Methode, p. 466-469.
c See e.g. Biaostocki, J. (1973) Iconography.
in Oudenbosch, The Netherlands: a replica of Saint Peter’s in Rome. The shapes appropri- d See e.g. H. Bauer, l.c., p. 93-99. Recently see the discus-
ated from outside architecture, as there are the shape of a ship or anthropomorphic ones (the sion by Eddy de Jongh of the re-edition of Panovsky’s
Meaning in Visual Arts (E. de Jongh: ‘To me, this book was
follies in Bomarzo, Italy) and zoomorphic shapes (a fried chips joint shaped like a duck, see not less than a revelation’, De Academische Boekengids
Robert Venturi) fall in this category. (2000) Vol. 21, p.20).
e See e.g. Sauer, J. (1924) Symbolik des Kirchengebäudes
Determining and interpreting the iconographic characteristics of one building is the task und seiner Aussattung in der Auffassung des Mittelalters;
and: Krautheimer, R. (1942) Introduction to an iconography
set to morphological analysis and style-critical interpretation. However, beyond the level of of medieval architecture.
the individual building it is an independent iconographic theme, that in its turn may serve as
frame of reference for style-critical interpretation.
Iconology
Examples of the literature on iconology include: The formal and structural characteristics of a work of architecture may also have allegorical,
General:
metaphorical or symbolic meaning, not to be ascertained by style-critical interpretation. They
- Bandmann, G. (1951) Ikonologie der Architektur.
p.67-109 (reprint 1969); can also refer to contents and meanings outside the building and architecture itself. In that
- Sedlmayr, H. (1960) Architektur als abbildende case knowledge on the horizon of the contemporary world-view, on general opinions on the
Kunst; arts and learning, of social norms and values may provide a frame of reference for interpreta-
- Hartog, E. den (1994) Bouwen en duiden. Stud- tion. Architectural iconology can in its interpretation also relate to symbolic meaning; and
ies over architectuur en iconologie.
transcend the architectural genre. This is the reason why a precise delimitation between both
Middle Ages: next to the mentioned Sauer, J. (1924)
and Krautheimer, R. (1942): approaches is difficult.a However, architectural iconology emphasises the metaphorical meaning
- Sedlmayr, H. (1950) Die Entstehung der Kathe- of the work of architecture (the church building as a manifestation of the ‘ecclesia’ and of
drale; the Heavenly Jerusalem, the triomphal columns of the Karlskirche in Vienna as a manifesta-
- Panofsky, E. (1951) Gothic architecture and tion of the Habsburg claim to Vienna as the New Rome, etc). The traditional iconological
scholasticism;
methodology – whether it carries that name or not – is especially mature in the field of medi-
- Simson, O. von (1956) The Gothic cathedral:
origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval eval and baroque architecture. Although the layered structure of allegory and symbolism has
concept of order; changed in the meantime this does not entail that the alluding ‘power’ of a work of architec-
- Mekking, A.J.J. (1986) De Sint-Servaaskerk te ture should have vanished. Actually, the iconological approach is continued in the interpreta-
Maastricht.
tion of more recent buildings. Usually an interpretation like that is part of the study. The inter-
Baroque:
pretation of Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona pavilion by Fritz Neumeyer as a ‘Platonic temple’
- Sedlmayr, H. (1956) Johann Bernhard Fischer
von Erlach. is an example of architectural iconology of modern architecture.
Modern age:
- Neumeyer, Fr. (1991) The artless word; Mies van 7.4 LITERATURE
der Rohe on the building art. The literature of the history of architecture is as wide as the collected knowledge of the profes-
sional field up to now. That is the reason why a study of the literature is almost always the
first step in a study of architectural history. This supposes an inventory of knowledge on the
subject: it is hardly worthwhile to ‘discover’ personally what is already known. In a scien-
tific sense this is a conditio sine qua non. Further study checks the literature in terms of facts
and interpretation. During presentation (publication) of the study the chapter on the study of
the literature, the literature criticism, should be positioned at the beginning, seen from the
editorial viewpoint. The historian of architecture positions his own study in the ‘field’of ex-
isting knowledge of the subject, while taking responsibility in terms of content and method
for his study. The study of architectural history pre-supposes knowledge of genres of litera-
ture of the subject. This is a task for education or self-study.b
7.5 REMARKS
By necessity, the preceding description of a methodology of study is succinct and schematic.
There are more problems than could be mentioned explicitly. The following remarks intend to
highlight some problems.
From the viewpoint of scientific systemisation, my contribution could have started in
a different way. For example: “Together with the history of art the history of architecture is
part of historical learning. Its object is architecture...” and next the object is described and a
methodology of study derived from its properties. But, what is architecture? The historian of
architecture Nicolaus Pevsner, at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft in the seventies despised,
but in the world outside quite respected, once wrote: “A shed for bikes is a building. Lincoln
a The Dizionario Enciclopedico di Architettura, for instance,
cathedral is a piece of architecture. Almost anything wherein there is sufficient space for a man
devotes just 11 lines to iconography, but to iconology one to move is a building; the term ‘architecture’ is only applicable to buildings also meant to be
whole page. Portoghesi, P. (1969) Dizionario Enciclopedico
di Architettura, p. 134-5. aesthetically attractive by the designer.”c His dictum exemplifies the tendency of the current
b Published course-books may be helpful, like Wilk, B. (1987) history of architecture: following the changes of aesthetic norms during the ages; from the
Wie finde ich kunstwissenschaftliche Literatur.
c Pevsner, N. (1970) Europese architectuur, middeleeuwen viewpoint that not everything that is built carries equal importance, but mainly what charac-
en renaissance, p.13. Originally published as: Pevsner, N.
(1990) An outline of European architecture (1942). terises this development. This is certainly true in a book on the general development of Euro-

