Lesson -6

PERSONALITY

CONTENTS
6.0Objectives
6.1Introduction
6.2 MeaningandDefinitionofPersonality
6.3MajorDeterminantsofPersonality
6.4MajorpersonalityattributesaffectingOB
6.5MeasuringPersonality
6.6 BigFivepersonalitytraits(Model)
6.7Hollandtypologyofpersonalityandsampleoccupation
6.8TraitTheoriesofpersonality
6.9 Summary
6.10 Glossary
6.11 References
6.12 Further Readings
6.13 Model Questions
6.0 OBJECTIVES
Afterstudyingthislesson,youwillbeableto:
1. Definethetermpersonality.
2. Identifythedeterminantsofpersonality.
3. Describecognitiveandmotivationalpropertiesof personality.
4. Explainthetheoriesof personality.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The word personality has an interesting derivation. It can be traced to the Latin words
―personare‖ which translates as ―to speak through‖. The Latin term was used to denote the masks worn
byactors in ancient Greece and Rome. This Latin meaning is particularly relevant to the
contemporaryanalysis of personality.Personality traditionally refers to how people-influence others
through theirexternalappearancesandactions.Butforthepsychologists personalityincludes:
i. Eternalappearancesandbehaviour
ii. Theinnerawarenessofself asapermanent organizingforce, and
iii. Theparticular organizationofmeasurabletraits,bothinnerandouter.
Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's behaviour. Personality
isdefined as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an individual's behaviour. For
ourpurposes,youshouldthinkofpersonalityasthesumtotalofwaysinwhichanindividualreactsand
interactswithothers.Thisismostoftendescribedintermsofmeasurablepersonalitytraitsthatapersonexhibits.
6.2 MEANINGANDDEFINITIONOFPERSONALITY
Though psychologists and social scientists unanimously agree to the importance of
personality,they are unable to come out with a unanimous definition. Many authorities on the subject
have definedpersonality in different ways.Some ofthedefinitionsarereproducedbelow:
Probably the most meaningful approach would be to include both the person and the role
asFloydL.Ruchdoesin hisdefinition.He statesthat:
Thehumanpersonality includes:
i. Externalappearanceandbehaviour orsocialstimulusvalue
ii. Innerawarenessofselfasapermanentorganizingforce
iii. Theparticularpatternororganizationofmeasurabletraits,both―inner‖and―outer‖.
Gordon Allport gave the most frequently used definition of personality nearly 70 years ago.
Hesaid personality is ―the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
thatdeterminehisuniqueadjustmentstohis environment‖.
J.B Kolasa defines personality as –―Personality is a broad, amorphous designation relating
tofundamental approaches of persons to others and themselves. To most psychologists and students
ofbehaviour, this term refers to the study of the characteristic traits of an individual, relationships
betweenthesetraits andthewayin whichapersonadjuststoother people andsituations‖.
According to Gluck – ―Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a
personthatinfluenceshisorherbehaviourtoward goalachievement.Each personhas
uniquewaysofprotectingthese states‖.
James D Thompson and Donald Van Houten define personality as- ―a very diverse and
complexpsychologicalconcept.Theword―personality‖maymeansomethinglikeoutgoing,invigoratinginterpe
rsonal abilities ... but we must also recognize and explain the fact that development results inman
acquiring a distinctiveness or uniqueness which gives him identity which enables him and us
torecognize him as apart from others. These distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the
termpersonality‖.
Fromtheabovedefinitionswecansaythatpersonalityisaverydiverseandcomplexpsychological
concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behaviour, self, measurable traits,and situational
interactions. The words of Clyde Kleeckholnand H. A. Murray can be used to sum upthe meaning of
this complex term personality why they said ―that to some extent, a person‘s personalityis likeall
otherpeople's,like someother people's,likenootherpeople's‖.

CheckYourProgress
Writepersonalitytraitsofpsychologist,

6.3 MAJORDETERMINANTSOFPERSONALITY
What determines personality? Of all the complexities and unanswered questions in the study
ofhumanbehaviour, thisquestionmay be the mostdifficult.Peopleareenormouslycomplex;theirabilities
and interests and attitudes are diverse. An early argument in personality research was
whetheranindividual'spersonalitywastheresult of heredityorenvironment.
Wasthepersonalitypredetermined
at birth, or was it the result of the individual's interaction with his or her environment?
Personalityappears to be a result of both influences. Additionally, today we recognize another factor -
the situation.The problem lies in the fact the cognitive and psychological processes, plus many other
variables, allcontribute to personality. The determinants of personality can perhaps best be grouped in
five broadcategoristbiological,cultural,family,socialandsituational.
I. BiologicalFactors
Thestudyofthebiologicalcontributions topersonality maybestudiedunderthreeheads:
(a) Heredity : Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.Physical
stature,facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level,
andbiological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one's parents.
Theheredityapproach arguesthatthe ultimate explanationofanindividual'spersonalityis
themolecular structure ofthe genes,locatedin thechromosomes.
Research on animals has showed that both physical and psychological
characteristicscanbe transmitted throughheredity. But researchonhuman beingsis inadequate to
supportthisviewpoint.However,psychologistsandgeneticistshaveacceptedthefactthatheredityplay
san importantrole in one'spersonality.
(b) Brain : The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays
inpersonality. Though researchers make some promising inroads, the psychologists are unable
toprove empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing personality. The most recent
andexciting possibilities come from the work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
andsplit-brain psychology. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain
(ESB)research give indication that better understanding of human personality and behaviour
mightcome from the study of the brain. Work with ESB on human subjects is just beginning.
Thereseem to be definite pleasurable and painful areas in the human brain. This being true, it
may bepossiblephysicallytomanipulatepersonalitythrough ESB.
(c) Biofeedback:Untilrecently,physiologistsandpsychologistsfeltthatcertainbiologicalfunctions such
as brainwave patterns, gastric secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure
andskintemperaturewerebeyondconsciouscontrol.Nowsomescientistsbelievethattheseinvoluntar
y functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback. In BFT the individuallearns the
internal rhythm of a particular body process through electronic signals feedback fromequipment
that is wired to the body area. From this biofeedback the person can learn to controlthe body
process in question. More research is needed on biofeedback before any
definitiveconclusionscanbedrawn.Butitspotentialimpact couldbeextremelyinterestingforthefuture.
(d) Physical Features : A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual's external appearance,
isbiologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white
willinfluence the person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept. Practically
allwouldagree that physical characteristicshave atleast someinfluence on the
personality.According to Paul H Mussen ―a child's physical characteristics may be related to his
approach tothe social environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their reactions to him.
These, inturn,may have impactson personalitydevelopment'.
If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed
atbirth and no amount of experience could after them. But personality characteristics are
notcompletely dictatedbyheredity.Thereareotherfactors,whichalso influencepersonality.
