CHAPTTER -5 ATTITUDESANDJOBSATISFACTION

Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1Attitudes:Introduction
5.1.1 MeaningofAttitudes
5.1.2 Nature of Attitudes
5.1.3 Functions of Attitude
5.2ComponentsofAttitudes
5.2.1 Sources of attitude
5.2.2 TypesofAttitudes
5.2.3 Dimensions of Attitude
5.3JobSatisfaction
5.3.1 Effect of Job Satisfaction
5.3.2 Theories of job Satisfaction
5.4 Job Characteristics Model
5.5 MeasuringJobSatisfaction
5.6 Summary
5.7 Glossary
5.8References
5.9 Further Readings
5.10 Model Questions

5.0 Aims andObjectives

Afterstudyingthislesson,youwillbeableto:
1. Define attitudes andjobsatisfaction.
2. Explainthecomponentsandtypesof attitude.
3. Describehowattitudesareformed.
4. Understandthecognitivedissonancetheory..
5. Understandtheimportanceofvalues &attitudesindeterminingone'sforsatisfaction.
.
5.1 Attitudes:Introduction
Attitudes are individuals' general affective, cognitive and intentional responses toward
objects,other people, themselves, or social issues. Attitudes are evaluative statements - either
favourable orunfavourable - concerning objects, people or events.They reflect how one feels about
something. Asindividuals,werespondfavourablyorunfavourablytowardsmanythings:co-workers,bosses,o
appearancesetc.Theimportanceofattitudesliesintheirlinktobehaviour.Whenanemployeesays,“Ilikemyjob”heo
rshe isexpressingtheirattitudeaboutwork.
5.1.1 MeaningofAttitudes
Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predisposition of opinion, interest or
purposeinvolvingexpectancy ofacertain kindofexperienceand readiness withan appropriate
response.Attitudes are also known as “frames of reference”. Theyprovide the background against which
factsand events are viewed. It becomes necessary to know the attitudes of membeirs of an
organisationbecausetheyhavetoperceivespecificaspectslikepay,hours-
ofwork,promotionetc.,oftheirjoblifeinthe widercontextoftheirgeneralisedattitudes.
Anattitudeisalsoacognitiveelement;italwaysremainsinsideaperson.Everyone'spsychological
world is limited and thus everyone has a limited number of attitudes.In businessorganisation,
employees have attitudes relating to world environment, job security etc. The individual'sattitudes
towards these factors are indicative of his apathy or enthusiasm towards the activities
andobjectivesofthe organisation.
5.1.2 NatureofAttitudes
(i) An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some objects in a
favourableor anunfavourablemanner.
(ii) The most pervasive phenomenon is “attitude”. People at work place have attitudes
aboutlots of topics that are related to them. These attitudes are firmly embedded in a
complexpsychologicalstructure ofbeliefs.
(iii) Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are
narrow,they are our feelings, thoughts and behavioural tendencies toward a specific
object orsituation.
(iv) Attitudeis apredisposition torespondtoacertainsetoffacts.
(v) Attitudesareevaluativestatements-
eitherfavourableunfavourableconcerningtheobjects,people orevents.
An attitude is “a mental state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a
specificinfluence upon a person's response to people, objects and situation with which it is related”.
Attitudesthusstateone'spredispositionstowardsgivenaspectsofworld.Theyalsoprovideanemotionalbhsisof
one's interpersonal relations and identification with others. Managers in work organisations need;
toknow and understand employee's attitudes in order to manage effectively. Attitudes do
inglluencebehaviour ofpeople andtheirperformancein organisations.
5.1.3 FunctionsofAttitude
Attitudesareknowntoserve at leastfourimportantfunctionsinanorganisationsetting.
(i) Attitudes Determine Meaning : Muca of what is seem in the environinent and in
otherpeople's behaviour is determined by attitudes. If one has a overall favourable
attitudetowards a person, oae tends to judge his activities as “good” or “superior”. On the
otherhand, negative attitudes or prejudices generally prompt disagreement with the
individualconcernedorfailureto appreciatethegood workdone byhim.
(ii) AttitudesReconcileContradictions: It is not uncommon to come across people
whoholicontradictoryopinions.Withtheproperattitudeasabackground,intelligentpeoplecan
reconcile or rationalise the same actions, which to others are obvious contradictions.For
examplewhenaworkertakesalittlerestasuperior considers it“idling”.
(iii) Altitudes Organise Facts : As already seen, objective events can be differently
perceivedbydifferentpeoplebecauseofdifferentattitudes.Meaningscanbeconcoctedandfalsel
y
 communicated to others by changing the attitudes of the recipients towards wider
socialissues.
(iv) Attitudes Select Facts : From the plethora of environmental facts and stimuli, one
tendstoselectthose,whichareinconsonancewith
one'scherishedbeliefsandattitudes.Attitudes,thus,actasascreen orfilter.
5.2 ComponentsofAttitudes
Thethreecomponents ofattitudesare:
1. Cognitivecomponent;
2. Affectivecomponent;and
3. Behaviouralcomponent.
1. CognitiveComponent
This component includes the beliefs an individual has about a certain person, object, or
situation.Thebeliefthat“discriminationiswrong”isavaluestatement.Suchanopinionisthecognitivecomponent
ofanattitude.Learnedbeliefs,suchas“youneedtoworkonghourstogetaheadinthisjob”,leadtoattitudesthathav
eanimpactonbehaviourintheworkplace.Thecognitioncomponentofanattitude,reflectsapersonsperceptions
orbeliefs.Cognitiveelementsareevaluativebeliefsandaremeasuredbyattitudescalesorbyaskingaboutthoug
hts.Thestatement“IbelieveJapaneseworkersare industrious,” reflect the cognitive component of an
attitude. The cognitive component sets the stageforthemore criticalpartof attitude-itsaffective component.
2. AffectiveComponent
This component refers to the person's feelings that result from his or her beliefs about a
person,object or situation. A person who believes hard work earns promotions may feel anger or
frustrationwhen he or she works hard but is not promoted. The affective component becomes stronger
as anindividual has more frequent and direct experience with a focal object, person or situation. Affect
is theemotional component of an attitude. It refers to an individual's feeling about something or
someone.Statements such as “I like this” or “I prefer that” reflect the affective component of an attitude.
Affect
ismeasuredbyphysiologicalindicatorssuchasgalvanicskinresponse(changesinelectricalresistanceofskin
whichindicate emotional arousal)and bloodpressure.These indicatörs show changesinemotions by
measuring physiological arousal. If an individual is trying to hide his or her feelings, thismightbeshown
byachange in arousal.
3. BehaviouralComponent
This component refers to the individual's behaviour that occurs as a result of his or her
feelingabout the focal person, object or situation. An individual may complain, request a transfer, or be
lessproductive because he or she feels dissatisfied with work. The behavioural component of an
attituderefers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. For example,
ourattitudes towards women in management may be inferred from an observation of the way we
behavetoward a female supervisor. We may be supportive, passive or hostile depending on our
attitude.Thebehavioural component of an attitude is measured by observing behaviour or by asking a
person aboutbehaviour orintentions.
Table3.8:ThreeComponents ofAttitude