pean architecture, where Pevsner expressed his opinion. From a documentary standpoint
(National Trust) or the one of typology this might be different. The proposition that architec-
ture starts where the manifestation of a building transcends its utilitarian function by its ‘aes-
thetic attractiveness’ is in daily life a handy criterion. For the practice of the history of archi-
tecture it should only be accepted under conditions.
Theoretic as well as pragmatic objections could be formulated against Pevsner’s dic-
tum. The theoretic objection mainly rests on the absolute contrast between a building as an
ultimate piece of art (cathedral) and a mere contraption serving utility (bike shed). The Ge-
stalt of a building is always completely inter-woven with the fulfilment of its usage, even in
the case of a monument. ‘Aesthetic attractiveness’, the aesthetic function and norm have a
historical character; and is therefore, subject to change. That is the reason why it is not pos-
sible in the study of architectural history to fix a nomenclatura of the buildings in terms of
‘aesthetic attractiveness’ as a normative a priori. The field of inquiry of the history of archi-
tecture should be open. The differences in intentions and significance of the buildings should
result from the study itself. The pragmatic objections to Pevsner’s dictum rest on the fact
that during the most recent century and a half the production of buildings has increased con-
siderably and that a range of new types of building on a utilitarian basis has emerged, putting
into jeopardy the pre-supposed border between ‘cathedrals’ and ‘sheds’. For the history of General literature:
architecture this is associated with a widening of its domain of study. - Hauser, A. (1951) The social history of art;
- Stekl, H. (1980) Architektur und Gesellschaft von
From the problem ‘cathedrals versus sheds’ it is but a small step to the question ‘Is der Antike bis zur Gegenwart.
architectural history a social science?’a While architecture – buildings – caters for one funda- Special subjects: e.g.:
mental basic human need: to provide shelter, the use of the ‘shelter’ and all problems pertain- - Lützeler, H. (1931) Zur Religionssoziologie Deut-
ing thereto are also part of the study. Studies like that fall under the umbrella of architectural scher Barockarchitektur;
history, but even more under that of social sciences. How the result of the study contributes - Rosenau, H. (1958) Zum Sozialproblem in der
to the knowledge of the professional field concerned is more important. The preceding sketch Architekturtheorie des 15. bis 19. Jahrhunderts;
of the methodology of architectural history may make clear that the social aspects of the - Müller, M. and R. Bentmann (1970) Die Villa als
Herrschaftsarchitektur: Versuch einer kunst- und
commission, the author, the user and the construction company are needed for grasping the sozialgeschichtlichen Analyse (English transla-
meaning of the work of architecture. Where an individual building is concerned, or when a tion: (1992) The villa as hegemonic architecture);
typological study is involved, the history of exploitation is also of importance. The history of - Bollerey, F. (1977) Architekturkonzeption der
utopischen Sozialisten, alternatieve Planung und
architecture makes good use of these data. That does not make it a social science; housing is Architektur für den gesellschaftlichen Prozess;
not a house. In this regard a possible theme for study was already hinted at in ‘Context of the - Frommel, Chr.L. (1986) Raffaels Paläste: Wohnen
originating’, but it might as well be much broader. und Leben im Rom der Hochrenaissance.
It is obvious that the history of architecture has as its object of study the past of architecture.
However, where does the past cease and where do actual conditions start? This is the prob-
lem of the relationship between the history of architecture and the critique of architecture.
Both analyse and interpret the work of architecture and judge its quality. Added to that, the
practice of architectural critique pre-supposes some knowledge of the history of architec-
ture. The essential difference between both disciplines rests in the temporal distance with
regard to the object of study. By reacting to contemporary buildings and architectural con-
cepts the critique of architecture is part of the discussion of architecture today. Playing this
rôle, the critique can not only reflect existing notions on architecture, but can also influence
them. This involvement is its essential property. However, this involvement with a design of
today is not the primary aim of the study of architectural history; at best a possible side-effect.b a The title of a meeting on the ‘Kunsthistorisch Instituut’ in
Utrecht in the beginning of the seventies. This meeting
In order to shun this type of involvement vis-à-vis the object of study a certain historical seemed to be a politically engaged protest against the es-
tablished history of architecture.
distancing is required. It also has a methodological advantage, since contemporary opinions b See for instance the influence of the publications by Kauf-
are put in a context not yet visible to co-eval observers. An example of mixing both disciples mann, E. (1933) Von Ledoux bis Le Corbusier: Ursprung
und Entwicklung der Autonomen Architektur; and of Witt-
might be Siegfried Giedion, who as an historian of art was also actively involved with the kower, R. (1949) Architectural principles in the age of hu-
manism.
present as secretary of the CIAM. His history of modernity (Time, Space and Architecture. c “We need, I think, to recognise the fact that a historian
The Growth of a New Tradition, 1941) gives, for that reason, too one-sided a view of that should try to escape from prejudices of his own period. If
he merely sees past architecture in the terms of current
development.c Each historian should draw the border-line of historical distancing for himself; aesthetics or fashion he is likely to be a propagandist
rather a historian.” Allsop, Br. (1970) The study of architec-
as a rough estimate it could be fixed at one human generation. This does not prohibit that the tural history, p.68.
person of a historian of architecture can also be active in the field of critique of architecture
and voice an opinion on today’s architecture. The relationship between the history of archi-
tecture and the critique of architecture presented here is not without controversy, also be-
cause of the underlying similarities.a
For the study of the history of architecture the critique of architecture and art offers
important and stimulating source material for the history of reception, development of theory
and changes of the aesthetic norm. An example of such a study is Woud, A. van der (1997)
Waarheid en Karakter. Het debat over de bouwkunst 1840-1900.
7.6 SIGNIFICANCE FOR DESIGNING TODAY

Between the two no direct link exists. The one keeps itself busy with what has already been
created, while the other creates something new. The methodology described can not be used
for designing a building, but possibly for understanding an existing building better. The potential
significance of the history of architecture rests in this. Since designing never has a ‘tabula
rasa’ for a point of departure, and never happens by the same token without some previous
knowledge – also in negative sense – familiarity with what was written here influences a new
design. And what is more: a new design is placed in an existing context. Consequently, a certain
knowledge of that context might be useful; sometimes it is required.
To put it concretely, this means that the result of the study of the history of architec-
ture can provide background information on design decisions; as there is knowledge on the
typology of architecture and usage and the information on provenance and significance of
architectural shapes and motifs. Since the use of typologies, and particularly, the one of ar-
chitectural motifs is always culturally biased, knowledge of the past is important at the time
of a design decision. Of course the designer is at liberty in his selection of utilising this knowl-
edge; it should not have to agree with the mind-set of the study. In the case of restoration and
renovation the study of architectural history plays a more direct rôle in solving the problem.
Generally, one may state that knowledge of the past of one’s own personal field of
professional experience contributes to the ‘Bildung’ of the designer. It is useful in a way that
can not be made clear in advance. In contrast to a medical doctor or an electronic engineer,
working in the profession of an architect entails a specific view of the past. Culturally, archi-
tecture is not getting better and better, but more and more different. That is the reason why
her past can return, time after time, and influence designs of today.
a Compare Dresdner, A. (1915) Die Kunstkritik: ihre Ge-

schichte und Theorie, p.9-10 and Venturi, L. (1972) Ge-
schichte der Kunstkritik, p.31-33. Originally published as
(1936) History of art criticism.