II. Cultural Factors
Among the factors that e wt pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which
weare raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and social groups and
otherinfluencesweexperience.Traditionally,culturalfactorsareusuallyconsideredtomakeamoresignificant
contribution to personality than biological factors. The culture largely determines attributestoward
independence, aggression, competition, and cooperation.According to Paul H Mussen ―eachculture
expects, and trains, its members to behave in the ways that ate acceptable to the group. To amarked
degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely
toencounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence
learned‖;Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its members. There are several ways of
ensuringthatmemberscomplywiththedictatesoftheculture.Thepersonalityofanindividualtoamarkedextent
is determined by the culture in which he or she is brought up. It follows that a person reered in
awesternculturehisadifferentpersonalityfromapersonrearedin ourIndian culture.
III. FamilyFactors
Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the
family,andlaterthesocialgroup,whichselects,interpretsanddispensestheculture.Thus,thefamilyprobably
has the most significant impact on early personality development. A substantial amount ofempirical
evidence indicates that the overall home environment created by the parents, in addition totheir direct
influence, is critical to personality development. For example, children reared in a cold,unstimulating
home are much more likely to be socially and emotionally maladjusted than children rosebyparentsina
warm,loving-andstimulating environment.
The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important
totheperson'searlydevelopment.AccordingtoMischel,theprocesscanbeexaminedfromthreedifferentpersp
ectives.
i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feeling and
attitudesbetweenchild andmodel.
ii. Identificationcanbe looked atasthechild'smotivesordesirestobe likethe model.
iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes
ofthemodel.
From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the understanding
ofpersonalitydevelopment.Thehomeenvironmentalsoinfluencesthepersonalityofanindividual.Siblings
(brothersandsisters)alsocontributetopersonality.
IV. Social Factors
Thereisincreasingrecognitiongiventotheroleofotherrelevantpersons,groupsandespecially
organizations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called
thesocializationprocess.Socializationinvolvestheprocessbywhichapersonacquires,fromtheenormously
wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her. Socialization starts withthe initial
contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediatefamily -
father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group - peers,
schoolfriendsandmembersofthe workgroup,playinfluential roles.
Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behaviour because the process
isnot confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one's life. In particular, evidence
isaccumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees behave the
waytheydointoday'sorganizations.
V. SituationalFactors
Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is
quitestrong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important
modifications ofbehaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent, does
change in differentsituations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of
one's personality.According to Milgram ―Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It
exercises constraints
andmayprovidepush..IncertaincircumstancesitisnotsomuchtheKindofpersonamanis,asthekindofsituationi
nwhichheisplacedthatdetermineshisactions‖.Weshouldthereforenotlookatpersonality patterns inisolation.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Definepersonal, QQ QUESTIONS
2. Whatarethemajordeterminantsof Personality?

6.4 MAJORPERSONALITYATTRIBUTESAFFECTINGOB
Managers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to understand
theiremployees.Hundreds ofpersonalitycharacteristicshavebeenidentified.We have
selectedeightcharacteristicsbecauseortheirparticularinfluencesonindividualbehaviourinorganizations.Th
eyare:
1. Locusof Control
2. Machiavellianism
3. Self-esteem
4. Self-efficacy
5. Self-monitoring
6. Positive/NegativeAffect
7. RiskTaking
8. TypeAPersonality,
1. LocusofControl:Some people believe they are masters of theirown fate. Other people
seethemselvesaspawnsoffate,believingthatwhathappenstothemintheirlivesisduetoluckorchance.A
nindividual'sgeneralizedbeliefaboutinternal (self)versusexternal(situation orothers)controliscalled
locusofcontrol.
a. Internals : Those who believe they control their destinies have been labelled
internals.Internals (those with an internal locus of control) have been found to have higher
jobsatisfaction: to be more likely to assume managerial positions, and to prefer
participativemanagementstyles.Inaddition,internalshavebeenshowntodisplayhigherworkmo
tivation, hold stronger beliefs that effort leads to performance, receive higher
salariesanddisplay less anxietythanexternals(thosewithanexternal locusofcontrol).
b. Externals : Externals are those individuals who believe that what happens to them
iscontrolled by outside forces such as luck or chance. Externals prefer a more
structuredwork setting and they may be more reluctant to participate in decision-making.
They aremorecompliantand willing tofollowdirections.
 Research on locus of control has strong implications for organizations. A
largeamount ofresearchcomparinginternalswith externalshas
consistentlyshownthatindividuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their
jobs, have higherabsenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting and are
less involved ontheir jobs than internals.Why are externals more dissatisfied? The
answer is probablybecause they perceive themselves as having little control over those
organizationaloutcomes that are important to them. Knowing about locus of control can
prove valuableinsights to managers. Because internals believe that they control what
happens to
them,theywillwanttoexercisecontrolintheirworkenvironment.Allowinginternalsconsiderable
voice in how work is performed is important internals will not react well tobeing closely
supervised. Externals, in contrast, may prefer a more structured
worksetting,andtheymaybemorereluctantto participatein decision-making.
Therefore,internalsdowellonsophisticatedtasks-whichincludesmostmanagerial
and professional jobs - that require complex information processing
andlearning.Additionally,internalsaremoresuitedtojobthatrequireinitiativeandindependenc
e of action. In contrast, externals should do well on jobs that are
wellstructuredandroutineandwheresuccessdependsheavilyoncomplyingwiththedirections
ofothers.
2. Machiavellianism : Niccolo Machiavelli was a sixteenth century Italian statesman.He wrote―The
Prince‖, a guide for acquiring and using power. The primary method for achieving
powerthathesuggestedwasmanipulationofothers.Machiavellianismthenisapersonalitycharacteristi
c indicating one's willingness to do whatever it takes to get one's way. An individualhigh in
Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends
canjustifymeans.―Ifitworks,useit‖,isconsistentwith a high-Machperspective.
High-Machsbelievethatanymeansjustifythedesiredends.Theybelievethatmanipulations of
others are fine if it helps achieve a goal. Thus, high-Machs are likely to
justifytheirmanipulativebehaviourasethical.Theyanemotionallydetachedfromotherpeopleandare
orientedtowardsobjective aspectsofsituations.
R.ChristieandF.LGeis,havefoundthathigh-Machsflourish
a. Whentheyinteractfact-to-facewithothersratherthanindirectly.
b. When the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing
latitudeforimprovisation,and
c. Whenemotionalinvolvementwithdetailsirrelevanttowinningdistractslow-Machs.
Ahigh-MachindividualbehavesinaccordancewithMachiavelli'sideas,whichincludethe notion
that it is better to be feared than loved. High-Machs tend to use deceit in
relationships,haveacynicalviewofhumannatureandhavelittleconcernforconventionalnotionsofright
andwrong.Theyareskilledmanipulatorsofotherpeople,relyingontheirpersuasiveabilities.High-
Machswesuitableinjobsthatrequirebargainingskillsorwheretherearesubstantialrewardsforwinning
(example:commissioned sales).
