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BURNE HOGARTH

DYNAMIC ANATOMY
REVISED AND EXPANDED EDITION
FOREWO RD B Y TODD ~ICFARL A~E

Pra ise d by critics a n d teachers al ike fo r the Edgar Rice Bu rroughs novels Tarza n
-\\'lwll a"kt'd 10 "rilt' a blurb for lhi"Ill'\\
more than 40 ye ars. Bur n e H oga rth 's of th e Apes a n d J ungle Tales of Tarzan . A
t'diLioll of Bill 11(' Houarth".. /).)lwltli,.
Dynamic A nat omy is recognized worldwide cofounder o f the School of Visual Arts in
\Uf1tml v. 1tI\ lir I thouuhr- we-re of ho\\
as the classi c text on artistic anatomy. New York, H oga rt h was on e of the most
tor umatc "(,\('1 al ~t·llt'r.tlioll_" 01 arti ..t-,
:"0w revi sed, expanded to include 65 influential figures in an e ducatio n an d
h<tH' h('(,11 ill h.l\ illl!; had the- orhrinal r-di-
never-before-published d r awi ng s from remains so toda y.
lion-a pe-re-nnial b.-vt-e-lk-r. lir .., ill h.u d-
the H ogart h ar chives. and co mple te ly
(fl\el", then in papc"IIMCk-{() fell 1111 ;111
re designed , this award-winni ng r efer- OTHER TITLES BY
BURNE HOGARTH: the"(' vc-ar... IUl.tgille. Ih('11. the 1I11ill of
ence explores th e ex pressive structu re of
D rawing the H u man Head being abh- III illlpnl'(' upcm that ..Ilc n'''':
th e hu man fo rm specifically fro m the
(ISB:"\o.s230-13i6-6) with ;111 .tcldilioll.1I ~ I pag-e ....1 handsonu-
artist '5, ra t h er than the medical
redc-..iun. ("I,ll)1 rcplac c-uu-ut .. fO I ~o hI at k-
ana to mist's, po in t of vi ew. Drawing Dynamic H ands
aud-whiu- image .... .urd more than ()O
The 350 remarkable illu stra tions-I 50 (ISB:"\ 0-823 0-1368-5 )
m-vc-r-lu-Iore-pnblivlu-d c!r,I,,"illg ... 1110'" ill
n ow in fu ll co lo r-explain the proportions Dynamic Figure Drawing
lull ("0101'.
an d ana to mical details of male and female ( ISI'S:"\ 0-8230-1577-7 )
"1l';Khillg \\;1 ... Burne Ilog;lllh\ p,I"-
figu res in motion an d at rest, always str ess-
Dynamic Light and Shade ...ion: ;111 iulluc-utial r-duc.unr; hcha.. lt'1"t lIS
in g th e thi ng form in spa ce. Meticulou s ( ISB:"\ 0-8230- 158 1-5)
lht' It'g"an of rhi . . "nd fiH' othr-t honK:- ill
diagram s an d fascina tin g action stud ies
Dynamic Wrinkles and Drapery hi .. dvnnmic' drawing "(TiC'..; hdlidl .urvruu:
examine th e rh ythmic relationship of mu s-
(ISB:"\ 0-82S0-1587-4)
inn-n- ... u-d ill drol\,"illg at .HI\" lr-vr-l ...hould
cles and th eir effec t upon surface for ms.
'Il ·quirT), ax we-ll a . . hi.. work 011 the comic
Still oth er d rawi ngs help ar tists understand
PRA ISE FOR BURNE HOGAR T H: ..trip 'lar-un. \\.(' arc- judc·t'd fortunate 10
fore shortening an d how to establish th e
"\klliioilihe l1'l.Il1C· 'Burne- Ilog-arlh' Loam h<l\(' had -i n h ,I mau ~Ulltllig I rv."
figure co nvi nc ingly in deep spa ce. In ad di-
illustnuor worth hi, or her <alt. and lhal - J oe Kube rt, founde r. The J oe Kubc rt
tio n, th e tex t provides a h istorical o verview
ani ..1 immvdi.nelv rhink-, of dvnumic. twi-t- School of Ca rtoo n and Graphic An and
th at in clu d es works by Michelan ge lo , autho r of S uprrhnrHs:JOI! Ku bat's
iug, n-nxion-filk-d. mu« 1I1.lT Jig-lilt'" and
Picasso, and o ther mas te r ar tists. mm dl'T/ ul n OrU o/Comics
beautiful. tloWillg. l'H~-g-rahhillg irn'lg-c' v.
Dynamic Anatomy prese n ts a compre ·
"That "allli' illu ..n-ann- rlu-n .~I'llIl"('" at
hensive , d e tail ed stu dy of th e hum an
11)(> hook..he-ll m-xt to hi .. dra\\-ing- table-
figu re as artistic an atomy. By em phasizing
and "f'('" ("'c'I'Y .. ing:le one of Iltigarth·..
th e rel atio n sh ip of mass to movement,
hook:--'lll of du-rn dog-t·.Jrt.'cl.
thi s tim e-h on ored book goes far beyo nd
~Th('Y'H' .. at Oil mv ht -ok... lu-ll (hal wav
the fact ual and tec hnica l elements of
fix ~~ \ c';II:-.. ~
anatomy to give readers the practical Coyer design by Eric Baker
-Bart Sears , art direc tor an d co m ic book artist,
methods they need to draw human figu res Crossrtenerauo n Co mics, In c. Eric Baker Design Associates