Component Measuredby

A. Affect PhysiologicalindicatorsVerbalStatementsaboutFeelings

B. Behaviouralintentions ObservedBehaviourVerbalStatementsaboutIntentions

C. Cognition' AttitudescalesVerbalStatementsaboutBeliefs

Source:M.JRosenbergandC.l.Hovland“Cognitive.AffrectiveandBehaviouralComponentsorAttitude”,inAttitude
organizationandChange(NewHaven: YaleUniversityPress) 1960.
 Viewing attitudes as made up of three components - cognition, affect and behaviour - is
helpfultoward understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitude and
behaviour.The object of an attitude is represented as a prototype in a person's memory. Then an
individual usesan attitude as a scheme for evaluating an object. The person may assess the object as
good or bad,positive or negative, favoured or not; then the person determines the strategy to take
toward it.Theaccessibility of an attitude, or ease with which it is activated, affects its implementation.
Personalexperience with the object and the repeated expression of the attitude increases it
accessibility. In thisway, attitude-relatedinformation helpsprocesscomplex information.
5.2.1 SourcesofAttitudes
Attitudes,areacquiredfromparents,teachers,andpeergroupmembers.Wemodelourattitudes after
those we admire, respect or fear. Weobserve flue way familyand friends behave, andwe shape our
attifudes and behaviour to align with theirs.People also imitate the attitudes of popularindividuals and
those they admire and respect. Attitudes are an integral part of the world of work. It isimportant for
managers to understand the antecedents to attitudes as well as their consequences.Managers also
need to understand the different components of attitudes, how attitudes are formed, andthemajor
attitudesthataffectwork behaviour andhowtousepersuasiontochange attitudes.
5.2.2 TypesofAttitudes
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but most of the research in OB has been
concernedwiththreeattitudes:Jobsatisfaction,jobinvolvement,andorganizational commitment.
1. Job Satisfaction : Satisfaction results when a job fulfils or facilitates the attainment
ofindividual values and standards and dissatisfaction occurs when the job is seen as
blockingsuchattainment.Thisattitudehasreceivedextensiveattentionbyresearchersandpractiti
onersbecauseitwasatonetimebelievedtobethecauseofimprovedjobperformance. The term
“job satisfaction” refers to an individual's general attitude toward hisor her job. A person
with a high leve of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward thejob; a person who is
dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes about the job.Now, because of
managers' concern for creating both a humane and high
performanceworkplace,researchers continuetosearch for definiteanswersabout the
causesandconsequences ofjobsatisfaction.
2. Job Involvement : Job involvement is the degree to which a person identities with his
orher job, actively participates in it and considers his or her performance important to self-
worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really
careaboutthekindofworktheydo.Highlevelsofjobinvolvementhavebeenfoundtoberelatedtofew
erabsencesand lowerresignation rates.
3. OrganisationalCommitment: Organisational commitment is the degree to
whichanemployee identifies with a particular organisation and its goals, and wishes to
maintainmembership in the organisation. High organizational commitment means
identifying withone's employing organisation.
5.2.3 DimensionsofAttitudes
Attitudes are learned. Individuals acquire attitudes from several sources but the point to
bestressed is that the attitudes are acquired but not inherited. Our responses to people and issues
evolveovertime.Twomajorinfluencesonattitudes aredirectexperienceandsociallearning.
1. DirectExperience: Attitudes can develop from a personally rewarding or
punishingexperiencewithanobject.Directexperiencewithanobjectorpersonisapowerfulinfluen
ce on attitudes. Research has shown that attitudes that are derived from
directexperiencearestronger,areheldmoreconfidentlyandareneoreresistanttochangethan
 are attitudes formed through indirect experiance. One reason that attitudes derived
fromdirect experienee are so powerful is because of their availability. This means that
theattitudesareeasilyaccessedandareactiveinourcognitiveprocesses.Whenattitudesare
available we can call them quickly into consciousness, Attitudes that are not learnedfiom