3. Self-esteem : Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth. Individuals with
highself-esteem have positive feelings about themselves, perceive themselves to have strength
aswell as weaknesses, and believe their strengths are more important than their
weaknesses.Individuals with low self-esteem view themselves negatively. They are more
strongly affected bywhatother people think ofthem, and they complimentindividuals who give
thempositivefeedbackwhile cuttingdownpeople who givethemnegativefeedback.
 Researchonself-esteem(SE)offerssomeinterestinginsightsintoorganizationalbehaviour.
i. High-SEs:PeoplewithHighSEs
 Believethey possessmoreoftheabilitytheyneedinordertosucceedatwork.
 IndividualswithhighSEwilltakemorerisksinjobselectionandaremorelikelytochooseunco
nventionaljobs.
 Theyaremoresatisfiedwith theirjobs.
ii. Low-SEs:PeoplewithlowSEs
 Aremoresusceptibletoexternalinfluence.
 Theydependonthereceipt ofpositiveevaluations fromothers.
 Theytendtobeconcernedwithpleasingothersandtherefore,arelesslikelytotakeunpopular
stands.
 Theyarelesssatisfiedwiththeirjobs.
Self-esteem may be strongly affected by situations. Success tends to raise self-
esteem,whereasfailuretendstolowerit.Giventhathighself-
esteemisgenerallyapositivecharacteristic, managers should encourage employees to raise their
self-esteem by giving themappropriatechallengesand opportunitiesforsuccess.
4. Self-Efficacy : Self-efficacy refers to a individual's belief that he or she is capable of
performinga task. The higher y our self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to
succeed ina task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are more
likely toslacken their effort or give up altogether, whereas those with high self-efficacy will try
harder tomaster the challenge. In addition, individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to
negativefeedback with increased effort and motivation; those low in self-efficacy are likely to
reduce theireffortwhen given negative feedback.
Individualswithhighself-efficacybelievethattheyhavetheabilitytogotthingsdone,that they
are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish the task, and that they
canovercomeanyobstaclestotheirsuccess.There arefoursourcesofself-efficacy:
 Priorexperiences,
 Behaviourmodels-witnessingthesuccessofothers.
 Persuasionfrom otherpeopleand
 Assessmentof currentphysicalandemotionalcapabilities.
Believing in one's own capability to get something done is an important facilitator
ofsuccess. There is strong evidence that self-efficacy leads to high performance on a wide
varietyofphysicaland mental tasks. Managerscan helpemployees develop theirself-efficacy.
Thiscan be done by providing avenues for showing performance, and rewarding an
employee'sachievements.
5. Self-monitoring : A characteristic with great potential for affecting behaviour in organizations
isself-monitoring. Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour
toexternalsituationalfactors.
High self-monitors pay attention to who is appropriate in particular situations and to
thebehaviour of other people, and they behave accordingly. Low self-monitors, in contrast, are
notas vigilant to situational cues, and act from internal states rather than paying attention to
thesituation.Asaresult,thebehaviouroflowself-monitorsisconsistentacrosssituations.High
 self-
monitors,becausetheirbehaviourvarieswiththesituation,appearstobemoreunpredictableandlessco
nsistent.Highself-monitorsarecapableofpresentingstrikingcontradictionsbetween
theirpublicpersonalandtheirprivateself.Lowself-monitorscan'tdisguisethemselvesthisway.
6. Positive Negative Affect : Individuals who focus on the positive aspects of themselves,
otherpeople,and theworld ingeneralaresaidto havepositiveaffect.Incontrast,thosewhoaccentuate
the negative in themselves, others, and the world are said to possess negativeaffect.
Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often. Individuals with
negativeeffectreportmoreworkstress.Negativeindividualaffectproducesnegativegroupaffectandthi
s leads to less cooperative behaviour in the work group. Managers can do several things
topromote positive affect, including allowing participative decision making and providing
pleasantworkingconditions.
7. Risk-taking : People differ in their willingness to take chances. This propensity to assume
oravoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a
decisionand how much information they require before making their choice. High-risk-taking
managersmake more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices than low-
risk-takingmanagers.
While, it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are risk
aversive,there are still individual differences on this dimension. As a result, it makes sense to
recognizethese differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job
demands.Forexample,ahigh-risk-
takingpropensitymayleadtomoreeffectiveperformanceforastockbrokerbutthesepersonality
characteristicsmightproveamajor obstacleforanauditor.
8. Type A Personality : Type A behaviour pattern is a complex of personality and
behaviouralcharacteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency, social status, insecurity,
aggression,hostility and a quest for achievements. Type A personality individual is ―aggressively
involved ina chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if
required todoso,againsttheopposingeffortsofotherthingsorotherpersons‖.
TypeApersonalities:
i. Arealwaysmoving,walking,andeatingrapidly:
ii. Feelimpatientwiththerate atwhichmosteventstakeplace;
iii. Strivetothinkordotwoormorethingssimultaneously
iv. Cannot copewithleisuretime;and
v. Areobsessedwithnumbers,measuringtheirsuccessintermsofhowmuchofeverythingthey
acquire.
The alternative to the Type A behaviour pattern is the Type behaviour pattern. People with
TypeB personalities are relatively-free of the Type A behaviours and characteristics.Type B
personalitiesare ―rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or
participate in anendlessgrowingseriesofevents inan ever decreasingamountoftime.‖
TypeB personality:
i. Neversufferfromasenseoftimeurgencywithitsaccompanyingimpatience;
ii. Feelnoneedtodisplayordiscusseithertheirachievementsoraccomplishmentsunlesssuchexpo
sure isdemanded bythesituation;
iii. Playforfunandrelaxation,ratherthantoexhibittheir superiority at anycost;and
 iv. Canrelaxwithout guilt
Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B organizations. Type A
individualsin Type B organizations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations experience stress
related to amisfitbetweentheir personalitytypeandthe predominanttypeoftheorganization.
6.5 MEASURINGPERSONALITY
Several methods can be used to assess personality. These include projective tests,
behaviouralmeasuresandself-reportquestionnaires.Thesemeasuresofpersonalityare explainedbelow:
1. The Projective Tests : In these tests, individuals are shown a picture, abstract image, or
photoand are asked to describe what they see or to tell a story about what they see. The
rationalebehind projective tests is that each individual responds to the stimulus in a way that
reflects hisor her unique personality.The Rorschach inkblot tests, Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT), andthesentencecompletionmethodareall
projectivetestscommonlyusedtoassesspersonality.
Research evidence concerning the validity of projective techniques as a whole is
verydisappointing. Projective tests continue to suffer from a lack of objectivity in scoring and
anabsence of adequate norms. Nevertheless in clinical practice, projective tests continue to be
apopular and valueddiagnostictool.
2. Behavioural Measures : There are behavioural, measures of personality as well. Using
anobservational technique known as behavioural assessment, psychologist can count and
recordthe frequency of particular behaviours.For example, we might assess a person‘s
sociability, bycounting the numberof timeshe or the approachesstrangers at a party.The
behaviourisscoredinsomemannerto producean indexofpersonality.