8 MAP STUDY RIET MOENS
A study concerning the making of maps and a study of how to use a map are two different 8.1 Mapping the earth’s surface 71
subjects. Study addressing the making of maps comprises not only collecting data and re- 8.2 Remote sensing images 71
8.3 Identification of shapes 72
cording them in a map, but also studying the production of maps (reproduction techniques, 8.4 The legend 72
usage of colour, legend, readability). A study facilitated by maps often generates additional, 8.5 Scale of a map 73
new maps. 8.6 Different types of maps 74
Recording study data by means of symbols in a map may be compared to descriptive 8.7 Study aided by maps 74
8.8 Concluding remarks 78
study. Actually, a shape is recorded by means of a token. The meaning of all tokens used is
described in a list linking each separate token with a description: the legend. Determining the
content of the legend, particularly the variety of data to be recorded and the size, is a problem
in conceptual terms as well as in terms of technical production. Studying maps by analysis,
comparison and deduction exceeds the recording of shapes by means of well-known tokens
or those agreed upon. A study like that comprises a historical study (development) as well as
a categorising study (recognition). A design study by means of maps is also a possibility.
In this Chapter, making maps as such is not taken into account. How study data may
be recorded in a map and how knowledge from a comparison and deduction of maps may
contribute to urban designing are central issues.
8.1 MAPPING THE EARTH’S SURFACE

A territory may be documented spatially (without words) by way of a map, aerial photograph,
satellite imagea, or a model. We restrict ourselves to images on a flat surface. A map or a
remote sensing image is a distortion of reality, since a projection of a spherical surface, in this
case a three-dimensional space is recorded. In addition, a map is an abstracted representation
of reality. The content of the map is determined by the object of study, like topography, infra-
structure, morphology, etc. The data result from measurements in the territory.
The conjunction of study and maps has been extended since the start of the twentieth
century with the study associated with remote sensing images. A remote sensing image is a
mapping of an environment obtained from a distance, without touching the object physically.
A technique often employed is the vertical aerial photography of a territory. These images
offer a detailed registration of all shapes present on earth in realistic proportion. A correction
of distortions resulting from the projection – from sphere to flat surface – and from the lens
technique employed belong to the scientific field of geodesy.
Shapes of the earth’s surface may be recognised by the shape itself – like a building or
a road – or by a combination of shapes. The images also document the date of the recording;
it is automatically included on the image (a photograph) itself. The present generation of topo-
graphical maps has all been derived from remote sensing images.
8.2 REMOTE SENSING IMAGES

As a matter of fact, remote sensing images are unstructured material without legends, while
maps feature legends, a descriptive list of tokens. The study of remote sensing images dem-
onstrates two different options: production of a (topographical) map, and facilitating study
of maps. In both cases recognition and interpretation of shapes is the objective, followed by
recording in a document. Differences concern primarily the extent of depth, systematic ap-
proach and method of recording. The expertise of the researcher determines the recognition
of the shapes. Other capabilities of the researcher, like the power to visualise a shape from
a The aerial photograph and the satellite image have been
above and an extraordinary patience, also play an important rôle. Because a trained researcher combined in the concept ‘remote sensing image’. These
recognises and identifies more easily, he will get results more quickly. Knowledge of the ter- images are being produced with the help of various record-
ing techniques, such as photography, infra red recordings,
ritory covered by the satellite images is a great advantage.b radar, e.t.q.
b American Society for Photogrammetry and Ryerson R.A.
(1999) Manual of remote sensing.
MAP STUDY 71
By and large, a study of remote sensing images in order to produce a map is effected as fol-
lows. The researcher orders the material and tries, by looking and reading, to distinguish,
recognise and identify shapes and structures. Shapes may be recognised and determined by
certain characteristics as there are shading or colour, texture, pattern, shape, size, height,
shadow, situation or environment. The result is a list of shapes, a preliminary legend. The
method of representing the shapes by tokens, or possibly colours, is also recorded. A remote
sensing image becomes more than a picture at random from the moment a (preliminary) leg-
end has been drawn up. An ordering typology has been formulated. This typology is strongly
determined by the field of expertise of the researcher. The preliminary legend is the basis for
subsequent study, the interpretation. Combining shapes, the positioning of shapes with re-
gard to one another and knowledge of a situation add to the content of the remote sensing
29 Oil port Pernis, Rotterdam. Author’s interpre-
tation based on an aerial photograph dating image at the time of interpretation. The facility of the researcher to imagine a situation plays
from 1970 an important rôle. An example to illustrate: in a harbour area different types of buildings are
located; like terminals, shipyards, docks, storage structures. On the waterfront cranes are
installed and areas for containers. How would these activities look on an aerial photograph?
Is it possible to recognise elements and activities as such?
1 BUILT-UP AREA The result of the operations is a map: a personal interpretation of a remote sensing image. In
1 .1 housing principle, this map is not objective. By recording the interpretation in a code, the legends, a
1 .1 .1 deta ched house higher level of objectivity is realised. The same interpretation may then be repeated for an-
1 .1 .2 semi-deta ched house other area. In addition the legends heighten the uniformity and precision of the repetitions of
1 .1 .3 row of houses
1 .1 .4 urba n villa
the interpretation for other areas. When it becomes clear that no adequate tokens are available
1 .1 .5 a ppa rtment buildings low to render new shapes whilst interpreting a new area, the legends will be extended with new
1 .1 .6 a ppa rtment buildings middle high items. At least all tokens of the map should be present in the legend.
1 .1 .7 a ppa rtment buildings high rising
1 .1 .8 … As a result inherent in production of a map – difference in scale with reality, thickness
1 .2 commercia l services of lines, reproduction of a surface – and the impossibility to reproduce the smallest shapes
1 .2 .1 shop and elements, they are conjugated, abstracted, omitted and, given their importance, depicted
1 .2 .2 shopping centre in an exaggerated way. An example of this method of making maps is the topographical map.a
1 .2 .3 shopping ma ll
The topographical map is used as a basic map for the production of thematic maps.b
1 .2 .4 hotels, resta ura nts, pubs
1 .2 .5 plea sure a rea Utilising remote sensing images in the study of an area as a tool or an addition to the
1 .2 .6 schools maps available is based on recognition and interpretation as well. In fact the same procedure
1 .2 .7 medica l provisions
1 .2 .7 cemeteria as described is followed. With the help of these images the researcher may determine a fur-
1 .2 .8 … ther precision and content of the abstracted form, or, if necessary, update the maps with the
1 .3 industry most recently obtained remote sensing images.
1 .3 .1 …
1 .3 .2 … 8.3 IDENTIFICATION OF SHAPES
1 .4 mixed housing a nd commerce Keys of interpretation and determination tables are used particularly when interpreting remote
1 .4 .1 … sensing images. A table helps to identify the shape in an organised and consistent manner.
1 .4 .2 …
This table may be a written one or pictures with or without description; it can be constructed
1 .5 mixed housing a nd industry
in different ways. Most frequently employed are a selection table and a table based on elimi-
1 .5 .1 …
1 .5 .2 … nation. In the case of a selection table the shape is determined by comparing the shape of the
1 .6 mixed commerce a nd industry reproduction to a standard form from the table. In the case of elimination a selection from
1 .6 .1 … different possibilities is made step by step. Proceeding with what is chosen another choice
1 .6 .2 … from different possibilities is made by increasing precision. Ultimately, the result should be an
1 .7 tra ffic a nd tra nsport unequivocal answer to the question: what shape is this? This method is very suitable for rec-
1 .7 .1 … ognition of cultural products like buildings and results of civil engineering. It is also used for
1 .7 .2 …
the determination of plants.
30 Example of a simple determination table
8.4 THE LEGEND
A distinction should be made between the content of a map and its reproduction or rendering.
a A map is a maximally faithful rendering of a part of the
earth’s surface. It is recommended to keep the content of a map as straightforward and unambiguous as
b A thematic map indicates a specific theme, like infrastruc-
ture or soil. possible. Do not combine two totally different studies in one map; make separate maps of the