directexperiencearenotasavailable, andthereforewe donotrecallthem easily.
(a) Classical Conditioning : One of the basic processes underlying attitude
formationcan be explained on the basis of learning principles. People develop
associationsbetweenvarious objectsandtheemotionalreactions thataccompanythem.
(b) Operant Conditioning : Attitudes that are reinforced, either verbally or non-
verbally,tends to be maintained. Conversely, a person who states an attitude that
elicitsridiculefromothersmaymodifyorabandonthe attitude.
(c) Vicarious Learning : In which a person learns something through the observance
ofothers can also account for attitude development particularly when the individual
hasno direct experience with the object about which the attitude is held. It is
throughvicariouslearningprocessesthatchildren pickupthe prejudicesoftheir parents.
2. SocialLearning:Insociallearning,thefamily,peergroupsandcultureshapeanindividual's
attitudes in an indirect manner. Substantial social learning occurs
throughmodelling,inwhichindividualsacquireattitudesbymerelyobservingothers.Foranindivid
ualto learnfromobserving amodel,fourprocessesmusttake place.
(i) Thelearnermustfocusattentiononthemodel.
(ii) Thelearnermustretainwhatwas observedfromthemodel.
(iii) Behaviouralreproductionmustgccurithatis,thelearnermustpracticethebehaviour.
(iv) The learner must be motivated to learn from the
model.Sociallearning can takeplace throughthefollowing ways:
(a) The Family : A person may learn attitudes through imitation of parents. If parents have
apositiveattitudetowardsanobjectandthechildadmireshisparents,heislikelytoadopta similar
attitude, even without being told about the object, and even without having
directexperience. Children also learn to adopt certain attitudes by the reinforcement they
aregivenbytheir parentswhentheydisplaybehavioursthatreflectanappropriateattitude.
(b) Peer Groups : Peer pressure moulds attitudes through group acceptance of
individualswho express popular attitudes and through tanctions, such as exelusion from
the group,placedon individuals who espouse(promoto)unpopularattitudes.
(c) Modelling : Substantial social learning occurs through modelling, in which
individualsacquire attitudes by merely observing others. The observer overhears other
indiviaualsexpressing an opinion or watches them engaging in a behaviour that reflects
an attitude,andtheobserveradoptsthisattitude.
 Box3.1: ChangingAttitudes

Can you change unfavorable employee attitudes? Sometimes it depends on who you are,
thestrength of the employee attitude, the magnitude of the change, and the technque you choose to
trytochangetheattitude.
Employees are most likely to respond to change efforts made by someone who is
liked,credible, and convincing. If people like you, they're more apt to identify and adopt your
message.Credibility implies trust, expertise, and objestivity. So you're more likely to change an
employee'sattitudeifthatemployeeseesyouasbelievable,knowledgeableaboutwhatyou’retalkingabout,
andunbiasedinyourpresentation.Finally,successfulattitudechangeisenhancedwhenyoupresentyourarg
umentsclearlyand persuasively.
It'seasier to changeanemployee'sattitude if he or she isn’t stronglycommitted toit.Conversely,
the stronger the belief about the attitude, the harder it is to change it. In addition,attitudes that have
been expressed publicly are more difficult to change because it requires one
toadmitheorshehasmade amistake.
It's easier to change attitudes when that change isn't very significant. To get an employee
toaccept a new attitude that varies greatly from his or her current position requires more effort. It
mayalsothreatenotherdeeply held attitudesandcreateincreased dissonance.
All attitude change techniques are not equally effective across situations. Oral
persuasiontechniques are most effective when you use a positive, useful tone; present strong
evidence tosupport your position; tailor your argument to the listener: use logic; and support your
evidence byApplying to the employee's fears, frustrations and other emotions. But people are more
likely toembrace change when they can experience it. The use of training sessions where
employees shareand personal experiences, and practies new behaviours, can be powerful
stimulants for change.Censistentwithself-perceptiontheory,changesinbehaviourcanleadtochangesin
attitudes.