Althoughmuchcanbelearnedfromobservationithasthefollowingshortcomings:
i. Itis time-consumingandexpensive
ii. Whatis observedmaybemisinterpreted.
iii. Twoobserverscanviewthesameeventandinterpretitdifferently.
iv. Thepresenceofthe observercan alterthebehaviour being observed.
3. Self-report questionnaire : The most common method of assessing personality is the self-
report questionnaire Individuals respond to a series of questions, usually in an
'agree/disagree'or ‗true/false'format.Thetwomostwidelyrecognizedselfreportquestionnairesare:
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
inventory(MMPl)Mayers-
BriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)
a. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) : The MMPl is
comprehensiveand assesses a variety of traits, as well as various neurotic or psychotic
disorders.
Usedextensivelyinpsychologicalcounsellingtoidentifydisorders,theMMPIisalongquestionn
aire, it is useful in the screening, diagnosis and clinical description of
abnormalbehaviour,butdoesnotrevealdifferencesamongnormalpersonalitiesvery well.
b. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MPTI) : Another popular self-report questionnaire
isthe Myers Briggs Type indicator (MBRl). It is essentially a 100 - question personality
testthat asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations Katharine Briggs
andher daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to
putJung's type theory into practical use. The MMTI is used extensively in organizations
as abasisforunderstandingindividualdifferences.TheMBTlhasbeenusedincareer
 counselling,teambuilding,conflictmanagementandforabetterunderstandingofmanagementstyle
s.
Basedonthe answers individuals give tothetest,theyareclassified as:
 ExtrovertedorIntroverted(EorI)
 Sensingor intuitive(SorN)
 ThinkingorFeeling (TorF)and
 Perceiving orJudging (PorJ)
Therearefourbasicpreferencesintypetheoryandtwopossiblechoicesforeachofthefourpreferences.Thec
ombinationofthese preferencesmakesupan individual's psychologicaltype.
6.6 BIGFIVEPERSONALITYTRAITS(MODEL)
Inpsychology,the―BigFive‖personalitytraitsarefiveboardfactorsordimensionsofpersonality
developed through lexical analysis. This is the rational and statistical analysis of wordsrelated to
personality as found-in natural-language dictionaries. The traits are also referred to as
the―FiveFactorModel‖(FFM).
The model is considered to be the most comprehensive empirical or data-driven enquiry
intopersonality. The first public mention of the model was in 1933, by L. L. Thurstone in his
presidentialaddresstotheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Thurstone'scommentswerepublishedinPsyc
hologicalReviewthe nextyear.
ThefivefactorsareOpenness,Conscientiousness,Extraversion,Agreeableness,andNeuroticism(O
CEAN,orCANOEifrearranged).Somedisagreementremainsabouthowtointerpretthe Openness factor,
which is sometimes called ―Intellect.‖Each factor consists of a cluster of morespecific traits that
correlate together. For example, extraversion includes such related qualities associability
excitementseeking,impulsiveness,and positiveemotions.
The Five Factor Model is a purely descriptive model of personality, but psychologists
havedevelopeda numberoftheoriestoaccountforthe Big Five.
Overview
TheBigFivefactors andtheir constituenttraits canbesummarizedasfollows:
 Opensess:appreciationforart,emotion,adventure,unusualideas,imagination,curiosity,andvarietyo
fexperiences.
 Conscientiousness:atendency toshow self-
discipline,actdutifully,andaimforachievement;plannedratherthanspontancousbehavior.
 Extraversion:energy,positiveemotions,surgency,andthetendencytoseekstimulationandthe
companyofothers.
 Agreeableness:atendencytobecompassionateandcooperativeratherthansuspiciousandantagoni
stictowardsothers.
 Neuroticism:atendencytoexperienceunpleasantemotionseasily,suchasanger,anxiety,depressio
n,orvulnerability;sometimes called emotional instability.
When scored for individual feedback, these traits are frequently presented as percentile
scores.For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th percentile indicates a relatively strong
sense
ofresponsibilityandorderliness,whereasanExtraversionratinginthe5thpercentileindicatesanexceptionalne
edforsolitude and quiet.
 Althoughthesetraitclustersarestatisticalaggregates,exceptionsmayexistonindividualpersonality
profiles. On average, people who register high in Openness are intellectually curious, opento emotion,
interested in art, and willing to try new things. A particular individual, however, may have ahigh overall
Openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures. Yet he or shemight have no
great interest in art or poetry. Situational influences also exist, as even extraverts mayoccasionally
need time away frompeople.
OpennesstoExperience
Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas,
imagination,curiosity, and variety of experience. The trait distinguishes imaginative people from down-
to-earth,conventional people. People who are open to experience are insettectually curious,
appreciative of art,and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed peoples more creative
and more aware oftheirfeelings. Theyaremorelikely tohold unconventionalbeliefs.
People with low scores on openness tend to have more conventional, traditional interests.
Theyprefer the plain straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They
mayregard the arts and sciences with suspicion regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no
practicaluse.Closed peoplepreferfamiliarity overnovelty.They areconservativeand resistanttochange.
SampleOpennessitems
 Iamfull ofideas.
 Iam quicktounderstandthings.
 Ihavearichvocabulary.
 I haveavividimagination.
 Ihaveexcellentideas.
 Ispendtimereflectingonthings.
 I usedifficultwords.
 Iamnotinterestedinabstractideas.(reversed)
 Idonothaveagoodimagination.(reversed)
 I havedifficultyunderstandingabstractideas(reversed)
Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for
achievement.The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior it influences
the way inwhich we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Conscientiousness includes the factor
known asNeedforAchievement(NAch).
The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble
andachieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also
positivelyregardedbyothersasintelligentandreliable.Onthenegativeside,theycanbecompulsiveperfectionis
ts andworkaholics.
SampleConscientiousnessItems
 I am alwaysprepared.
 I am exactinginmywork.
 Ifollowa schedule.
  I getchoresdonerightaway.
 I likeorder.
 Ipayattentiontodetails.
 I leavemybelongingsaround.(reversed)
 Imakeamess ofthings.(reversed)
 I oftenfor gettoputthings backintheirproperplace.(reversed)
 Ishirkmyduties.(reversed)
Extraversion
Extraversion, also called―extroversion;‖ is characterized by positiveemotions, surgency, andthe
tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by
pronouncedengagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, and are often
perceived as fullof energy.They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who re likely to say
―Yes!‖ or ―Let‘sgo!‖ to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk assert themselves, and
draw attention tothemselves;
Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be
quiet,low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should
not beinterpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation than extraverts/and
moretimealone.
Sample Extraversionitems
 Iamthelifeoftheparty.
 Idon'tmindbeing thecenterofattention.
 Ifeelcomfortablearoundpeople
 Istartconversations
 Italktoalot of differentpeopleatparties.
 I amquietaroundstrangers.(reversed)
 Idon'tliketodrawattentiontomyself.(reversed)
 I don'ttalkalot.(reversed)
 Ihavelittletosay.(reversed)
Agreeableness
Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious
andantagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in' concern for social
harmony.Agreeableindividualsvaluegettingalongwithothers.Theyaregenerallyconsiderate,friendly,gener
ous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have
anoptimisticviewofhumannature. Theybelievepeoplearebasically honest,decent,andtrustworthy.
Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are
generallyunconcernedwithothers'well-
being,andarelesslikelytoextendthemselvesforotherpeople.Sometimes
theirskepticismaboutothers'motivescausesthemtobesuspicious,unfriendly,anduncooperative.
SampleAgreeablenessItems
 Iaminterestedinpeople.
  Ifeelothersemotions.
 Ihaveasoftheart.
 Imakepeoplefeelatease.
 Isympathizewithothers'feelings
 Itaketimeourfor others.
 Iamnot interestedinotherpeople'sproblems.(reversed)
 I amnotreallyinterestedinothers.(reversed)
 Ifeellittleconcernforothers.(reversed)
 Iinsultpeople.(reversed)
Neuroticism
Neuroticismisthetendencytoexperiencenegativeemotions,suchasanger,anxiety,ordepression,itiss
ometimes-calledemotionalinstability,Those whoscorehighinneuroticismareemotionally reactive and
vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations asthreatening, and minor
frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend
topersistforunusuallylongperiodsoftime,whichmeanstheyareofteninabadmood.Theseproblemsin
emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic‘s ability to think clearly, make decisions, and
copeeffectively withstress.
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset
andare less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm,emotionallystable,and free from
persistentnegative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience
a lot ofpositivefeelings.Frequency ofpositiveemotionsis acomponentoftheExtraversiondomain.
SampleNeuroticismItems
 Iameasilydisturbed,
 Ichangemymoodalot.
 Iget irritatedeasily.
 Igetstressedouteasily.
 Igetupset easily.
 Ihavefrequentmoodswings.
 I oftenfeelblue,
 I worryaboutthings.
 Iamrelaxedmostofthetime.(reversed)
 Iseldomfeelblue.(reversed)
SelectedScientificFindings
Ever since the 1990s when the consensus of psychologists gradually came to support the
BigFive, there has been a growing body of research surrounding these personality traits (see for
instance,Robert Hogan‘seditedbook·―Handbookof Personality Psychology‖(AcademicPress,1997).
Heritability
All five factors show an influence from both heredity and environment. Twin studies suggest
thatthese effects contribute in roughly equal proportion. An analysis of the available studies found
overallheritabilitiesforthe Big-Five traitsasfollows:
Openness: 57%
Extraversion:44%
Conscientiousness:49%
Neuroticism:48%
Agreeableness:
42%Development
Many studies of longitudinal data, which correlate people's test scores over time, and cross-
sectional data, which compare personality levels across different age groups, show a high degree
ofstability in personality traits during adulthood. More recent research end meta-analyses of
previousstudies, however, indicate that change occurs in all five traits at various points in the lifespan.
The
newresearchshowsevidenceforamaturationeffect.Onaverage,levelsofAgreeablenessandConscientiousn
ess typically increase with time, whereas Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness
tendtodecrease.Inadditiontothesegroupeffects,thereareindividualdifferences:differentpeopledemonstrate
unique patternsofchangeatall stagesoflife.
SexDifferences
Cross-cultural research from 26 nations (N = 23,031) subjects) and again in 55 nations (N
=17,637 subjects) has showna universal patternof sex differences on responses to the Big
FiveInventory. Women consistently report higher Neuroticism and Agreeableness, and men often
reporthigherExtraversionandConscientiousness.Sexdifferencesinpersonalitytraitsarelargerinprosperous,
healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women hw more opportunities that are equal tothoseofmen.
BirthOrder
The suggestion has often been made that individuals differ by the order of their births. Frank
J.Sulloway argues that birth order is correlated with personality traits. He claims that firstborns are
moreconscientious, more socially dominant, less agreeable,and less open to new ideas compared
tolaterborns.
However, Sulloway's case has been called into question. One criticism is that his data
confoundfamily size with birth order. Subsequent analyses have shown that birth order effects are only
found instudies where the subjects' personality traits are rated by family members (such as siblings or
parents)or by acquaintances familiar with the subjects' birth order, Large scale studies using random
samplesand self-report personality rests like the NEO PI-R have found no significant effect of birth
order onpersonality.
Culture
The big five have been replicated in a variety of different languages and cultures. One
importantstudy by Ostendorf went back to the original lexical hypothesis using a large set of German
traitadjectives. A factor analysis of these traits revealed five large factors that corresponded well to
thosefoundbyAmericanresearchers.
Recent work has found relationships between Geert Hofstede's cultural factors,
Individualism,Power Distance,Masculinity,andUncertainty Avoidance,withthe averageBigFive scoresin
acountry.
Forinstance,thedegreetowhichacountryvaluesindividualismcorrelateswithitsaverageExtraversion, while
people living in cultures which and accepting of large inequalities in their powerstructures tend to score
somewhat higher on Conscientiousness. The reasons for these differences areasyet unknown;thisisan
activeareaofresearch.
Non-Humans
The big five personality factors have been assessed in some non-human species, in one
seriesof studies, human, ratings of chimpanzees using the Chimpanzee Personality Questionnaire
(CPQ)revealed factors of extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness - as well as an additional
factorof dominance - across hundreds of chimpanzees in zoological parks, a large naturalistic
sanctuary anda research laboratory. Neuroticism and Openness factors were found in an original zoo
sample, but didnotreplicate in anew zoosampleortoothersettings (perhapsreflectingthedesign ofthe
CPQ).
Criticisms
Much research has been conducted on the Big Five. This has resulted in both criticism
andsupport for the model. Critics argue that there are limitations to the scope of Big Five as an
explanatoryor predictive theory. It is argued that the Big Five does not explain all of human personality.
Themethodology used to identify the dimensional structure of personality traits; factor analysis, is
oftenchallenged for not hating a universally-recognized basis for choosing among solutions with
differentnumbers of factors. Another frequent criticism is that the Big Five is not theory-driven. It is
merely adata-driveninvestigationof certaindescriptorsthattendtoclustertogetherunderfactor analysis.
LimitedScope
One common criticism is that the Big Five does not explain all of human
personality.Somepsychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel it neglects
other domains
ofpersonality,suchasReligiosity,Manipulativeness/Machiavellianism,Honesty,Thriftiness,Conservativene
ss, Masculinity/Femininity, Snobbishness, Sense of humour, Identity, Self-concept, andMotivation.
Correlations have been found between some of these variables and the Big Five, such asthe inverse
relationship between political conservatism and Openness, although variation in these
traitsisnotwellexplainedbytheFiveFactorsthemselves.McAdamshascalledtheBigFivea―psychologyof the
stranger,‖ because they refer to traits that are relatively easy to observe in a stranger;
otheraspectsofpersonalitythataremoreprivatelyheldormorecontext-dependentareexcludedfromtheBig
Five.