different subjects of study. These maps may be compared to one another by sieve analysis.a
Do restrict the number of categories in a legend for the sake of readability. Scientifically well-
considered choices must be made where magnitude and importance of the different elements
and shapes are concerned. How typical or characteristic these elements and shapes are is
also of importance in the study? The choice determines scale and legend of the map. Put
differently: the subject of the map determines the ‘content’ of the legend. The scale of the
map chosen determines its level of detail and therefore the number of items in the legend. The
content of the study determines the elements that must at least be represented. That is the
reason that the content also determines the scale of the map.
Next to the conceptual aspect of the map, technical knowledge on the human capacity
to discern is needed. This involves depiction of elements and shapes on a map, use of colour-
ing, grey-tones, and so forth. Knowledge is required on the number of elements that may be
distinguished on a map and on the smallest possible element still standing out at the scale chosen.
To what extent may elements, for instance, be simplified in shape (straightened) or omitted?
What is the importance of an element on a reproduction? What are the limits set to abstrac-
tion from reality of a map? Next to this knowledge on human perception there should be cog-
nisance of reproduction techniques, both analogue and digital.
8.5 SCALE OF A MAP

As mentioned, the scale of a map is determined generally by the object of study. The preci-
sion of the map is inter-connected with its scale. On a map with a scale 1: 1.000 a road 10 m
wide is proportionally represented by a line 1 cm thick. On a scale 1: 10.000 the same road is
represented by a line 1 mm thick. At an even smaller scale (1: 100.000) the same road can not
be rendered proportionally. However, if we deem this road to be very important, it may be
indicated by a token. In that case the legends should mention the width of the road. A delib-
erately chosen falsification of scale then applies. Measurements on this last map mentioned in
order to determine the width of the road, do not yield the correct width of it and are, there-
fore, not valid. In addition the correct positioning of this road is in jeopardy; within certain 31 Topographical map of the city of Rhenen on
margins. scales 1:100.000, 50.000, 25.000 and
10.000, based on the same aerial photo-
Obviously, maps with a small scale (1: 100.000) can contain less information than maps graphb
with a large scale (1: 1.000). On maps with a small scale the shapes have been abstracted and
similar or associated shapes are placed in one category. Enlarging maps with a small scale
does not yield more information and greater precision. Changing a map with a large scale into
one with a smaller scale – the opposite procedure – gives a map with the same information
and accuracy, as long as the new map may be reproduced technically. If the reproduction is
not feasible the accuracy is at least equal to the one inherent in the new scale.
a Sieve analysis is a method super-imposing maps with the

same scale in order to be able to inspect and analyse dif-
ferences and similarities in mixing, spreading and accu-
mulating spatial components. The method may be ex-
tended and refined in various ways by introducing the fac-
tor time or potential.
b Source: Topografische Dienst Nederland
MAP STUDY 73
8.6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAPS
Cartography distinguishes between basic maps – usually topographical maps – and
thematic maps. A basic map is a two-dimensional representation of the shapes and elements
occurring on the earth’s surface. Generally, the basic map comprises the following elements:
elevation, water, infrastructure, buildings, land utilisation: forests, meadows, farmland, and
so forth. A researcher may use a basic map as a basis or reference for his study. A basic map
usually serves as a background for thematic maps. They may be derived directly from the
basic map, like a roadmap for motor vehicles, maps for tourists, maps of the distribution of
dwelling clusters, maps of waterways, and so on.
32 Thematical map: the roadmap of The Nether- One distinct category of thematic maps are maps where the distribution of character-
landsa istic non-topographical elements is depicted. Examples are geological maps and maps indi-
cating soil compositions (figure 33 shows different kinds of clay, sand, peat and water), veg-
etation, population (figure 34 shows units of e.g. 100.000, 50.000, 20.000 people) and statis-
tical deviations. The data for these maps have been obtained by study. They are based on data
obtained in the field, or on study of sources in literature.
8.7 STUDY AIDED BY MAPS

Research with the use of maps comprises examination of inventories and source material as
well as conventional research methods like describing, comparing, evaluating and recognis-
ing problems. Instead of maps, remote sensing images like aerial photos and satellite images
can be used for research.
a. Inventory
This research comprises the following actions, depending on the choice of the subject to be
inventoried:
- compilation of material in the form of maps and remote sensing images,
- scaling the maps by enlarging and reducing
- studying the maps and
- processing the research conclusions whether or not in map form.
33 Thematic map: soil composition based in data

obtained ‘in situ’.
34 Thematic map: dispersion of the population
a Source: Topografische Dienst Nederland

The subject of the inventory determines the contents and the legend of the newly generated
map. The inventory is in fact a recording of forms in signs. A description of a form is re-
corded by means of signs. Normally a topographical map is used as a basic map, because this
map is an objective representation of the reality. In fact, these maps could be denominated as
second-generation maps.
b. Historical study
When carrying out a historical study of maps, besides an inventory, a comparative research
is carried out. The transformation of a form in the course of time is subject of study. The
research is normally carried out using topographical maps of varying ages. The map material
can be supplemented using aerial photos if required. For clarification purposes maps other
than topographical maps are studied, like watercourse maps, property maps etc, using the
topographical map as background. Besides the comparison of various historical maps the maps
also undergo other processes. Data from various maps are placed under one denominator
where possible and recorded in one map. The maps are supplemented with details from writ-
ten sources where required. For example in the case of research into soil contamination, details
from chemical soil research and municipal permits of the companies established in that area
35 Comparison of Rhenen between 1850-1865
are used. and Rhenen around 1987 b
c. Comparative study
Historical comparative study can be supplemented with an interpretation of the maps. Anomalies
and similarly formed elements are recognised and established during this study. This way striking
topographical elements like parcelling, watercourses, classification and forms of settlements
are more closely examined. An attempt is made to find explanations for the characteristics
found during the interpretation. These explanations can be based on the comparison of a the-
matic map like geological and soil maps, groundwater level maps and contour maps. Written
sources like taxes, purchase reports of grounds, etc. can also clarify characteristics. The
explanation of characteristic elements can result in research of the tolerated deviations within
the form. In this manner the archetype of the form can be established. Using this archetype
comparative study can subsequently be carried out regarding existence and distribution of
this type using other maps. A good example of this is the landscape arrangement, which here
in Holland was made using parcelling and settlement structure as a basis.a
36 Parcelling of The Netherlands according to