Source:StephenPRobbins“OrganisationalBehaviour-concepts,controversies,applications”PrenticeHall
Englewood Fifth,NJ(7th option)1996,page188.
CognitiveDissonanceTheory
Leon Festinger in 1957, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance. According to this
theory,people want thelr belief to be consistent with one another and want their behaviours to be
consistentwith their beliefs. When people become aware of, inconsistency among their beliefs or
between theirattitudes and their behaviour, they experience “cognitive dissonance”, an unpleasant state
of arousalthat motivates them to reestablish consistency by changing one of their attitudes or by
changing theirbehaviours. Thus, if a person behaves in a way that runs counter to his or her attitude,
cognitivedissonance is created in that person. He or she then attempts to reduce the dissonance by
changingeitherthe attitude orthebehaviour.
Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between
twoor more of his or her attitudes or between his or her behaviour and attitudes.Festinger argues that
anyform of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt to reduce the disspenance
andhence, the discomfort. Therefore, individuals will seek a stable state where there is a minimum
ofdissonance.
CopingwithDissonance ,
No individual can completely avoid dissonance. So how do people cope with
dissonance?According to Festinger, the desire to reduce dissonance would be determmed by the
importance of theelements creating the dissonance; the degree of influence the individual believeshe or
she has overtheelementsandtherewardsthatmaybeinvolved in dissonance.
 (i) ImportanceoftheElements: If the elements creating the dissonance are
relativelyunimportant,the pressure tocorrectthisimbalance willbe low.
(ii) Degree of Influence : The degree of influence that individuals believe they have over
theelements will have an impact on how they will react to the dissonance. If they perceive
thedissonancetobeanuncontrollable,they arelesslikely tobereceptivetoattitudechange.
(iii) Rewards : Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to
reducedissonance.Highrewardsaccompanyinghighdissonancetendtoreducethetensioninher
ent inthedissonance.
These moderating factors suggest that just because individuals experience dissonance they
willnot necessarily move directly toward consistency, that is, toward reduction of this dissonance. If
theissuesunderlyingthedissonanceareofminimalimportance,ifanindividualperceivesthatthedissonance is
externally imposed and is substantially uncontrollable by him or her, or if rewards aresignificant enough
to off set the dissonance, the individual will not be under great tension to reduce thedissonance.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explainthemeaningofattitudes.
2. Whatarethecharacteristicsofattitudes?
3. Explainthecomponentsofattitudes.
4. Whatarethesources of attitudes?
5. Howattitudesareformed?
6. Explainthecognitivedissonancetheory.