In many studies, the five factors are not fully orthogonal to one another; that is, the five
factorsare not independent. Negative correlations often appear between Neuroticism and Extraversion,
forinstance, indicating that those who are more prone to experiencing negative emotions tend to be
lesstalkative and outgoing. Orthogonality is viewed as desirable by some researchers because it
minimizesredundancybetweenthedimensions.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhenthegoalofastudyistoprovid
eacomprehensivedescriptionofpersonality withasfewvariablesaspossible.
MethodologicalIssues
The methodology used to identify the dimensional structure of personality traits, factor
analysis,is often challenged for not having a universally-recognized basis for choosing among solutions
withdifferent numbers of factors. That is, a five factor solution depends on some degree of interpretation
bythe analyst. A larger number of factors may, in fact, underlie these five factors. This has led to
disputesabout the ―true‖ number of factors, Big Five proponents have responded that although other
solutionsmay be viable in a single dataset, only the five factor structure consistently replicates across
differentstudies.
A methodological criticism often directed at the Big Five is that much of the evidence relies
onselfreportquestionnaires;selfreportbiasandfalsificationofresponsesisimpossibletodealwith
completely.Thisbecomesespeciallyimportantwhenconsideringwhyscoresmaydifferbetweenindividuals or
groups of people - differences in scores may represent genuine underlying personalitydifferences, or
they may simply be an artifact of the way the subjects answered the questions. The fivefactor structure
has been replicated in peer reports. However, many of the substantive findings rely onself-reports.
Theoretical Status
A frequent criticism is that the Big Five is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely
anempiricalfindingthatcertaindescriptorsclustertogetherunderfactoranalysis.Whilethisdoesnotmean that
these five factors don't exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.
SensationstekingandcheerfulnessarenotliskedtoExtraversionbecauseofanunderlyingtheory;thisrelations
hip is an empirical finding to be explained. Several overarching theoretical models have beenproposed
to cover all of the Big Five, such as Five-Factor Theory and Social Investment Theory.Temperament
Theory may prove to provide a theoretical foundation for the Big Five, and provide alongitudinal(life-
span)modelin whichtheBig Five couldbe grounded.
FurtherResearch
Current research concentrates on a number of areas. One important question is: are the
fivefactors the right ones? Attempts to replicate the Big Five in other countries with local dictionaries
havesucceeded in some countries but not in others.Apparently, for instance, Hungarians don't appear
tohaveasingleAgreeablenessfactor.Otherresearchersfindevidence'orAgreeablenessbutnotforotherfactor
s.
In an attempt to explain variance in personality traits more fully, some have found seven
factors,some eighteen, and some only three. What determines the eventual number of factors is
essentially
thekindofinformationthatisputintothefactoranalysisinthefirstplace(i.e.the―Garbagein,Garbageout‖
principle). Since theory often implicitly precedes empirical science (such as factor analysis), the BigFive
and other proposed factor structures should always be judged according to the items that went intothe
factor analytic algorithm. Recent studies show that seven- or eighteen-factor models have theirrelative
strengths and weaknesses in explaining variance in DSM-based symptom counts in non-
clinicalsamplesandinpsychiatricpatientsand donotseemabe clearly outperformed bytheBigFive.
A second question is, which factors predict what ? Job outcomes for leaders and
salespeoplehave already been measured, and research is currently being done in expanding the list of
careers.Therearealsoavarietyoflifeoutcomeswhichpreliminaryresearchindicatesweaffectedbypersonality,
suchassmoking(predictedbyhighscoresinNeuroticismandlowscoresinAgreeableness and
Conscientiousness) and interest in different Kinds of music (largely mediated byOpenness).
A validation study, in 1992, conducted by Paul Sinclair and Steve Barrow, involved 202
BranchManagers from the then TSB Bank. It found several significant correlations with job performance
across3 of the Big Five scales. The correlations ranged from .21 - .33 and were noted across 3 scales:
HighExtraversion,Low NeuroticismandHighOpennesstoExperience.
A third area of investigation is to make a model of personality. The Big Five personality traits
areempirical observations, not a theory; the observations of personality research remain to be
explained.Costa and McCrae have built what they call the Five Factor Theory of Personality as an
attempt toexplain personality from the cradle to the grave.They don't follow the lexical hypothesis,
though, butfavoratheory-drivenapproach inspiredbythesame sourcesasthesources of theBig Five.
A fourth area of investigation is the downward extension of Big Five theory, or the Five
FactorModel, into childhood. Studies have found Big Five personality traits to correlate with children's
socialand emotional adjustmentand academic achievement. More recently, the Five Factor
PersonalityInventory - Children was published extending assessment between the ages of 9 and 18.
Perhaps thereasonforthisrecentpublicationwasthecontroversyovertheapplicationoftheFiveFactorModelto
children. Studies by Oliver P John et at with adolescent boys brought two new factors to the
table:―irritability‖ and ―Activity.‖ In studies of Dutch children, those same two new factors also
becameapparent.Thesenewadditions―suggestthatthestructureofpersonalitytraitsmaybemoredifferentiate
d in childhood than in adulthood‖ which would explain the recent research in this particulararea.
6.7 HOLLANDTYPOLOGYOFPERSONALITYANDSAMPLEOCCUPATION
Matching Personalities and Jobs : Obviously, individual personalities differ. So, too do
jobs.Followingthislogic,efforts have been made to match the properpersonalitieswith the
properjobs.JohnHolland's―personality-
jobfittheory‖isconcernedwithmatchingthejobrequirementswithpersonality characteristics. The personality-
job fit theory identifies six personality types and proposesthatthefit
betweenpersonalitytypeandoccupational environment determines satisfaction andturnover.
Holland has developed a Vocational Preference Inventory Questionnaire that contains
160occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike, and
theseanswersare used to formpersonality profiles. The six majorpersonality types identified,are listed
inthetable belowalong with theircompatible occupations.
Table5.1:Holland'sTypologyof PersonalityandSampleOccupations
Type PersonalityCharacteristics SampleOccupations
Realistic Prefers Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill, press
physicalactivities that stable,conforming,practical, operator,assemblylineworker,f
require armer.
skill,strengthandcoordinat
or
Investigative: Analytical, original, Biologist,economist,mathemat
Prefersactivitiesinvolvingthi curious,independent. ician,newsreporter.
nking,organizing,andunder
standing.
Social: Prefers activities Sociable, friendly, Social worker,
thatinvolve helping cooperative,understanding. teacher,counsellor,clinicalpsych
anddeveloping;others, ologist.
Conventional: Prefers rule- Conforming,efficient,practical,u Accountant, corporate
regulated, orderly, nimaginative,inflexible. manager,bankteller,file clerk.
andunambiguous
activities.
Enterprising Prefers Self-confident, Lawyer, real-estate agent,
verbalactivities where ambitious,energetic, publicrelationsspecialist,smalltra
there areopportunities to domineering businessmanager, der.
influenceothersand
attainpower.
Artistic: Prefers Imaginative,disorderly,idealistic, Painter, musician, writer,
ambiguousand emotional,impractical. interiordecorator.
unsystematic activitiesthat
allow creativeexpression.