Hofstee and Vlam (1952)
37 Legenda by imagec
a Hofstee, E.W. and A.W. Vlam (1952) Opmerkingen over de

ontwikkeling van de perceelsvorming in Nederland;
Visscher, H.A. (1975) Nederlandse landschappen; Maas,
Buro (1981) Een beeld van het Zuidhollandse landschap,
deel 1, 2 en 3.
b Source: Topografische Dienst Nederland. See also: Topo-
grafische Dienst Emmen (2001) Topografische dubbelat-
las; – (1996) Grote provincie atlas 1:25.000.
c Maas, Buro (1981) Een beeld van het Zuidhollandse land-
schap, deel 1, 2 en 3.
MAP STUDY 75
Sieve analyses can also be used for comparing maps of different types. The analysis can produce
a suitability, which may or may not be coupled to a weighing. For example, the result of sieve
analysis can be a potential map for agriculture. In Ian McHarg’s Design with nature (1969)
this method is described based upon the applications in the area of town and country planning.a
The latest development in the area of sieve analysis is analyses carried out using the
GIS (geographical information systems) by computer. Maps are stored in the computer in
layers of information. The information per layer is recorded in a grid. Combining or sieving
various layers creates potential maps for a chosen function. Using this computer application
the size of the grid plays an important rôle in the accuracy of the product. In this way the
amount of information stored in the different layers is also crucial for the foundations of the
result.
d. Morphologic study
Carrying out a town planning survey, frequently use is made of images of the area in the form
of topographical maps and remote sensing images. This way information about the position
and structure of buildings, land utilisation, infrastructure, parcelling, water, etc. is collected.
With morphological study the emphasis lies on space in every case. In fact it is not about
space itself, but about the elements that form and determine space. The distribution, form
and direction of space and space forming elements like walls play an important rôle during
analysis. Morphologic research is often augmented with an explanation of the elements through
the influence of the physical and socio-economic circumstances and history (origination his-
tory).
Key questions in morphologic research are:

- Is the form of space sheer co-incidence or are there circumstances which obviously have
had an influence on the form and position of the space and the space forming elements?
- To what extent has history made its mark on the current form of town, village or land-
scape?
Besides studying and analysing historical maps, explanations are sought regarding form and
distribution of the space and the elements which are part of this. A number of forms can be
explained from geomorphology and sub-soil, however, the building technique and legislation
also play a rôle. Palmboom’s study into landscape and urbanisation between The Hague and
Rotterdam is an example.b The intention of the analysis was not only to clarify in words the
character of the area, but especially to illustrate the area using map images. Using a large
a McHarg, I (1969) Design with nature.
b Palmboom, F. (1990) Landschap en verstedelijking tussen
number of map images it is made clear which form the area has, how it is made up and what
Den Haag en Rotterdam. it looks like. Aspects involved in the study are (small) height differences, parcelling forms,
sub-soil, landscape forms (like dunes with shoreline complexes, rivers with riverbanks, tribu-
38 Sieve analysis according to McHarg (1969) taries). How insignificant these aspects may be, they had an effect on the area. The time el-

ement arises in an endless series of interventions in the Dutch landscape. Besides the com-
parison of historical images (time element) with the current situation, attention is also paid to
the possible prospective changes. The aim of this analysis is not to freeze current structural
images, but is actually for the benefit of the design. According to Palmboom the aim of the
analysis is “to find possible starting points for design proposals in the current situation, which
can assist in directing a gradual, lengthy, and partially unpredictable process of change”.
A similar study was carried out earlier by Buro Maas for parts of South-Holland Province: An
image of the Landscape of South-Holland.a The emphasis in this study is on making the manner
of origin and development of the landscape and the accompanying landscape forms, present
in South Holland comprehensible. The study serves as a reference frame for municipal and
provincial administrations to recognise and evaluate the consequences of intervention within
the area - like town expansion or choice of area for a new industrial establishment. Designers
can also make use of the landscape details assimilated in this study.
39 Parcelling analysis of Palmboom (1990)
40 Image of the South-Holland Landscape (Buro

Maas, 1981)
a Maas, Buro (1981) Een beeld van het Zuidhollandse land-

schap, deel 1, 2 en 3.
MAP STUDY 77
e. morphologic research in aid of design
One special application of making a plan based upon morphological data is the book How to
do it differently from South-Holland Province.a It illustrates how a study into the history of
the development of the area surrounding Hellevoetsluis creates motives for designing a rich
ecological and greenery structure and an interesting living environment. The planning prepa-
ration takes on the course of a creative process, whereby landscape forms are dramatised
and transformed. Knowledge of various fields of specialisms comes together in the imple-
mentation of the plan. The study shows how a broad development plan takes shape in suc-
cessive plan phases. A new process is systemising the ‘image formation” and making the
creative steps of the design process visible. Each step of the design process is explained us-
ing an image (map or sketch) and a description.
8.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The future of the map lies in digitalisation. The increase of knowledge associated with ren-
dering representations in digital form will contribute to the study of maps and by maps. Due
to the increased accuracy of digital representations of the maps expected, a generation of
more information by specialised techniques will become easier. Aided by geographical infor-
mation systems (GIS) sieve techniques can be employed more quickly and thoroughly. Digi-
tising the existing body of maps is an awesome task. What should be digitised, and how, in-
volves important decisions.
41 Morphological study of the landscape (Reh,

1980)
a Reh, W. (1980) Hoe het ook anders kan.

9 CASUISTRY RESULTING IN LAWS FRED HOBMA
LOES SCHUTTE-POSTMA
JUDICIAL ASPECTS OF DESIGN RESEARCH
How to arrive at general statements/rules using individual situations (cases) is an important 9.1 Scientific judicial research 79
question in many fields of science and in the field of law it is the same. 9.2 Example of scientific judicial research 80
9.3 Practical judicial study 80
In this contribution a number of judicial aspects of design research will be discussed: 9.4 From case to general ruling 81
the issue regarding the generation of general rules based upon cases is part of this. We will 9.5 Example of standard ruling 83
firstly distinguish between scientific and practical judicial study with respect to building. 9.6 Scale levels in ruling for building 84
Furthermore, we will address the unique rôle cases play in law. Some cases can be denoted
as ‘standard rulings’. In this way a court decision regarding one case is defined as a general
ruling regarding a specific area of law. We illustrate this with an example. Finally, we discuss
the various levels of scale to be recognised in the ruling on building.
9.1 SCIENTIFIC JUDICIAL RESEARCH

In society many things are not going well, there are problems and also in the extensive area of
building: the subsoil appears to be contaminated in many areas in the land, there is a scarcity
of locations for new construction, not enough inexpensive living accommodation, ‘durable’
construction is lacking and complaints are made about newly built houses, etc, etc.
Proposals can be made in order to create new legislation for these problem areas or to
amend existing legislation, from different sides (politicians and/or lawyers). A large part of
the scientific judicial study lies here. Furthermore, following an inventory of the existing leg-
islation (including the respective legal precedentsa) and the problems that are not adequately
resolved by it, proposals are drawn up for new legislation that should be able to resolve prob-
lems. In this way, judicial study, deviating from study in many other scientific fields, is highly
prescriptive.
Adriaansens and Fortgens phrase the judicial scientific practice as follows. “The judicial
scientific work, according to many, differs significantly from the scientific work in the re-
maining fields of social science and natural sciences. It is mainly composed of classification
of information, document processing, establishing the scope of legal rules and harmonising
the conflicting regulations. In order to do this, considerable amounts of literature, case law,
legislation and other regulations must be read and processed. At a higher abstraction level,
the aim of judicial scientific practice is the establishment, development and systemising of
general legal rule, using general legal principles, legislation, legal precedents and doctrine”.b
With judicial science the emphasis is ‘how things should happen’, more specifically:
directing behaviour using regulations. Our statute, in this respect, is the most important docu-
mentation; the way things should happen is laid down by legislation, which is what ‘by law’
means.
The purpose of laws is to promote positive behaviour, to prevent or punish negative
behaviour, to find resolutions for conflicting interests etc. This directing of behaviour by means
of legislation is linked to the principle of legality that prevails in our legal system. This princi-
ple states that no other restrictions can be imposed on the civil liberties other than those which
are equally valid for all, laid down in law by the parliament.
It is legitimate to talk about the ‘designing of ruling’, since the process has the characteristics
of a design process. The term ‘designing’ often immediately evokes technical associations,
but it should not be restricted to them, since designing is not only ‘methodical thinking out’,
but according to its nature, a process of persuading and convincing as well.c The process a With legal precendents we mean: verdicts of judges.
giving rules and the one giving laws are comprising both elements: a set of coherent rules is b Adriaansens, C.A. and A.Ch. Fortgens (1990) Volkshuis-
vestingsrecht, p. 3.
being ‘thought out’, but those rules are also legitimised in a political process. c Schokker, J.T. (1996) Wet en informatiesysteem in de maak:
een onderzoek naar processen van wetgeving en systeem-
ontwikkeling vanuit een taalspel-perspectief, p.12,46.
C ASUISTRY RESULTING IN LAW S 79