th at co me al ive on pap er.

"Burne 1IIlganh i.. a rna ..u-r C,I';1I1;U(J111~- and w atso n-Guptill Pu blica tion s
BURNE HOGARTH ( 19 11- 1996) enj oyed ligllrt· dr,lwillg. Dvnmnir .\//(ltmn.l' i.. one 01 770 Bro adway
a re markable career that sp an ned more the all-time lx-..l bool, -, fill k-arniuu how (0
New York, I\'Y 10003
than 60 yea rs an d e ngaged him in the draw <111.110/11\ and g:lillillg au uudcrxtand- www.watsongup till.co m
worlds of fin e ar t, illustration , adve rtising, illg 01" h""ic' lllll"'t It- -trurture- .md human
art edu cation, and publishin g. H e ach ieved proportion. The- Ilt'\\ man-rial in this c-di- e
z
a
worldwide re cognitio n wit h h is illustra- rion makl'" IIIl' hook (,H'II IlHJ1'(' valuable •
e
tion s fo r th e in terna tio n ally syndica ted z
tha n e-ve- r: it ,..h ou kl Ill' ron ..ide-re-d an a
z
Su nday feature comic str ip Tarzan, wh ich
h e drew from 1937 to 1950. H e is a lso
es-c-nt ia l pan 01" the all -audcut's lihrarv." •
~
- Andy Smith, co mic bo ok artist an d z
kn own for hi s illu stra te d adaptatio n s of au tho r of Drawing /) 'nami c Comics
"
c,
 BURNE HOGARTH

DYNAMIC
ANATOMY

REVISED AND EXPANDED

 REVISED AND EXPANDED

BURNE HOGARTH

DYNAMIC
ANATOMY

WATSON -GUPT I LL PUB LICAT IONS / NEW YOR K

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 FOREWORD 7
PREFACE 9
ACKNOWLEDGMEN TS J2

I.
•
page 15

• page ~9

III .

page 69

• page 17

VI.
•
f=_.._ -_.-
B IIIL IOGRAPHY 248
I N D EX 250
 FO RE WO RD
\. I (IPl ( !O II I ORI P of Bu rn e H oga rt h in 1977.
wh e n I was six tee n. I h ad dec ided to take the potentia l ca reer path of bei ng a co m ic hook
a rt ist and was co n su m in g literally thousands of co m ir books, trvi u g to leach m ysel f h ow (0