Source : I.L. Holland ―Making Vocational Choices: A theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments, (2nd edition) Prentice
HallEnglewoodCliffsNJ:1985).

Whatdoesallthesemean?Thetheoryarguesthatsatisfactionishighestandturnoverlowestwherepersonalit
yandoccupation areinagreement. The key pointsofthismodelarethat
1. Theredoappeartobeintrinsicpersonalitydifferencesamongindividuals;
2. There aredifferenttypesofjobs;and
 3. Peopleinjobenvironmentscongruentwiththeirpersonalitytypeshouldbemoresatisfiedandlessli
kelytoresign voluntarilythanpeople in incongruentjobs.
6.8 TRAITTHEORIESOFPERSONALITY
I. IntrapsychicTheory
BasedontheworkofSigmundFreud,Intrapsychictheoryemphasisestheunconsciousdeterminantsof
behaviour.
TheComponentsofPersonality
Freud proposed a new conception of the personality, one that contains three systems – the
id,the ego, and the superego. These systems do not exist physically; they are only concepts, or ways
oflookingatpersonality.
1. Id: The id is the only part of the personality that is present at birth. It is inherited,
primitive,inaccessibleand completelyunconscious.Theidcontains
i. The life instincts, which are sexual instincts and the biological urges such as hunger
andthirst,and
ii. Thedeath, instinct,whichaccountsforouraggressiveanddestructiveimpulses.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle; that is, to seek pleasure, avoid
painand gain immediate gratification of its wishes. The id is the source of the libido, the
psychicenergy that fuels the entire personality; yet the id cannot act on its own it can only wish,
image,fantasize,anddemand.
2. Ego: The ego is the logical, rational, realistic part of the personality. The ego evolves from theíd
and draws its energy from the id. One of the ego functions is, to satisfy the Id's urges. But
theego, which is mostly conscious, acts according to the reality principle. It must consider
theconstraints of the real world in determining appropriate times, places, and object for
gratificationofthe id'swishes.
3. Superego:whenthe childisage5or6 thesuperego-the moralcomponentof thepersonality
-isformed.Thesuperegohastwoparts:
i. The ‗conscience‖ consists of all the behaviours for which we havebeen punished
andaboutwhich wefeel guilty;
ii. The ―ego ideal‖ contains the behaviours for which we have been praised and
rewardedandaboutwhich wefeelpride and satisfaction.
Initsquestformoralperfection,thesuperegosetsmoral guidethat defineandlimittheflexibility
ofego.
Theircharacteristics arediagrammedanddescribedhere

Figure 5.1: Freud'sConceptionofthePersonality

 Structure LevelofConsciousness Characteristics
Id Unconscious Primitivecomponentcontainingthesexualinstinct
s,biologicalurges,aggressiveanddestructiveimp
ulses.Sourceofthelibido.Operates, according to
the pleasure
principle,seekingimmediategratification.Impulsi
ve,amoral,andselfish.
Ego Largely conscious Logical, rational component, which functions
Parteyunconscious tosatisfy the Id‘s urges and carry out
transactionsin the real world.Acts according to
the realityprinciple.
Superego Both conscious Themoralecomponent,consistingoftheconsciou
andunconscious sandtheegoideal.Setsmoralguidelines,
whichlimit theflexibilityoftheago.
Source : Samuel E Wood and Ellen Green Wood ―The World or Psychology‖ Allyn and Bacon,
Boston(secondedition)1996page 439.
Defence Mechanisms : A defence mechanism is a technique used to defend against
anxietyand to maintain self-esteem, but it involves self-deception and the distortion of reality. We use
defencemechanisms to protect us from failure and from guilt arousing desires or actions, All of us use
defencemechanismsto somedegree;itisonlytheir overuse thatisconsideredabnormal.
1. Repression : According to Freud, repression is the most important and frequently used
defencemechanism,Repressionoperatesin twoways:
a. It can remove painful or threatening memories, thoughts, ideas or perceptions
fromconsciousness andkeepthemintheunconscious.
b. It can prevent unconscious but disturbing sexual and aggressive impulses from
breakinginto consciousness.
2. Projection : We use projection when we attribute our own undesirable impulses,
thoughts,personality traits or behaviour to others, or when we minimize the undesirable in
ourselves andexaggerate it in others. Projection allows us to avoid acknowledge our
unacceptable traits andthereby to maintain our self-esteem, but it seriously distorts our
perception of the external world.For example (1) A sexually promiscuous wife may accuse her
husband of being unfaithful.(2) Adishonestmanmaythinkeveryoneisouttocheathim.
3. Denial : It is a refusal to acknowledge consciously or to believe that a danger or a
threateningcondition exists. For example (1) Smokers use denial when they refuse to admit that
cigarettesare a danger to their health. (2) Many people who abuse alcohol and drugs deny that
they haveaproblem.
Yet denial is sometimes useful as a temporary means of getting through a crisis until
amore permanent adjustment can be made, such as when people initially deny the existence of
aterminalillness.
4. Rationalization:Itoccurswhenweunconsciouslysupplyalogical,rational,orsociallyacceptable
reason rather than the real reason for an action or event.Rationalization can
beusedtojustifypast,present,orfuturebehavioursortosoftenthedisappointmentconnectedwith not
attaining a desired goal. When we rationalize, we make excuses for or justify, ourfailures
andmistakes.
5. Regression : Sometimes, when frustrated or anxious, we may use regression and revert
tobehaviour that might have reduced anxiety at an earlier stage of development: For example,
anadultmayhaveatempertantrum,rantandraveorthroughthings.
6. ReactionFormation : is at work when people express exaggerated ideas and emotions thatare
the opposite of their disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires. ln reaction formation
theconscious thought or feeling masks the unconscious one. For example, a former chain
smokerbecomesirateandcomplains loudly atthefaintestwhiffofcigarettesmoke.
7. Displacement : Occurs when were substitute a less threatening object or person for the
originalobject of a sexual or aggressive impulse. For example, if your boss makes you angry,
you maytakeoutyourhostilityonyourwife.
8. Sublimation : With sublimation, we to-channel sexual or aggressive energy into pursuits
oraccomplishments
thatsocietyconsidersacceptableorevenpraiseworthyForexample,anaggressive person may re-
channel the aggression and become a football player. Freud
viewedsublimationastheonlycompletelyhealthyegodefencemechanism.
II. Psycho-analyticalSocialLearning
Evaluating Freud’s Contribution : Freud's theory is so comprehensive that its elements
mustbeevaluatedseparately.Aswehaveseen,Freudbelievedthathisconceptsoftheunconsciousandtheprin
ciplesbywhichitoperateswerehismostimportantwork.Infacttheprimaryaimofpsychoanalysisistobringuncon
sciousthoughts,wishesanddesirestoconsciousness.Leadingscholars-today do not dispute the existence
of unconscious processes. However; they do not see theunconscious asenvisionedbyFreudandthey
disagreeastohowsophisticatedor simpleitmightbe.
