Physiology assignment 2

Submitted to: DR NIDA

Submitted by: Saher Shahbaz
Enrollment ID: 70137137
Department: UIPT
 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
1. COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed
airflow from the lungs. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that
contribute to COPD. These two conditions usually occur together and can vary in severity among
individuals with COPD.

➢ Emphysema:
Emphysema is a condition in which the alveoli at the end of the smallest air passages (bronchioles) of the
lungs are destroyed as a result of damaging exposure to cigarette smoke and other irritating gases and
particulate matter.

➢ Chronic bronchitis:
Chronic bronchitis is inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from the air
sacs (alveoli) of the lungs. It's characterized by daily cough and mucus (sputum) production.
➢ Symptoms:
Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough, mucus (sputum) production and wheezing. It's
typically caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from cigarette
smoke. People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung cancer and a variety of
other conditions.

➢ Pathophysiology:
These in turn result in physiological abnormalities—mucous hypersecretion and ciliary dysfunction, airflow
obstruction and hyperinflation, gas exchange abnormalities, pulmonary hypertension, and systemic effects.

Fig. Emphysematous airway, with loss of alveolar walls, enlargement of alveola spaces, and decreased
alveolar wall attachment
➢ PT treatment:
Physical therapists can work with your pulmonary rehabilitation team or with you individually to help improve:
• Your exercise capacity.
• Your overall strength.
• Your health.
Physical therapists are movement experts. They improve quality of life through hands-on care, patient
education, and prescribed movement. You can contact a physical therapist directly for an evaluation.

2. Asthma

Asthma is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and may produce extra mucus. This can make
breathing difficult and trigger coughing, a whistling sound (wheezing) when you breathe out and shortness of
breath.

For some people, asthma is a minor nuisance. For others, it can be a major problem that interferes with daily
activities and may lead to a life-threatening asthma attack.

Asthma can't be cured, but its symptoms can be controlled. Because asthma often changes over time, it's
important that you work with your doctor to track your signs and symptoms and adjust your treatment as
needed.
➢ Symptoms:

Asthma signs and symptoms include:

• Shortness of breath
• Chest tightness or pain
• Wheezing when exhaling, which is a common sign of asthma in children
• Trouble sleeping caused by shortness of breath, coughing or wheezing
• Coughing or wheezing attacks that are worsened by a respiratory virus, such as a cold or the flu.

➢ Pathophysiology:

• The immunohistopathologic features of asthma include inflammatory cell infiltration:

• — Neutrophils (especially in sudden-onset, fatal asthma exacerbations; occupational asthma, and patients
who smoke)
• — Eosinophils
• — Lymphocytes
• — Mast cell activation
• — Epithelial cell injury
• Airway inflammation contributes to airway hyperresponsiveness, airflow limitation, respiratory symptoms,
and disease chronicity.
• ▪In some patients, persistent changes in airway structure occur, including sub-basement fibrosis, mucus
hypersecretion, injury to epithelial cells, smooth muscle hypertrophy, and angiogenesis.
➢ Physiotherapy Management

1. Breathing retraining techniques

2. Physical training
3. Respiratory muscle training
4. Removal of secretions
5. Range of motion exercises
6. Education

3. pulmonary embolism

A pulmonary embolism (PE) is a blood clot from your leg that travels to your lung and stays there. This
causes issues with blood flow and oxygen levels in your lungs. Medications can help most people with a
pulmonary embolism, but you need a prompt diagnosis and treatment. You’ll need to take medicine for
several months afterward.
Without quick treatment, a pulmonary embolism can cause heart or lung damage and even death.

➢ Symptoms:

The first signs of pulmonary embolism are usually shortness of breath and chest pains that get worse if you
exert yourself or take a deep breath. You may cough up bloody mucus.
If you have these symptoms, get medical attention right away. Pulmonary embolism is serious but very
treatable. Quick treatment greatly reduces the chance of death.

➢ Pathophysiology:

Physiologic consequences of right ventricular (RV) failure on left ventricular (LV) cardiac output. The RV and
LV are connected in “series” and in “parallel.” Decreased RV cardiac output leads directly to decreased return
to the LV and therefore decreased LV cardiac output (“connected in series”). Furthermore, RV overload and
dilatation compresses the interventricular septum which impinges on the LV and further decreases the LV
cardiac output (“connected in parallel”).
➢ Medical Treatment:

1. Medicines
• Blood thinners
• Clot dissolvers
2. surgical and other procedures
• Clot removal
• Vein filter
3. ongoing care