do su p e rhe ro-type drawings . Li p to that point . all 1 h ad clone was dood le in cessantly in th e
co rn e rs of m y homework pages and durin g sc ie nce clas ses.
As I studied the work o f some of the inf l uen tia l comic hook art ists
of the ti me, one thi ng became a p p a n ' nt: I la cke d the n-c lm ical kno wledge o f how th e
hum a n body actuallv wo rke d . let alo n e h ow to move a cha racte r with in the pa ge . Clea rly I
n eede-d 10 ac q ui re th at knowled ge i f I h oped to create work sa m p les worthy of se n d ing to
th e co mic hoo k com panies in sea rc h or a joh .
One d ay I we nt 10 a ho o ksto re a n d h ap p e n ed to come across a co py
o f Burn e I Ioga rths [)J'lfl mi r A.Ufl f01J1.l'. It provid ed my skill Icvcl in drawing with a j ump-
sta rt . tea c h ing me how th e hu m a n bo dv was co nstru c ted th ro ugh informat io n laid o ut in
fai rly sim ple terms that made sense to a sixrccn-vca r-ol d a rt ist. O nce I sta rted p utt ing the
building b lo cks o f' th e hu m an bod y tog e th er a n d became fam iliar with how to construct
male and female figu re s fro m a ny given ang le , I th e n h ad to co n q ue r the n e xt level: 1 h ad
to lea rn whe re th e muscles and hon es WCIl I, how 10 establish co rrec t propo rtions. and h ow
to m ak e th e figu re rel a te co nvin cingl y to the su rro u n d ing space. Hogarth 's hook sh owed
m e h o w to fo re sh orten a n d h ow to twist a n d tu rn th e h u ma n fo rm . tran sfo rm in g m y work
in to wh at h e called "d ynamic." Durin g th e yt:a rs H og a rth drew the comic strip Tarzan. h e
o fte n d epicted th e sca n tily clad h e ro swin ging fro m vine to "i n c in th e j u ngle. a n d hi s mas-
tery of the hu m an fig u re in mo tion obvio uslv evo lved th ro ugh hi s ow n wo rk in com ics, hi s
stu d ies. and th rough d ecad es of teach ing .
\\11('n eve nt uall y I b ro ke in to th e co m ic book b u sin ess, I co n tin ue d
to co me hack to the lessons 1 had learned fro m stu dying Hogarth 's boo k. Xow that I h ave
e l~joye d some success in the field . people often ask who my comic hook influe nces were. 1
gin~ them a handful of names of c u rre n t a n d pioneeri ng a rt ists. b ut always credit Hun te
Hogart h as the one wh o most directl y taught me how to actually move ico n ic figures 011 a
page a n d how to stage them in melod ramat ic fashion . It 's terrific for m e to be a b le to sit
back no w and watch as a whole new generation of budding a rt ists becomes ex posed to the
sa llie tea c hi n gs that so richly rewa rd ed m e . I hope all of you who re ad th is bo o k fin d th e
in form atio n it co ntai ns as ,..tilla ble a n d ins pi ri ng as I did. I wish you goo d luc k. a n d wou ld
like to tha n k :\I r. H oga rt h for his legacy.

TOD I) :\IC FA RI.A j',; E

[71
 PR EF A CE
III-IOIH lit \,( u I I n is co nce r n e d with th e a rt istic
ana tomy o f h u m an for m , not m ed ical au. uotuv, It p roposes to d eal wit h a na to mi cal form
a n d s truc uu-c fo r th e u n d e rsta nd in g of th e figu re ill foreshorte n ing a n d de p th or space,
fo r correc- tive di sci pl ille in d ra wiu g an d, pe rhaps , to ad d ne w in fo rmatio n to th e in u-rrel a-
tio nshi p of its m usscx a n d its m o ve ment .
Trad itio n a lly. l it e maj or e m p h asis of a n a to my tex ts fo r a r tis ts h as
bee n to reveal a nd ex p la in mu scula r di sse c tio n a n d sk el e ta l vt ruc tu re from th e p o sitio n
o f the la bo ra tory medi ca l a na to m ist. :\ fin c lv in te gra ted a nd vo lu mi n o us lite ra tu re
a lready e xis ts d eali ng- with th e Ill y o l o h~ · a n d o steolo gy o f th e figu re. in cl u din g . in some
exam p les. th e typ e s ofjoi u t-, a n d the ir a rti c u la r su rfaces. the d ee p liga m cu ts a n d mc rn-
h ra nes atta chi ng the hon e s. a nd c ross-sec tions thro ug h t h e bod y at vario us poin ts
d es cri bi ng u 'i ns. a rteries. n e rve-s. a n d o rgans. a s well as m uscl e a n d h one . T h e se are
sc hola rly a nd s tud io us p ro ject io n s ill th e Vcsa lian trad itio n . a n d h ave se rved to ke e- p th e
Re nai ssa n ce- h e ri tage o f th e flg n rc ali ve in a r t. As s uch . th e y h an .' informe d n ew a r t st u-
dent s o f th e nee-d to k now tuorc th an th e ca price s of' fa ds a n d style s. an d the s ucce ssfu l
im itati on o f curre-nt man ne rism s.
Rather th a n n ')H'at t he fi n e hody o f wo rk a lr e a d y a cc om p lish e d ,
thi s book wil l ta ke for g ra n te d t h e ex iste n ce o f s kel e ta l st r uc tu re a n d d e e p m yo lo gi-
ca l desc ri pti ons ill ot h e r lit era ture . a n d re sp ectfu lly a dvi se s th e read er to co ns u lt
th e m for su c h p ur poses. H ere. we shall a ltc m p t to wo rk o ut so lu t io ns to some o f t he
problem s that evo lve o u t of anato m ical st r u ct u re. hut t h e st re ss will b e 011 the rel a-
ti onships of m a sse s in figu re m ovem en t a nd how th e se a ffec t su r face fo rm a nd vis ual
observa tio n ill d raw in g . \\'c shal l 1)(' see king ins ig h ts into the e nc ha n uueu t of the
livin g figu re . n o t th e d isse ct e d OIl C .