9.2 EXAMPLE OF SCIENTIFIC JUDICIAL RESEARCH
The rather abstract circumscription of scientific judicial research from the preceding para-
graph we clarify by way of an example. In the law-giving policy of the last years we are
witnessing increasingly and more often that private parties (enterprises, lobbies, branch-or-
ganisations) are participating in the process of making rules. As an example one may think of
the vast amount of technical norms or normalisation norms to which the Building Decree
refers. These norms have been determined for the larger part by the Netherlands Normalisa-
tion Institute (NNI). What is actually happening in this respect is legally conditioned self-
regulation: the phenomenon is termed ‘normalisation’.
The motivation for the government to use normalisation law giving is found in enhanc-
ing support and effectiveness of these rules. In addition, because of it the law giving process
can be simplified and accelerated. From a judicial point of view, however, the question re-
mains whether it is permitted, on the level of state law, to refer to norms drawn up by private
parties in public rule giving, with the aim to make these in this way into rules binding to all
and everyone.a Another question concerns the intellectual property aspects of normalisation
norms. Who owns it in the case of normalisation norms? What is the relation between the
rights of the author and the requirement of the potential cognisance of law giving referring to
norms, now that in practice the norms are available at the NNI only by way of purchase against
commercial tariffs?
Both these questions have been studied by M.H. Elferink in her thesis.b She comes to the
conclusion that normalisation norms are generally binding prescripts and that they have not
come into being in a judicially valid way; since the state law requirement of public cogni-
sance, that rules binding everyone should be published formally and officially in the Staatsblad
or Staatscourant or one of its supplements.c The Staatscourant does publish the announce-
ments of new NEN-norms, but not their text. This makes the potential to become aware of
these rules, a legal requirement of our democratic law-abiding state, too vague.d
She also studied what the consequences of this could be for the building sector. Her
conclusion is that suing claims of constructors and private persons who had to adapt or de-
molish buildings on the basis of the rule giving as recorded in normalisation norms might be
successful. e
In addition she concludes that the normalisation norms of the NNI are not protected
by authors’ rights, since generally binding prescripts are at stake. By the same token every-
body may make them public and copy them (as intended in the Authors’ Law). On top of
that, these norms should be provided to the users free of charge and should preferably be
financed by public means.f
The first conclusion is one that must be put before the judge: is the judge also of the
opinion – if the question should come on the agenda – that in the case of normalisation norms
(like the NEN-norms) rule giving is concerned which has not come into existence legally.
The other conclusion regarding authors’ rights and the costs can also lead to new policy, if
the Law (Minister and Parliament) would endorse this conclusion.
9.3 PRACTICAL JUDICIAL STUDY

Next to the scientific judicial study with respect to building, there is also the practical judicial
study with respect to building. In our contribution we assume that the architect under the
a If this would be juridically illegal, these norms could imply terms of the assignment carries out the practical judicial study.
only a recommendation.
b Elferink, M.H. (1998) Verwijzingen in wetgeving: over de For the architect the practical judicial research will take on a form in accordance with
publiekrechtelijke en auteursrechteljke status van normali- the obligations which the Dutch SR (Standard Conditions for the legal relationship between
satienormen.
c Bekendmakingswet. the architect and the client) formulates in this matter: “With the realisation of the assignment
d Elferink, o.c. p. 265.
e In connection with this questions were asked in Parliament
the architect must consider the public law regulations, the existence of which is considered
to the Ministers of Justice and the Environment on the ju- to be common knowledge among architects.”
ridical status of normalisation norms.
f Elferink, o.c. p. 273 a.f.

As part of the framework of the application for building permission the architect must carry - Stichting Bouwresearch, ed. (without year) Prak-
tijkboek Bouwbesluit grotere bouwwerken; lei-
out the required practical judicial research. Is a building permit actually required or is the work draad bouwaanvraag
a structure for which an official notification is required? Do the zoning plans allow the in- - Koning, B.M.G. de, ed. (1999) Arbobesluit voor
tended construction to be built on site? If this is not the case, is it the intention of municipal de bouw; Inclusief diskette met de modellen van
het Kennisgevingsformulier, het Veiligheids- en
administration to co-operate with the exemption of the zoning plans? Which on-site demoli-
Gezondheidsplan, het V&G-dossier en checklists.
tion regulations apply? Is a clear ground certificate for the construction a requirement? Are - Stichting Bouwresearch (1998), Hoe te handelen
specific urban aesthetics regulations applicable? Which regulations incorporate the Building bij schade
Decree for the intended construction? - Stichting Bouwresearch en TNO Bouw (from
1992) BSC Bouwregelgeving Consultatie Sys-
teem. (CD-rom).
Practical judicial research can cover many other judicial aspects. In this way neighbours rights - VROM (1989) Bestemmen met beleid; nieuwe
and obligations issues can be presented, for example: can windows be placed on the sidewall mogelijkheden voor het bestemmingsplan
of the building, overlooking the neighbour’s property? How can an existing easement (for - Vereniging van Nederlandse Gemeenten (1999)
example a right of way) that obstructs the building plan be cancelled? Questions regarding Bedrijven en milieuzonering (inclusief diskette
met afstandentabellen naar categorie)
compensation claims can also arise, for example if the municipality only wishes to co-operate
- Schenke, H.A., W.D. Susanna et.al. (1996) Con-
to the exemption of the zoning plans under the stipulation that any loss resulting from govern- tractvorming in de bouw; juridisch praktijkboek
ment planning decisions incurred by the neighbours will be paid for by the builder. Can this - Meijer Drees, F.J. (without year) Handleiding
be done just like that? Milieuwetgeving; deel 3, 3a Inrichtingen en pro-
cedures (losbladig)
Pursuant to the SR, it is not a ‘standard’ obligation for the architect to resolve these
- Infomil (1999) Informatiebladen regelgeving
practical judicial questions, stated in this paragraph, for the customer. However, he can ac- (Kantoorgebouwen, School- en opleidingsge-
cept an (extra) assignment for this purpose. bouwen enz.)
Various ‘tools’ exist, which are architecturally beneficial when carrying out practical
judicial research. Besides survey worka the tools mainly consist of: checklists, models, guide-
lines, form letters and business forms, example solutions, standard contracts etc, satisfying
judicial requirements. Without trying to attain completeness, examples are listed beside.
9.4 FROM CASE TO GENERAL RULING