Freud is a towering figure in the world of psychology, but today he does net loom as large as
indecades past. There are very strict Freudians left, and for most psychoanalysts, Freud's
techniquesconstitute only a part of their therapeutic arsenal. Sigmund Freud has been both worshipped
andridiculed,buthisstanding as apioneerin psychologycannotbedenied.
1. Social Learning Theory : The main focus of social learning approach is on the patterns
ofbehaviour the individuals learn in coping with environment Some behaviour patterns are
learnedor acquired through direct experience. Responses can also be acquired or earned
without directreinforcement. Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other
people and just bebeing told about something as well as directexperiences, So, for example
much ofwhatwehave learned comes from watching models - parents, teachers/peers, bosses
etc. This view thatwe can learn through both observation and direct experience has been called
social-learningtheory.
Social learning theory acknowledges the existence of observational learning and
theimportanceofperceptioninlearning.Peoplerespondtohowtheyperceiveanddefineconsequences
, not to the objective consequences themselves.The influence of models iscentral to the social-
learning process.Four processes have been found to determine theinfluencethatamodelwill have
on anindividual. Theyare:
(a) AttentionalProcesses:Peoplelendtobemostinfluencedbymodelsthatareattractiveandimp
ortanttous.Asthemodelinfluencesthemtheylearnfromthemodelbypaying attention tothem.
(b) Retention Processes : A model is influence will depend on how well the
individualremembersthemodel'saction afterthemodelisno longeravailable.
(c) MotorReproductionProcesses:Afterapersonhasseenanewbehaviourbyobservingthemo
del,thewatchingmustbeconvertedtodoing.Thisprocessthendemonstratesthattheindividual
canperformthemodelled activities.
 (d) Reinforcement Processes : Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the
modelledifpositive incentives or rewards are provided.Behaviours that are reinforced will
be givenmore attention, learned better, and performed more often. Reinforcement that
controlstheexpression oflearned behaviourmaybe:
i. Direct:Itreferstothesocialapprovalordisapprovaloralleviationofaversiveconditions,an
dothertangible rewards.
ii. Vicarious:Itreferstoobservationofsomeoneelsereceivingrewardorpunishmentforsimi
larbehaviour.
iii. Self-administered:Itreferstoevaluationofone'sownperformancewithself-praise.
Ofallthese,self-administeredreinforcementtheory playsavitalroleinsocialearningtheory.
EvaluationofSocialLearningTheory:Sociallearningtheoryhasmadeasignificantcontributiontoper
sonalitytheory.
1. It enables us to look more clearly at human actions as reactions to specific conditions
orcircumstances rather than merely symbolic manifestations of internal and
unconsciousforces.
2. It emphasis on the environmental variables that elicit specific
behaviours.Sociallearning theoryhasbeencriticised ontwogrounds:
1. Itoveremphasisetheimportanceofsituationalfactorsinbehaviour.
2. Theexperimental methodsused by sociallearning theorists are particularlysensitive
totheimpactofsituationalvariablesand are apttoemphasise changein behaviour.
III. JobFit Theory
The personality-Job Fit Theory assumes that examining a person's personality will give
insightinto their adaptability in an organisation. By matching the personality with the company we can
achieveabetter synergy andavoidproblems likehigh turnoverandlow job satisfaction.The person-job
fittheory is a study of personality attributes and the requirements of the job. The matching of the
jobrequirements with personality characteristics is given in John Holland's Personality-Job fit theory.
Thistheory is based on the notion of fit between an individual's personality characteristics and his or
heroccupational environment.Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction
andthe propensity to leave a job depends on the degree to which individuals successfully match
theirpersonality to an occupational environment. Holland has developed a vocational reference
inventoryquestionnaire that contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these
occupationsthey like ordislike,andtheiranswersareusedtoformpersonalityprofiles.
Theperson-jobfittheoryarguesthatsatisfactionishighestandturnoverlowestwhenpersonality and
occupation are in agreement, social individuals should be in social jobs, conventionalpeople in
conventional jobs and so forth. A realistic person in a realistic job is in a more congruentsituationthan
isarealisticpersonin aninvestigative job.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What are the major theories of personality?
2. How would you measure personality of an individual
?

6.9 SUMMARY
When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth
anddevelopment at a person's whole psychological system. Personality is defined as a relatively stable
setof characteristics that influence an individual's behaviour. Personality is a very diverse and
complexpsychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behaviour, self,
measurable traits,and situational interactions. Personality appears to be a result of heredity and
environment. Additionally,todaywerecognizeanotherfactor-
thesituation.Managersshouldlearnasmuchaspossibleabout
personality in order to understand their employees. Several methods can be used to
assess personality.Theseinclude projectivetests,behaviouralmeasures andself-
reportquestionnaires.
The big five personality traits are: Extraversion, Conscientiousness,
Agreeableness openness
toexperience&Neuroticism,ThemajorpersonalityattributesaffectingO.B.arelocusofcontrol,n
achievellanism,selfesteem,selfefficacyselfmonitoring andrisktaking.
6.10 GLOSSARY
Personality: Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of
characteristics possessedby a person that uniquely influences his orhercognitions,
motivations, and behaviors in varioussituations.
LocusofControl : Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that
they cancontroleventthataffectthem.
Macerievallenism : The political doctrine of Machiavelli, which denies the relevance of
morality inpoliticalaffairsandholdsthatcraftanddeceitarejustifiedinpursuing
andmaintainingpoliticalpower.
Neuroticism : Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as
anger, anxiety ordepression.
6.11 REFERENCES
 L.M. Prasad, Management Process and Organisational,

 Sultan Chand & Sons.Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational

Behaviour, Concepts, Prentice Hall, IndiaGaryDesslar,

 OrganisationTheories, PrenticeHall,lndia.
 P.G.Aquinas,“OrganisationalBehaviour”, ExcelBooks, NewDelhi.
o
6.12 FURTHER READINGS
 ArgyrisC.(1962)“InterpersonalcompentenceandOrganisationalEffectiveness”,Irwin,Home
woodIII.
 AshburnerL.(1990)“Impactof
TechnologicalandOrganisationalChange”PersonnelReviewU.K.
 BernardM.BassandEdwardC.Ryterband(1979)“OrganizationalPsychology”,(2ndEd)Allyna
ndBacon, Boston.
 BossR.W.(1989)“OrganisationaldevelopmentinHealthcare", Addison-WesleyMass,
Reading.
 FrenchW,andBellC.(1978)“Organisationdevelopment”,(2ndEdition)PrenticeHallEngle
woodCliffsN.J.
 Maryin E. Shaw (1981) ―Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group
Behavior‖, (3rd Edition)McGraw-HillNow,York.

6.13 MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Howispersonalitytraditionallydefined?
2. Discussthedeterminants ofpersonality?
3. Whataredifferentbiologicalfactorsofpersonality?
4. Discusstraittheoriesofpersonality.
5. Elaborateon—psycho-analyticalsociallearning.
6. Explainjob-fittheory.
7. DiscusstheBigFivePersonality Traits.