The re is all in te resting corolla ry to th is a p p roac h . H istorical

evid e n ce ha s it th at wh e n An d reas Vcsa lius be ga n h is m o n u m e n tal wo r k Oil a na to m y. Dr
lnnnan i rmjmr;s [alnico. so me fo ur h u nd re d ye a rs ago . he a pp roach e d th e g re a l Ven etia n
ma ste r Ti tia u to p roduce th e large 11 11 m he r o f pla te s re qui red fo r th e vo lume. The unri valed
a rt istr y o f th e se a na to m ica l d escri p tio ns. e-xc-cuu-d hy T itian a n d so m e o f hi s stu d en ts. h as
n ever be en eq ualed in sim ila r wo rk s. :-';o\\" a n in tri guing p robk-m co m es u p . Vcsa lius ohvi-
o uslv knew a g rea t d ea l mo re tha n T itian abo ut in te rn a l med ica l a na to my. Vcsa lius. h aile d
as the Refo rm er o f Anato my. was in th e proce ss o f m a kin g 11t'll' disnwnirs in a na to m ica l su-uc-
HIre that T itian co uld n ot have learn ed bef o re hand. H o w did it h appen th a t T itia n . a mas-
te r in a rt . knew better thou vesalius th e visual descri pt io n a nd co r rec t d el in ea tio n of
a na to m ica l hu m an fo r m?' T itia n was a ble to master artistic fo rm in sp ite o f h is in co m pl ete
knowle d ge o f m e-di cal struc ture. Clea rly. it wo uld see m a thoro ugh kn o wle d ge o f in terna l
1) 1'.' '',"\ .\l I £: "-\X. -\ n n r l·

analOm y is no ulti mate gu ara nt ee o f su pe rb a rt istic perform ance. Even today, as new m ed ical
texts are bein g prepa re d, d octors of medicine a m i lab o rarorv specialists sec k o ut individ ual s
,.. .h o are artists first , ra th e r than d octors, to d evel op the a rt istic d esc rip tio ns of resea rch .
Kno wledge of a rt istic a na to my does not ru le o ut knowled ge o f m ed-
ica l a n a to my. One e n ha nc es a n d refin es the ot her, as th e above evid e nce shows, T h ey ho th
exist within th e same spec tr um of id eas, o f ana lysis, a nd iu vcsrigati on o f h u m a n fo rm. Bu t
th eir direc tion a n d activit ies a re d iffe rent. Medical an atomy di sse cts. se pa ra tes, a n d di vid es
th e h u m an system , regio n by region , into sec tio n s, d ivisio n s, segm e n ts. u nits, and frag-
m e n ts into the finer microscop ic d et ail s o f fo rm s, to the ,"cry cell struc tu re itself. Art is tic
a na to my visu a lizes, combines, a n d fuses the wh o le from th e parts. Med ical ana to my is the
in formati onal back ground to its act ivity of ble n d ing, co rre la tin g. a n d synt hesizin g visua l
e xperie n ce, objective a nalysis, a n d personal ex p ressio n into a n e m bod ied co rp us cu la r
whol e . It was undoubtedl y thi s understandin g th a t T itia n brough t to Vcsa liu s' De[a brico.
T h e stu dy of the ana tom ica l figu re sh o u ld he pu rsued ill this l i ~ht ,

as a lea rning di scipline in a rt p repa ra tion, C'"CIl in the mode rn idi o ms. Co nd c m u a tio u of
anatomy has tended to se t lip a philisunism in certain circle s of m odernism th a t uncriticall y
d ecries histo ry, tr adit io n s, an d pastj ud gmen ts as acade mi c re str ictio n o f free e xpres sion .