5.3 JobSatisfaction
1. Job Satisfaction : It is the level of emotion that is attached to a job and a job situation.
Jobsatisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's
job orjobexperiences. Themostimportantfactorsconductivetojob satisfactionare:
(i) Mentally Challenging Work : Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them
opportunitiesto use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and
feedback on
howwelltheyaredoing.Underconditionsofmoderatechallenge,mostemployeeswillexperience
pleasureandsatisfaction.
(ii) Personality-Job Fit : People with personality types congruent with their chosen
vocationsshould find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the demands of their
jobs; andbecause of this success, have a greater probability of achieving high satisfaction
from theirwork itisimportant,thereforetofitpersonalityfactorswithjobprofiles.
(iii) Equitable Rewards: Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that
theyperceive as being just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is
seenas fair based on job demands, individual skill level and industry pay standard,
satisfactionislikelytoresult.Similarly,employeesseekfairpromotionpoliciesandpractices.Prom
otions provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and
increasedsociallstatus.Individualswhoperceivethatpromotiondecisionsaremadeinafairandju
stmannerarelikelytoexperiencejob satisfaction.
(iv) SupportiveWorkingConditions:Employeespreferphysicalconditionsthatarecomfortablean
dfacilitatedoingagoodJob.Temperature,light,noiseandotherenvironmentalfactorsshouldnotb
eextremeandprovidepersonalcomfort.Further,
 employees prefer working relatively close to home, in clean and relatively modern
facilitiesandwith adequatetoolsand equipment.
(v) Supportive Colleagues : Employees have need for social interaction.Therefore,
havingfriendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisors leads to
increased jobsatisfaction. Most employees want their immediate supervisor to be
understanding andfriendly, those whooffer praise for good performance, listen to
employees' opinions andshowa personalinterestin them.
An individual may hold different attittudes toward various aspects of the job.For
example,an employee may like his job respansibilities but be dissatisfied with the
opportunities
forpromotion.Characteristicsofindividualsalsoaffectjobsatisfaction.Thosewithhighnegativeaf
fectivityaremorelikely tobedissatisfied withtheirjobs.
Are satisfied workers more productive? Or, are more productive workers more
satisfied?The link between satisfaction and performance has been widely
explored.Researchshows weak support for both views, but no simple, direct relationship
between safisfactionand performance has been found. However, we can say that satisfied
workers are morelikely to want to give something back to the organization because they
want to reciprocatetheir positive experiences.
5.3.1 EffectofJobSatisfactiononEmployeePerformance
Jobsatisfactiondescribeshowcontent anindividualiswithhisor her job.
The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction
isnot thesame as motivation,although itis clearly linked.Job designaims to enhance job satisfactionand
performance, methods include job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. Other influenceson
satisfaction include the management style and cultµre, employee involvement, empowerment
andautonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a very important attribute which is frequently
measured byorganizations. The most common way of measurement is the use of rating scales where
employeesreport their reactions to their jobs. Questions relate to rate of pay, work responsibilities,
variety of tasks,promotional opportunities the work itself and co-workers. Some questioners ask yes or
no questionswhile others ask to rate satisfaction on 1-5 scale (where I represents “not at all satisfied”
and 5represents“extremelysatisfied”).
Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the
appraisalof one's job; an affective reaction to one's job; and an attitude towards one's job. Welss (2002)
hasargued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish
theobjectsofcognitiveevaluationwhichareaffect(emotion),beliefsandbehaviours,Thisdefinitionsuggeststh
atweformattitudestowardsourjobsbytakingintoaccountourfeelings,ourbeliefs,andour behaviors.
5.3.2 TheoriesofJobSatisfaction
1.AffectTheory
Edwin A. Locke's Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job
satisfactionmodel.The main promise of this theory is thatsatisfaction is determined by a discrepancy
betweenwhat one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much
onevaluesagivenfacetofwork(e.g.thedegreeofautonomyinaposition)moderateshowsatisfied/dissatisfiedo
nebecomeswhenexpectationsare/aren'tmet.Whenapersonvaluesaparticular facet of a job, his
satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations aremet) and
negatively(whenexpectationsare notmet),comparedto onewhodoesn'tvaluethatfacet.To
illustrate,ifEmployeeAvaluesautonomyintheworkplaceandEmployeeBisindifferentaboutautonomy,thenE
mployeeAwouldbemoresatisfiedinapositionthatoffersahighdegreeofautonomy and less satisfied in a
position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B, Thistheory also states that too much of a
particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction themorea workervaluesthatfacet.
II. DispositionalTheory
Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory. It is a very general
theorythat suggests that people have innate dispositions that cause them to have tendencies toward a
certainlevel of satisfaction, regardless of one's job. This approach became a notable explanation of
jobsatisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers
andjobs.Research also indicatesthatidenticaltwinshavesimilarlevels ofjobsatisfaction.
A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was the Core Self-
evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998, Judge argued that there are four Core Self-
evaluations that determine one's disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-
efficacy,locus of control, and neuroticism.This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value
oneplaces on his self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one's own competence) lead to higher
worksatisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over her\his own life,
asopposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels
ofneuroticismleadto higherjob satisfaction.
III. Two-FactorTheory(Motivator-HygieneTheory)
Frederick Herzberg's Two factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts
toexplainsatisfactionandmotivationintheworkplace.Thistheorystatesthatsatisfactionanddissatisfaction
are driven by different factors - motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. Motivatingfactors are those
aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people withsatisfaction, for example
achievement in work, recognition promotion opportunities. These motivatingfactors are considered to
be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygione factors include aspectsof the working
environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other workingconditions.
WhileHertzberg's model hasstimulated much research, researchers havebeen unable toreliably
empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Hertzberg's originalformulation of
tae model may have been a methodological artifact. Furthermore, the theory does notconsider
individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner tochanges
in motivating/hygiene factors Finally, the model has been criticised in that it does not
specifyhowmotivating/hygienefactorsaretobemeasured.
5.4 JobCharacteristicsModel
Hackman&OldhamproposedtheJobCharacteristicsModel,whichiswidelyusedasaframework to
study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job satisfaction.The model
states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance,autonomy,
and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced
meaningfulness,experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn
influencing workoutcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work motivation, etc.). The five core job
characteristics can becombined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used
as an index of howlikelyajobistoaffectanemployee'sattitudesandbehaviors----.Ameta-
analysisofstudiesthatassesstheframeworkofthemodelprovidessome supportforthevalidityofthe JCM.
IV. MotivationalTheoriesofjob Satisfaction
Vroom'sexpectancytheory (VIE)
i) CognitiveConceptsandchoice behavior &utilityconceptfromclassicaleconomictheory.
ii) Modelaroundconcept of -Valence,Instrumentality andexpectancy.
a. Valence-strengthofanindividualpreferenceforaparticular outcome.
 Positivevalence-mustprefersattainingoutcome,
 Negativevalence- prefernot attainingoutcome.
 Zerovalences-indifferenttowardsoutcome.
b. Instrumentality-
of1stleveloutcomeinobtainingadesired2ndleveloutcome(Subperformance-
promotion)
c. Expectancy-
 Mentalorcognitivestate.
 Relates effortsto1stleveloutcomes.
 Probability(rangingfrom0to1)thataparticularactionoreffortwillleadtoaIstleveloutcom
e.
iii) Theory (VIE) : The strength of the motivation to perform a certain act will depend on
thealgebraic sum of product of valences for outcomes (which includes instrumentality)
timestheexpectancy.
F=ΣValence×Expectancy
iv) ImplicationsofVroom'smodelforOB
a. Depictsaprocessofcognitivevariablethatreflectsindifferenceinworkmotivation.
b. Everyonehasauniquecombinationofvalences, instrumentalityandexpectancy.
c. Clarifiesrelationbetweenindividualandorganizationalgoal.
v) Ifoutputbelowstandard(lowlevelmotivationtoproduce)
a. May beworkerdoplacea high value on2nd leveloutcome,
b. Theymaynotseethatthe1stleveloutcomeisinstrumentalinobtaining2ndleveloutcome.
c. Theireffort willnotaccomplish1stleveloutcome.
d. Any combination oftheabove.
vi) Importance
a. Recognizescomplexitiesifworkmotivation.
b. Itisrelatively difficulttounderstandandapply.
TheEquity theoryof motivation
As the name implies, this motivation theory is based on the assumption that individuals
aremotivated by their desire to be equitably treated in their work relationships.When employees work
foranorganization:theybasicallyexchangetheirservicesforpayand otherbenefits.Equitytheoryproposes
that individuals attempt to reduce any inequity they may feel as a result of this exchangerelationship.
 Adam's Theory of Equity is one of the popular social exchange theories and is perhaps the
mostrigorously development statement of how individuals evaluate social exchange relationships.
Basically,the theory points out that people are motivated to maintain fair relationships with others and
will try torectify unfair relationships by making them fair. This theory is based on two assumptions about
humanbehaviour.
i. Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain outcomes (rewards).
Inputsinclude such things as the person's past training and experience, special knowledge
personalcharacteristics,etc.Outcomesincludepayrecognition,promotion,
prestige,fringebenefits,etc.
ii. Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory, by comparing their
inputsandoutcomestothose ofothersinthe
formofaratio.Equityexistswhenanindividualconcludesthathis/herownoutcome/inputratioisequaltot
hatofothers.
Thefigure3.2showsthebasicequitymodel.