The Dutch legal system can be found in ‘sources of law’. The sources of law are: the stat-
ute, international conventions, common law and legal precedents. In this paragraph one source
of law will be specifically examined: legal precedents. Based upon the legal precedent phe-
nomenon, we will deal with the question: how can we (in the law) generate public knowledge
based upon cases?
As in many other sciences, law makes use of cases. With the term ‘cases’ we are re-
ferring to, in law: rulings by judges concerning disputes. There are various types of disputes:
between individuals(private)/private organisations among themselves (example: not fulfilling
a contract), between local authorities and private individuals (example: not granting a building
permit) and between the authorities themselves (example: the municipality which does not
want to co-operate regarding the construction of a motorway through a nature reserve). Each
judicial decision regarding disputes contains besides facts, an imposition of a rule of law.
In Holland thousands of rulings are made annually. For our considerations it is useful
to divide the total of rulings into three parts: (a) un-published rulings, (b) published rulings
and (c) standard rulings.
(a) Un-published rulings

Most rulings are un-published. This means that a written ruling from a judicial authority was
produced regarding the submitted dispute, but this ruling was not published in legal prec-
edent magazines; the reason being that the ruling was not interesting enough for judicial sci-
ences and practices.
(b) Published rulings

A smaller number of rulings are published in legal precedent magazines; rulings of interest to
judicial sciences and practices. There are different reasons as to why a ruling is interesting a For example: Recht en Techniek, Sectie (2001) Recht voor
ingenieurs. Also: Berg, M.A.M.C. van den (2000) Bouw-
enough to be published. One reason may be that the ruling provides clarity regarding an issue recht in kort bestek.

upon which no ruling was in existence up until that point. Broad announcement by means of
publication is then useful. Another reason for publication may be that the court of justice has
made a ruling that deviates from the traditional course of previously published ruling in the
field of law concerned. Published rulings are sometimes ‘annotated’, which means: provided
with juridical comments. The annotator discusses the judicial aspects of the ruling that are of
interest for the judicial sciences or practices, in his note.
(c) Standard rulings

A subset of the published rulings propels it to standard ruling. These are rulings from the
‘supreme judge’ in a specific judicial area. In civil law the Supreme Court, in administrative
law the Department of Administrative Jurisdiction from the Council of State and in (one cat-
egory) building arbitration cases, the Arbitration Board for the Construction Companies in
Holland. In a standard ruling a Court of Justice makes a ruling considered to be of significant
importance for judicial sciences and practices. There are various reasons why a ruling re-
ceives the status of standard ruling. One reason may be that the highest court of justice clari-
fies conflicting rulings from a lower court of justice (district courts, courts of appeal), with
its ruling. Another reason may be that the Court of Justice ‘fills’ a lack of clarity or a defi-
ciency in the law. Another reason may be that the Court of Justice returns to other rulings
from the same Court of Justice. It is then said that the Supreme Court (or another Court of
Justice) ‘switches round’.
Standard rulings are not only published and annotated; they are also collected in spe-
cial ruling volumes used in practice and education. Standard rulings are also used in judicial
handbooks and loose-leaf judicial commentaries.
An interesting aspect of them is that they are strong determining factors for rulings in
comparable situations brought before the lower courts: these District Courts and Courts of
Appeal will not deviate from the regulations as formulated in standard ruling. Also in practice
the parties will not be able to get around them. We see here the interesting phenomenon that
public knowledge is generated using an n=1 situation. The legal rule as formulated in one case
which was ruled upon by the Court of Justice, becomes a general ruling. We have gone from
case to general ruling. More importantly, standard ruling can lead to amendments of the ex-
isting law in agreement with the standard ruling. In these cases, this is casuistry resulting in
laws.a
A standard ruling has a wider purport than an individual case wherein a ruling is made, the
condition being that the new cases are comparable with the original situation. Or vice versa,
unless there are special circumstances at issue, the lower Courts of Justice (just as the courts
of justice which made the standard ruling) will not deviate from the regulations of the stand-
ard ruling. This is an important area of work for the legal profession. If the regulations of the
standard ruling do not satisfy his client, an attorney will argue, (a) that in this case the cir-
cumstances are not comparable with the standard ruling and, therefore, (b) the regulations of
the standard ruling are not applicable in this case.
An interesting parallel can be seen for standard ruling with the art of building. Designs and/or
a Also a special variant of this situation occurs in practice:
buildings can also offer a ‘solution’ that extends further than the individual building concerned.
the standard verdict is (politically) undesirable and the Min- Likewise, deviations of these solutions can be argued.
ister responsible tries to neutralise the standard verdict by
a change in the law. An example of this is the ruling of the
‘Hoge Raad’, the highest legal authority in the country of
September 1994. The verdict was that Shell was not re-
The rôle of cases is in Anglo-Saxon countries (United States, Great Britain) even larger than
sponsible for damage in the soil of the Zellingwijk neigh- in countries with a continental judicial system like The Netherlands, Germany and France.
bourhood in Gouderak by pollution during the fifties. The
Minister of Ecological Affairs, being very disappointed by This is due to the fact that, in the countries stated, a comprehensive system of legislation is
this ruling, next made an effort to adjust the jurisprudence in place (Civil Code, administrative laws, criminal legislation, etc.), whereas Anglo-Saxon
on soil sanitation in terms of responsibility to the old pollu-
tion. This proposal proved to meet with serious opposition countries do not actually have a code of law. Their laws are almost fully based upon judicial
in the Senate; and, in the end, the Minister did not get his
way as intended. precedents (cases). In addition, they work with, for example, extremely comprehensive con-

tracts, for which regulations have been laid down in legislation in Holland. These regulations
are applicable in Holland, unless the parties agree otherwise. Therefore Dutch contracts are
much more concise than in the United States, for example. In Great Britain the rulings of the
supreme courts of justice are used as precedents: the lower courts of justice are formally
bound to the Supreme Courts rulings. In Holland, on the other hand, there is no formal (how-
ever, there is a practical) commitment.
9.5 EXAMPLE OF STANDARD RULING