{101
"RI' \1 I

"Free ex pression ," however, does no t nece ssarily mea n balanced j ud gme n t o r good art.
The figure in art h as always b ee n th e foca l ce n te r in visua l co mm u nic atio n from th e b egin-
n in g of a rt (0 th e present d ay. Its forms h ave been Illany a nd varie d th e wor ld over, b ut ito;
anatomical fo rm has been th e u n iq u ely d eveloped ex p ress io n o f Western civilizati o n .
No whe re in the h istory o f cu ltu res h as th is pa rtic ula r fo rm been so assid uo usly adva nc ed
a n d p e rsistently stu d ied as it h as in the cou ntries where scie nce a n d d iscove ry of n atural
p ro{'ess form the basis o f the cu ltu re . To tra ce its deve lopme nt from the prese ll t in to th e
classical a n d a n tiq ue worlds is to reveal co nc u rr e n tly th e greate st achievements in the h is-
tory of mankind. Anatomical man. premised first as the a rt istic fo rm of ea rl)' prescientific
\\~e s te r n though t in Greec e , gan.~ rise to the profound medical . physiological, a nd biologi-
cal di sco veries in ou r tim e . The stud y of thi s figure by th e a rt stu den t today is a g reat,
enligh tening adven tu re , a n d must he see n in th e co n te xt o f new discoveries a ffec ting the
life uf mode rn ma n in the areas of timc/ spacc, fissio n a nd fusio n of ma tter, mi crob io logy,
chem o thera py, psych oth e rapy, a nd a h o st o f o th er lin es of lu vcstiga uo n .
T he art proccss, th e n, is no t sim p ly co u n tless, u n cou t ro lled free
exp re ssio ns . h u t it is th e result o f hi sto rica l und e rstan d in g a n d expe rie nce for me d in to
a freely ex p ressed . clarified judgm en t. Behin d it is the lah o r of prepa ra tion , o f sifting,
sea rc h ing, sh a p in g, and striving through many artistic d isci p lin es-c-o n e of whi ch is a nato-
m y-to re ac h a stag e uf matu r ity. Bu t maturity is not th e final stag e . In d eed , it is th e inau-
g u ral stage; it marks th e end of th e forming stage. a n d introduces the pe riod of creative
growth . the sta ge of fertility.
In todav's wo rld , artis tic di gression fro m the a n ato m ica l figure and
its traditional virtues is no discredit to the creat ive fun ction . Th e new flig hts of re ason. h ow-
e ver, m ust sprin g from firm ground in o rd e r to express th e n ew co mp lexi ties. If the new
pa th s of d iscoverv lead fro m th e th oroughfares o f th e o ld . who sh all dcnv th e in di spens-
abi lity of bot h? Wh o shal l de n y th e lin k of Vesalius with Gale n , of Ein ste in with Newto n.
of Salk with Pasteur, o f Picasso wit h C iono >
In a rt, as ill o ther fiel d s, ex perime n ta tio n is th e ro ot o f g rowth .
Bu t its cu ltura l so il is intelligent p repara tio n. If the so il is b a rre n , th e root wit hers a nd
the futu re of a rt is lo st.
If thi s book ill a ny way encourages a n d p repare s th e stu d e n t of art
to win hi s ac h ieve me n ts with integri ty. if it helps to d evel op hi s direction a n d sh a pe his
creative o bj ecti ve. it will h ave wo n its validity in th e ge neral pro gress of a rt .