Person other

inputs comparison Inputs

Outcomes Outcomes

Figure3.2:TheBasic EquityModel
Themotivationalaspectofequitytheoryisbasedon itstwomajorpremises:
1. Thetheoryarguesthattheperceptionofinequitycreatesatensioninus.
 2. The tension motivates us to eliminate or reduce inequality. The greater the
perceivedinequity,the strongerthetensionand thegreaterourmotivationto
reduceit.Whenattemptingtoreducefeltinequityanindividualislikelytotryanumberofalternatives
,some ofwhichare:
(i) Theperson mayincreaseor decrease inputs or outcomes relative to thoseof
theother;
(ii) Thepersonmay subjectivelydistortperceptionsofherown
ortheother'sinputsoroutcomes;
(iii) Thepersonmay changetoadifferentcomparison'other'.
(iv) Thepersonmayleavethe situation.
ReducingorEliminatingInequity
Although the specific actions an individual takes will depend on what appears to be feasible in
agiven situation, Adam suggests that maintaining one's self-esteem is an important priority. As a
result,an individual will probably first attempt to maximize outcomes and to personally resist costly
changes
ininputs.Changingperceptionsabouttheinputsandoutcomesofothersorattemptingtoaltertheirsideof the
equation will usually be more palatable than cognitively changing or actually altering one's ownside of
the equation. Actions to leave the situation will probably be taken only in cases of high inequitywhen the
other alternatives are not feasible. Finally, an individual will be highly resistant to changing
thecomparisonothers,especiallyiftheobjectsofcomparisonhave stabilizedovertime.
Although Adam's equity formulation considered one situation at a given point of time,
recentwork on the theory also considers inequalities that extend over a period of time. The addition of
the timeperspective helps explain why people sometimes blow up over seemingly small inequities
Residuesfrom previous inequities may pile up until the small incident becomes the “straw that broke the
camel'sback”,and wereactstrongly.
NewPerspectiveonEquityTheory
Since the original formulation of the theory, a number of revisions have been made in light
ofnewtheoriesandresearch;Oneimportanttheoreticalrevisionproposesthreetypesofiniividualsbasedon
preferencesforequity.
i. Equitysensitives:arethosepeoplewhopreferequitybasedontheoriginallyformedtheory.
ii. Benevalents:arepeoplewhoarecomfortablewithanequityratiolessthanthatofhisorher
comparisonother.
iii. Enteds:arepeoplewhoarecomfortablewithanequityratiogreaterthan theircomparisontothe
other.
ImplicationsforManagers:Equitytheorymakesseveralhelpfulsuggestionstosupplementtherecom
mendationsofexpectancytheory.
i. Managers need to maintain two-way communication with subordinates so that they
havesome ideaofsubordinates'equityperceptions,
ii. Itisimportanttoletsubordinatesknow
the“rules”thatwillgoverntheallocationofoutcomesrelatedtoinputs.Thisissueiscloselyrelatedto
theexpectancytheoryrecommendation that the relationship between performance; and
outcomes be made cleartosubordimites.
 iii. A pattern of inequalities over a period of time can build into major difficulties, which
isanother reason for maintaining good communication with subordinates, superiors,
peers,customers,andotherindividuals associated withthe job.
5.5 MeasuringJobSatisfaction
There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction. By far, the most common method
forcollecting data regarding job satisfaction is the Likert scale (named after Rensis Likert). Other
lesscommon methods of for gauging job satisfaction include: Yes/No questions, True/False questions,
pointsystems, checklists, and forced choice answers. This data is typically collected using an
EnterpriseFeedbackManagement(EFM) system.
TheJobDescriptiveIndex(JDI),createdby Smith,Kendall,&Hulin(1969),isaspecificquestionnaire of
job satisfaction that has been widely used. It measures one's satisfaction in five facetspay, promotions
and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale issimple,
participants answer either yes, no,or can’t decide (indicated by '?') in response to
whethergivenstatementsaccuratelydescribe one'sjob.
The Job in General lndex is an overall measurement of job satisfaction. It is an improvement
tothe Job Descriptive Index because the JDI focuses too much on individual facets and not enough
onwork satisfactionin general.
Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ),the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces Scale. The MSQ measures job satisfaction in
20facets and has a long form with 100 questions (five items from each facet) and a short form with
20questions (one item from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that measures nine facets
ofjobsatisfaction.Finally,theFacesScaleofjobsatisfaction,oneofthefirstscalesusedwidely,measuredoverall
jobsatisfactionwithjustoneitemwhichparticipantsrespondtobychoosing aface.
IncreasingJobSatisfaction
• Accomplishedbyimprovingtheworkenvironment
• JobEnrichment:Systematicprogramgiventoincreaseanemployee'sjobsatisfactionbygiving
themadditionalresponsibility.
• JobEnlargementincreasinganemployee'suseofknowledgeortheiramountoftasksdone
onthejob.
• JobRotation:Allowingtheemployeestodo different dutiesona regularscheduledbasis.
JobSatisfactionandEmotions
Mood and emotions while working are the raw materials which cumulate to form the
affectiveelement of job satisfaction. (Weise and Cropanzano, 1996). Moods tend to be longer lasting
but oftenweaker states of uncertain origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have
a clearobjectorcause.
Thereissomeevidenceintheliteraturethatstatemoodsarerelatedtooveralljobsatisfaction.
Positiveandnegative emotionswere alsofoundtobesignificantlyrelatedtooveralljobsatisfaction.
Frequencyofexperiencingnetpositiveemotionwillbeabetterpredictorofoveralljobsatisfactionthan
willintensityofpositiveemotionwhen it isexperienced.
Emotion regulation and emotion labor are also related to job satisfaction. Emotion work
oremotion management) refers to various efforts to manage emotional states and displays.
Emotionregulation includes all of the conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or
decrease oneor more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences of
emotional laboremphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of workers in a variety of
occupations suggest thattheconsequences ofemotional labor are notuniformlynegative.