In this paragraph we clarify the phenomenon ‘standard ruling’ on the basis of an example in
the field of construction and building. The case concerns the ‘Graafstroom question’.
The Monument Law of 1988 gives to the Municipal Executive the right to give permis-
sion for intervention in state monuments by way of monument permits. However in order to
be able to use this right, the Municipal Executive must obey a condition: the municipality needs
to comply with a Monument Ordinance, in which co-operation with a committee for the care
for monuments is organised advising the Municipal Executive on the monument permission
that is applied for (article 15 of the Monument Law). The Monument Law does not state
specific requirements with regard to the number of committee members or to expertise!
What happened in the case of the Graafstroom municipality? It had appointed the existing
committee of the council of the municipality for Public Works, Housing and Environment as
the committee for monuments as well. According to the municipality the members of this
existing committee were in their expertise sufficiently equipped to function as members of
the monument committee, while they all lived in the community and by the same token aware
of the situation surrounding the state monument in jeopardy.
The Council of State (‘Raad van State’), highest judge in the field of policy law, had
to rule in the final and highest instance in a conflict between the municipality and an inter-
ested lobby association, ‘Bond Heemschut’. The lobby had appealed against a monument
permission given by the municipality; it implied demolition of the monument. The Council of
State was of the opinion that the composition of the municipal monument committee (mem-
bers of the Public Works committee) was well under par and ruled that a monument commit-
tee may comprise admittedly some members without specific expertise, “provided that the
expertise on the field of the care for monuments has been warranted sufficiently by the ap-
pointment of other members.”a In other words: the committee may include members without
expertise, but then the expertise should be guaranteed by the presence of other members who
can be considered experts.
Although the Law has formulated no requirements with regard to the composition or
expertise of a municipal monuments committee, the judge does formulate them. So the judge
is complementing the law. The complementing requirement demonstrated by this ruling does
not only apply for the monuments committee of the Graafstroom municipality, but for all
monument committees in The Netherlands. The ruling in this single case has a general effect.
The ruling in the Graafstroom question established new jurisprudence: before this the
Council of State had made no statements on the composition of municipal monuments com-
mittees. Given its national importance, the ruling quickly got publicity.b The ruling was also
published in a journal on jurisprudence.c In a loose-leaf comment on the Monument Law the
ruling is discussed.d Finally the ruling is dealt with in educational material.e All taken together,
we may call it a ‘standard ruling’ in monument legislation.
a Ruling Chairman Legislation Department Council of State,
An interesting comparison may be made, here as well, between judicial science and architec- November 27th 1991. Published in Administratiefrechte-
lijke Beslissingen 1993, 133.
ture. Also in architecture, buildings that may establish a new ‘standard’ are getting publicity, b Cate, F. ten (1992) Monumentencommissie met alleen
are being commented on and treated in education. However, it is our impression, that the gewone raadsleden is niet deskundig genoeg.
c See footnote a.
documentation infrastructure in judicial science has been institutionalised and professionalised d Zundert, J.W. van (1994) Artikelsgewijs commentaar Monu-
mentenwet 1988; Artikel 15, aantekening 3.
e Hobma, F.A.M. (1997) Monumentenrecht.

better than in architecture. In this respect architecture has something to learn from judicial
science.
9.6 SCALE LEVELS IN RULING FOR BUILDING

Just as in architecture, we may discern in ruling for building scale levels; the ‘spatial inter-
face’ of rules for building may differ on different scale levels.
- As an example the Physical Planning Act recognises (among others) The Netherlands as a
whole as interface: structural outline plans may be made going through the Physical Plan-
ning Key-Decisiona procedure. These structural outline plans are making spatial statements
in national level.
- The same law is encompassing also the regional level as an interface: regional plans may be
formulated with spatial statements on regional level.
- For the level of agglomerations rules exist as well: the Frame-work Law Policy in Change
obliges seven specifically named agglomerations to formulate a structure plan. In such a
plan the locations of projects important to the individual agglomeration have been recorded.
- For (parts of) the municipal scale level land-use plans can be formulated, pursuant to the
Physical Planning Act.
- Urban Renewal Act enables that for certain neighbourhoods an environmental ordering is
formulated in terms of well-being.
- On the level of the separate building the rulings of the Building Decree apply, pursuant to
the Housing Act. On the basis of the Environmental Control Act an extensive system of
general rules for ‘facilities’ applies there as well.
Although it is possible, therefore, to order rulings for building according to scale level, the
ruling for building has not been designed generally with spatial scale levels for point of depar-
ture. This does not make consulting rulings for building by architects any easier. Ruling for
building is by its very being, quite extensive and thereby hard to consult. Technical and con-
structional rules exist, rules for materials, rules for urban planning, environmental rules, rules
for working conditions of the workers themselves, rules for historic buildings, rules for bid-
ding, rules for professional conduct, rules for judicial relationships between parties in the
building process: and so on, and so forth. In spite of many efforts to attain deregulationb, the
rule giving for building remains a vast complex. For judicial scientific study of the building
profession this entails, - see also paragraph 1 – that, amongst others, study will continue to
be done with respect to the length of the arm of the law-rules and to harmonising conflicting
rules. For the practical judicial study on the field of building itself – compare paragraph 3 –
this entails that architects and those who build do well to use the tools available to lead the
commission in suitable channels.
a Planological Core-decision. Examples of structural

schemes are the Structural schema Traffic and Transpor-
tation and the Structural Schema Green Space (with the
Ecological Main Structure).
b ‘De-regulation’ is understood to be here alleviating the
pressure of rulings on industry and citizens, particularly as
materialised in lessening the number of rules.

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son).

F Ability to be criticised and to criticise

G Convergence and limitations

30 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

Retrieval and reference

Casuistry resulting in laws

34 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

NAMING COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS 35

4.2 FOCUS: SEED OF COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS

6 Big cities around the Green Heart

7 North and South wing

36 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

4.3 UNRAVELLING SCALE

11 Scope of nominal measures

a Russell, B. (1919) Introduction to mathematical philosophy.

NAMING COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS 37

4.5 UNRAVELLING OVERLAPS

a The functional CIAM separation ‘living, working, recreation

38 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

a Jong, T.M. de (1998) Sustaining design.

NAMING COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS 39

40 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

4.7 CONDITIONAL POSITIONING OF CONCEPTS

NAMING COMPONENTS AND CONCEPTS 41

The conditional analysis goes:

42 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 43

Making a personal database

Different reference types

44 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

Article and publication

5.2 REGISTER OF KEY-WORDS

RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 45

Not sub-dividing list of key-words

46 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 47

construction system and material(hybrid loadbearing construction).

‘Hybrid load bearing construction: furniture mall Zoetermeer

48 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

pre-fabricated(concrete(column, beam, floor(hollow core slabs, costs, steel(girder))

In the index, the content of this book is retrievable this way.

The syntax of a text

5.3 IMAGE SEARCH ON INTERNET

RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 49

Image and image characteristics

50 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

RETRIEVAL AND REFERENCE 51

52 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

6.2 METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES

A second methodological choice is related to systematics. A lot of descriptive research is try-

54 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

6.4 EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

56 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

58 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

d. History of the emergence of the Bijlmermeer

a Meyer, H. (1996) De stad en de haven. English translation:

60 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

7.1 USE OF SOURCES – HEURISTICS

62 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH

a. Context as a frame of reference

a Droysen, J.G. (1960) Grundriß der Historik: eine Enzyklo-

64 WAYS TO STUDY AND RESEARCH