B UR r.: E I!OGARTH

X"ilI link , ;\faJ 1,1 958

 ACKNOWLE DGM ENTS
1(\,\ {II l i l l i ' IHI'\KI ( as th is vohun e goes 10 p r e ss th a t t he
c re ation of a h o o k h as ma ll" la b o rs in it b e sid e s t he a u th o r 's. It wo u ld be
dif ficul t to repor t 011 the pro ble ms encountered from its firs t vision to its final revisi on . To
d o so wo uld reward the read e r wit h irs burd e n s ra th er tha n its p leasures. H o we ve r. a
spec ia l d eb t o r g ra titude m u st he m cmlo ucd h e r e 1O th o se pe rson s a nd o rg a ni za tio ns wh o
have co n tri b u te d su bsta nt ia lly 10 its com ple tion .
I exte nd my warmes t than ks and since re ap p rec iation to Miss Elsa
Lic h tenst e in of Ba r n e s 8.:. Xo h!e , who first saw its possibilities a nd p roclaimed them
fulso m el y; to Xlr; Xo rm an Kr-m . editor o f A merica n : \ rl i \/ magazine. who cle are d the tra ck
a nd g re e n-lighted th e way; 10 Xlr. Ed wurd Xl. Alle n , ed ito r o fwut sou-C up rill Pub lica tio n s.
a ge nt le m a n 0 [' ra re ch a rm a n d p a tien ce whose gene ro us u n de rs tan d ing e n co u rage d a nd
g uick-d it fro m h eg illi ling- H) cu d : 10 \ \'i1l ia m ( ~ ra y,J o s e l.lo rcn n-. Die drich To borg. a n d
vl arvi n H issm a n fo r the ir unst inti ng a ssistance in co nsnluuio n. p horograp hv, and p ro du c-
tion ; to Emi lio Sq uc gl io of A IJIPr;Ul l1 ..\ 1'1;.\1 m aga zin e fo r th e Ill ..~jor co n u-ihu tio u an d
g u id a nce in d e sign , layo u t, a n d typ og ra p hy ; to lily wifc-, Constance , who . a s h e r nam e
im p lie s, with e n d u ring fo rbe-a ra nc e m ad e th e tvpcwrucr a n d th e m a nuscrip t a sig n ifica n t
pan o f her ma nv ho usehold cho res,
Furth e r. I wish to express sincere a p p recia tion to those IlHISe Ums
a n d orga n iza tions tha t gave generous ass ista nce a nd pe rm issio n Ior the use o f a r two r ks
fro III their co llections: to th e ;\\~\\' York Aca d eme or xlc di cin c fo r th e lise of the Vesa linu
prin ts, whic h it p u blish e d in conj un ction with th e U n ivcrsi tv o f Mun ich in th e specia l ed i-
tion o f 19:H , 1'1'0 111 the orig inal 1;-)-13 wood b locks, un d e r th e title A ndrea" \ ,'salii Bruxrllensis
l eones Anatomirar; to the Xlu scu m o f Mo d e rn Art fo r permission 10 reproduce From its col -
le ctio n th e wo r ks o f Boccion i, Braquc. Ka n din sky. Kk -c . Lege r; .\I at isse-. Picasso . Rodin , a n d
Tchcli ul n-w; to the Me-tro polit a n Mu se um ofArt for p e rmi ssion to re pro d uce tror » its co l-
lec tio ns th e wo r ks o f a n tiq u ity a nd the int erven in g e ra s, in cludin g th e exa m p les o f Po llock
an d Pe re ira ; to th e Am erica n Muse u m of Xa tu rul H isto rv fo r pe r m ission to repro duce the
exa m ples o f Pal e ol ithi c a n d primi tive a n; and to the Dcl iu s G allery of Xcw Yo rk .
Fin ally, I wish to ex te n d sinceres t th an ks to th e Schoo l of Visu al Art s
in X cw 'York City, in whose e n cou ragin g a nd expe rim e n ta l a tmosphere Illany o f th e idea s in
th is hook we re ex pl o re d . a nd to th e sc hoo l's facu l ty an d stud e nts. wh o a sked p rovoca tive
qu estio n s in response to the in cre-asinjz stu d e n t d ema n d For a n answer to the relevant a n d
p roper study of a natom y in th e light of past n-adirio us a n d co n te m po ra ry id io m s or a n.

I\ lJ l~ \: E HO ( : .\R TII

/ 958
 :\CK NOWL EnC ~ I E :-':T S F O R T ilE RE\"I SEIl

AX D EX P;\:\ DED E Il I T IOX

,A" l~\'flfl m ii /) m 1lli ll~ n ears its fiftieth yea r in p rint. we are proud to sec the p ub lica tion of
a revised a n d expa n ded ed itio n of Bu rn e Hoga rt h "s award -win n ing classic. T h is first tid e in
the d ynam ic d ra win g- se ries n ow a p pea rs with n ewly d iscove red artwo rk fro m th e l loga rt h
arc h ives tha t ad ds and res to res illus tra tio ns ill th eir o riginal . breath tak in g co lo rs .
On behal f of the Il oga n h fami ly a n d Hun te Il ogart h Dynam ic
~led i a worl d wide 1.I.C. we wo u ld like to ack nowledge seve ral peop le . with out who m thi s
Pl"l ~ {: c t would n o t han ' bee n po ssible.
First a n d fo re m o s t we wo uld like to tha n k o u r frie n d a n d legal
ad viser, David H. Sm allm a n . Esq. I lis co nce rted effo rt s a nd ded icat io n to th e lega cy of
Bu rn e I lo garth cr ea ted th e o pportu n ity fo r thi s boo k to re ac h fru ition.
\ Vc th an k To d d ;\lc Fa rla nc - a b r illi an t artist in hi s o wn righ t-
fo r hi s ge n ero us a n d t h oug h tf u l fore wo rd to thi s e di t io n o f [)p W IlI ; ( A n atomy, wh ic h
introdu ce s th e ho o k to a n e w ge n e ra tio ll o f .uu sts.
\Ye also exprcss ou r gra tilud e 10 Bu rn e Ho garth 's lo ngsta ndi ng
pu b lish e r; \\'at so n-Gu p till . for brin gin g a bo ut a n ew ed itio n o f th is ti m el ess wo rk, Fin ally.
,,"e eac h tha n k l ~ lI 11i l y m e m be rs Ste p ha n ie . Pa m . Kris . a nd Brady Todd H og-arth fo r their
love. su pport . a n d in sigh ts. all of wh ich kep t u s on t rack durin g- the pa st seve r..tl yea rs.
\\'c h o p e th is re vised a nd ex pa nded ed itio n in sp ires stu d e n ts a n d
a rt ists a round th e wo rld. Enjoy!