4. sarcoidosis
Sarcoidosis is a disease characterized by the growth of tiny collections of inflammatory cells (granulomas) in
any part of your body — most commonly the lungs and lymph nodes. But it can also affect the eyes, skin,
heart and other organs.
➢ Heart symptoms:

• Chest pain
• Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
• Fainting (syncope)
• Fatigue
• Irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias)
• Rapid or fluttering heart beat (palpitations)
• Swelling caused by excess fluid (edema)

➢ Pathophysiology:

Pathogenesis of cutaneous sarcoidosis is poorly understood and attributable to both genetic and
environmental factors. A key role in the development of sarcoidosis is played by T cells as they promote
cellular immune reaction and are usually associated with an inverted CD4/CD8 ratio.
➢ Treatment:

The most common type of medication used for treating sarcoidosis is corticosteroids. There are two main
steroidal medications used which include prednisone and prednisolone. Antimalarial agents may also be used
for treatment.

5. tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious infection that usually attacks your lungs. It can also spread to other parts
of your body, like your brain and spine. A type of bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes it.

➢ Signs of active TB disease include:

• A cough that lasts more than 3 weeks
• Chest pain
• Coughing up blood
• Feeling tired all the time
• Night sweats
• Chills
• Fever
• Loss of appetite
• Weight loss
➢ Cause:

Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria that spread through the air, just like a cold or the flu. You can get TB only if
you come into contact with people who have it.

➢ Treatment;

• A combination of medicines also treats active TB. The most common are ethambutol, isoniazid,
pyrazinamide, and rifampin. You’ll take them for 6 to 12 months.

➢ Tuberculosis vaccine:
Children in countries where TB is common often get the BCG vaccine. It isn’t widely used in the United States,
and it doesn’t always protect against infection. Doctors recommend it only for children living with someone
who has an active TB infection with a very drug-resistant strain or who can’t take antibiotics.
Other vaccines are being developed and tested.
 Corona Viruse (covid-19)

• Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause respiratory illness in humans. They are called
“corona” because of crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus. Severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and the common cold are examples of coronaviruses
that cause illness in humans.
• The new strain of coronavirus — SARS-CoV-2 — was first reported in Wuhan, China in December 2019. It
has since spread to every country around the world.
➢ Pathophysiology:

Coronaviruses are often found in bats, cats and camels. The viruses live in but don’t infect the animals.
Sometimes these viruses then spread to different animal species. The viruses may change (mutate) as they
transfer to other species. Eventually, the virus can jump from animal species and begin to infect humans. In
the case of SARS-CoV-19, the first people infected are thought to have contracted the virus at a food
market that sold meat, fish and live animals.

➢ Why Covid-19 Could Not be Cure by Medicines?

There are treatments available for managing the symptoms and complications associated with the disease, it
is important to note that a complete cure for COVID-19 has not been universally achieved yet. There are
several reasons why COVID-19 cannot be easily cured by medicines alone:
❖ Viral Complexity: SARS-CoV-2 is a complex RNA virus with various structural and non-structural proteins.
Targeting and eliminating the virus entirely from the body is challenging due to its ability to replicate rapidly
and evade immune responses.
❖ Antiviral Development: Developing specific antiviral drugs against a novel virus takes time. Scientists have
been working diligently to identify potential antiviral treatments for COVID-19, but thorough research,
clinical trials, and regulatory approval are necessary before safe and effective medications can be widely
distributed.
❖ Host Immune Response: COVID-19 triggers a diverse immune response in individuals, ranging from mild to
severe symptoms. Some individuals may effectively clear the virus with a strong immune response, while
others may experience an overactive immune response, leading to complications like cytokine storm.
Medications must balance suppressing the virus without compromising the immune response.

❖ Variants and Mutations: SARS-CoV-2 has shown the ability to mutate and produce new variants, some of
which may exhibit altered characteristics, including increased transmissibility or potential resistance to
certain treatments. This poses challenges in developing medicines that are effective against all variants.
❖ Multifaceted Disease: COVID-19 is not solely a respiratory illness. It can affect multiple organ systems,
including the lungs, heart, kidneys, and brain. Treating the various manifestations and complications of
COVID-19 requires a comprehensive approach and a combination of therapies targeting different aspects
of the disease.
❖ Time and Research: The COVID-19 pandemic emerged relatively recently, and extensive research is still
ongoing. Scientists and healthcare professionals are continuously learning about the virus, its
pathogenesis, and potential treatment options. The development of effective medications requires time,
rigorous research, and clinical trials to ensure safety and efficacy. It is important to note that while a
complete cure may not be available yet, advancements in medical research, including antiviral treatments
and reduced the severity of the disease. and vaccines, have significantly improved the management of
COVID-19.