 Itwasfoundthatsuppressionofunpleasantemotionsdecreasesjobsatisfactionandtheamplificationof
pleasantemotionsincreasesjobsatisfaction.Theunderstandingofhowemotionregulationrelatestojobsatisfa
ction concernstwo models:
1. Emotions Dissonance : Emotional dissonance is a state of discrepancy between
publicdisplays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions, that often follows the process of
emotionregulation. Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional exhaustion, low
organizationalcommitment,and lowjobsatisfaction.
2. Social Interaction Model : Taking the social interaction perspective, workers'
emotionregulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters that
subsequently
impacttheirownjobsatisfaction.Forexample:Theaccumulationoffavorableresponsestodisplaysofpleasant
emotions might positively affect job satisfaction. Performance of emotional labor that
producesdesiredoutcomescould increasejobsatisfaction.
RelationshipsandPracticallmplications
Job Satisfaction can be an important indicator of how employees feel about their jobs and
apredictor of work behaviours such as organizational citizenship, absenteeism, and turnover. Further,
jobsatisfactioncanpartiallymediatetherelationshipofpersonalityvariablesanddeviant workbehaviors.
One common research finding is that job satisfaction on is correlated with life satisfaction.
Thiscorrelationisreciprocal,meaningpeoplewhoaresatisfiedwithlifetendtobesatisfiedwiththeirjoband
people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. However, some research hasfound
that job satisfaction Job Satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when
othervariablessuchasnonworksatisfaction andcoreself-evaluationsaretakenintoaccount.
An important finding for organizations to note is that job satisfaction has a rather
tenuouscorrelation to productivity on the job. This is a vital piece of information to researchers and
businesses,as the idea that satisfaction and job performance are directly related to one another is often
cited in themedia and in some non-academic management literature. A recent meta-analysis found an
averageuncorrectedcorrelationbetweenjobsatisfactionandproductivitytober=.18;theaveragetruecorrelatio
n, corrected for research artifacts and unreliability, was r =.30. Further, the meta-analysisfound that the
relationship between satisfaction and performance can be moderated by job
complexity,suchthatforhigh-complexityjobsthecorrelationbetweensatisfactionandperformanceishigher(p
= .52) than for jobs of low to moderate complexity (p = .29; in short, the relationship of satisfaction
toproductivity is not necessarily straightforward and can be influenced by a number of other work-
relatedconstructs, and the notion that “a-happy worker is a productive worker” should not be the
foundation oforganizationaldecision-making.
Withregardtojobperformance,employeepersonalitymaybemoreimportantthanjobsatisfaction. The
link between job satisfaction and performance is thought to be a spurious relationship;instead,
bothsatisfactionand performancearethe resultofpersonality.
5.6 SUMMARY
Attitudes are individuals general affective, cognitive and intentional responses toward
objects,other people themselves, or social issues. Attitudes are evaluative statements - either favorable
orunfavorable - concerning objects, people or events. Attitudes thus state one's predispositions
towardsgiven aspects of world. They also provide an emotional basis of one' interpersonal relations
andidentificationwithothers.Attitudesareknowntoserveatleastfourimportantfunctionsinanorganization
setting. Attitudes are learned. Individuals acquire attitudes from several sources but thepoint to be
stressed is that the attitudes are acquired but not inherited. Values are learned and acquiredprimarily
through experiences with people and institutions. In contemporary organization people faceethical and
moral dilemmas in many diverse areas. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment
aretwoimportantwork attitudes thatmanagers canstrivetoimproveamongtheiremployees.
 5.7 GLOSSARY
Attitude : An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an- individual's degree of like
ordislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or
event-this isoftenreferredto astheattitudeobject.
Job satisfaction : Sense of inner fulfillment and pride achieved when performing a
particularjob.Jobsatisfactionoccurswhenanemployeefeelshehasaccomplishedsomethinghavingimportan
ceandvalue worthyofrecognition;sense ofjoy.
Values : The accepted standards or moral principles of a person or a group. Values are
similarto normsinhavinga moraland regulatory role,butvalueshave a widersignificance than
normsingoingbeyond specificsituations.
Cognitivedissonancetheory:Atheorywiththebasicpremisethatpeopleliketobeconsistentin
theirthoughts,opinions,attitudeandbehaviors.
5.8 REFFERENCES
 FredLuthans,'OrganisationalBehaviour”,(7thEd)McGrawHill, NewYork(1995).
 DavisKeithandScottWilliamG,“HumanRelationsandOrganisationalBehaviour:ReadingsandComments
”,McGrawHill,NewYork(1969).
 Ahmed Abad, “Management and Organisation Development”, Rachna Prakashan, New Delhi
(1972).AppleWhite,PhillipB,“OrganisationalBehaviour”.PrenticeHallEnglewoodCliff(1965).
 PG.Aquinas,“OrganisationalBehaviour”,ExcelBooks,NewDelhi,
 ArnoldandFeidman,“OrganisationalBehaviour”,McGrawHillInternational,NewYork.
5.9 FURTHER READINGS
 John WNewstorm,KeithDavis,“Organisational Behavioura-HumanBehaviouratWork”.; (9th
Edition)McGrawHill,NewYork(1989)
 WoodwardJ(Ed.),“IndustrialOrganisations:BehaviourandControl”,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford(1970)
 Whyte W.F, “Organisational Behaviour” Irwin/Dorsey Homewood III
(1969)Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour. Concepts,
Prentice Hall IndiaGaryDesslar, OrganizationTheories, Prentice
Hall,India
 L.M.Prasad, ManagementProcessandOrganizational,SultanChand&Sons.

5.10 Model Question

1. DefineAttitudes.ExplainthecharacteristicandfunctionofAttitude.
2. Howattitudesareformed?
3. Whatis cognitivedissonanceand howisitrelated toattitudes?
4. DefineValues. Distinguish-betweeninstrumentalvaluesandterminalvalues.
5. Howvaluesareformed?
6. Howdoesourvaluesaffectour behavior.
7. Whatis JobSatisfaction?DiscussthevarioustheoriesofJobSatisfaction.
8. Howdoyouthevaluesandattitudesofapersondeterminehislevelofjobsatisfaction?Discuss.

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