~ I IC HA El. H O ( ~ :\R T II

RI CH A R D H O C AR T II

R O S S 1I0(: AR T Ii

.\j ninK 2()()J

M USCULA R DESCR IPTION.

WOO DC UT. U N KN OWN

FO LLO WE R OF TIT IA N .

F RO M A NDRE AS V ESA LIU S

(1 5 14 -\5 64 ), D E HUMANI

C O R P O RI S FABR ICA .
 • PREMISE
TH E DUALI SM
O F ART
AN D SCIEN CE
1111". n:.\ R 1<.., I :):~H. III the town of Pad ua , h a rdly twenty m iles fr o m th e great
seaport of Ve n ice , a yo u ng m an is a bo ut to d eliver a lec tu re . It is late in th e yea r a n d a
brisk wind is hi ow ing. A la rge concou rse of s tu de n ts a n d observers h a s gathe re d to
wa tc h h im. H is sub jec t is a natom y a n d they a rc here to se e a disse ction. A sm ile n it s
across his inte n se face. H e is new h e re and alread y h is demon strations have received
wide ac cl a im a nd res pect.
The exc ite d m u rmur of vo ices qu ie ts as he ste ps d own fro m hi s chair hi gh on
a da is b efore the semicirc u lar ban k o f b e n che s in the hall. H e m ove s confid ently towa rd
a lo ng ccn tcr table wit h its a lTa:' of instr u ments. A ye a r earlier h e h a d created a stir amo ng
hi s co lleagues by a rrogan tly re jecting th e h elp of "demonstra tors" a n d "ostc nsors" in the
practice o f di sse ction . To h im , th e prac tice o f d isse c tio n is a rt, a n d the ana to m ical d is-
covc11' of m an as the living reflection of Go d is wo rthy of the h igh e st p e rsonal d e d icatio n.
Hi s d ark eyes fix on the subjec t before him . It is a ca d ave r, the co r pse o f a cri m -
inal , a nd it h as no t b ee n ve ry we ll p reserved . It is h eld in a stan di ng positio n with a pulley
ro pe loo p ed aro u nd the hack of the hea d, su ppo r te d fr o m a bea m at th e ce iling. H e rea ch-
es for a knife. H is h igh fore head with its tigh t curls gleams in the sallow light as h e bends
forv....ard. His h and is sure. He h as done this many tim e s be for e . From hi s e arl iest days in
h is rat he r's h ouse in Bru ssel s, to h is studen t d ays in Louva in and at th e U n iversi ty o f Paris,
h e has d o n e th is. Now, as Profe sso r of Surge ry appointed by the Se nate o f Venice to th e
U nive rsity of Padua th e year before, he is abo ut to perform an other di ssec tio n .
Bu t th is tim e it is d ifferent. T he young Pro fessor of Surgery is e ngaged lI1 a
se arc h. It is a time of kn o wledge , enliglucnmcu t, and inve ntio n. It is a time of Yoya g in g a nd
d iscovery An d this tim e h e h as embarked o n a voyage of d isco very all his own.
 DISSECT ED FIG URE.
WOODCU T. UNKNOWN
FO LLOW ER OF T1TlAN.
F ROM ANDREAS VESALIUS
( 15 14- 15 6 4 ).
D E HUMA N I
C OR PO RIS FA8RfCA.

I I t) I
(1/\/'11.1, 1 TIlE D l IA I . l S Af OF ART A !\' D S C H <:NCE

He is fu lly co nscious of his purpose . H e kn ows well the im p o rta n ce o f h is task.

In his m in d 's eye parad e the great figures of classica l an tiq uity-Hippocrates, Aris to tle,
H e ro philus, Gale n-th ose e xalted men whose o bserva tio ns have laid th e basis for hi s
u nd e rtak in g. Earlier in the year h e h ad publish ed with in sta n ta n eous suc cess h is fugi -
tive shee ts, th e Tabu lae sex. N ow h e is afi re wi th a n id ea. Wit h hi s kee n eye, sharp kn ife ,
and steady hand he will cut th ro ugh th e veil of time and m ystic b elie f a n d lay ope n th e
matri x of m an . Bel ow the laye rs of skin an d tissue h e will obse rve a nd record th e st ruc -
tu re of h u m a n for m .
Knife in hand, he reaches o ut and makes a swift longit udi n al incisio n fr om ri b
cage to pubis in th e b ody of the cad ave r. D ISS ECT I ON
I N ST RU M ENTS.
T he yo u ng m an , Professo r of Surgery at Pad ua, is h u t twe nty-fo u r yea rs old. H is W OO D C UT. U NKN O WN

nam e is An d reas wcscl , hut in th e La tin a te convention o f th at d ay, we know him as An dreas FO LLO WER O F
T ITIAN . FRO M
Vesali us. In fou r yea rs' tim e, his wo rk
A NDRE AS VE S A LlU S
will b e d one. In [our years' time, h e will ( 1 51 4 - 1 5 6 4 ),

DE HUMA N I
h ave prod uce d so me seve n wo rks in tex t
C ORP OR IS FAB R I C A .
a n d grap hic illus tratio n p ublished u nd e r
th e title De liu rnani corporis fabrim- 'nle "
Structure of the H uman. Body. H e will be
twe n ty-eigh t years old , but h e will h ave
swep t away fo r all ti m e th e obs cura n tism
of alm ost two th o usa nd yea rs of p h ilo-
sop hi ca l in ertia. H e will be called th e
Reformer of Anato m y, a n d h e will take
hi s place in history as ushe ring in th e
m odern scien tific era of m edical a n d
p hysiologica l di scove ry.
A brisk win d bl ew in Padua
th a t day. Rut a no ther win d was blowin g-the wind of h uma n ism and new scien ce, the
Renaissan ce-blowin g across th e length and b read th of Eu ro pe. In that era a three-
p ro n ged assau lt wou ld be launched against th e bastio n s of sch olas tic conse rva tism and ac a-
d e mi c rigidi ty. The Platonic-Aristoteli a n construc t of th e universe wo uld b e rent by Fr an cis
Bacon 's d escription of scie n tific lo gic a n d e m p irical me tho d in the Novum organum; th e
geostatic cosm ology wou ld b e to rn asun d e r a n d mad e h eliocentric in N ich o las
Copernicus ' De reoohuio nibus orbium coelestiwn; m yth and sp ec u lation wou ld be forever
d ispell ed in h uman anatomy in Andreas Vesal ius' De liumani corporis [abnc o. .Macroco sm
U L "i :U I I C A ."Ii..\ TO.'H \ -

a nd microco sm -th e d e terministic mover of th e universe su pe ri m p osed o n th e

pred estined behavi or o f man-held to gether in a fixed log ic of id ealist d ogm a , wou ld
co m e crash ing d own . Ren aissance th ought, fro m that day to this, would introduce a new
advan ce in th e rati onal powers of man , an d new light wou ld be she d on th e p henomcnol-
ogy o f natural ca usatio n . The Augean stables of the mi nd wo uld be ready fo r th e Tiber.

The scientific revolution of the sixtee n th ce n tu ry was an intellec tual b reak-

th rough of suc h mag nitude as to com pa re with the greatest ac h ievem e n ts in h uma n
history. Not sin ce the rise of Gr eek civilizati o n had its like occurred . Re naissa nce hu manism
had signalized th e e nd of the Mid dl e Age s. and th e hiera rch y o f social fo rm al ism was
crumbling. The emancipation of th e ind ividual from feudal se n i lity presaged th e d awn of
d em ocrati c insti tuti ons. The age of scie nc e had begun and th e ea rly outlines of modern
man had appeared o n th e sta ge of history.
Profo un d as the break th rough was in medicin e , math em atics, physics, astronomy,
an d natu ra l science, the ach ievemen t in art was equally spec tacu lar an d dramatic. T he
Renaissance in augura ted all en tirely ncw co ncep t in ex pressive form . It was not so much a
change in su bject matte r as it was a wo rking o u t of new solu tio ns to o lde r problems. The
themes were scrip tural still, b u t the stress, th e em p hasis o f its ap p roach, was the portrayal
of rel igious id eas as episodes in h- uman hi'itory. God as man and ma n as h u mani ty were
ex to lled as the aim of art. The impact fo cused on the d eeply felt human experien ce s of th e
tim es. and revealed the perso nal sig n ifica nce of faith . In this se nse, the new art ceased to
be withdrawn , auste re , symbolic. esse nt ially d eco rative in characte r. Instead, it became an
innat ely human, wa rmly im agi stic, p ictorial ar t. It se rved a m o ral p urpose th rough
ed ucatio n and reason, rather than th ro ugh fear and obedience . Scientific d iscovery, break-
d own of feudal barri ers in social structure , and the increased importance of the individ ua l
pe rsona le d to the p rofo un d metamorp ho sis in Ren aissance a rt.
Fundam ental to th is change was the naturalistic representation of th e human
figure, the p rimacy of anato m ical m an. From this premise , co nc e p ts of fo rm , spa(:e , and
d esign struc ture in the two-d im ensio nal flat su r face of th e picture were su bje cted to th e
ra tio nale of scientific method and analysis. T h us, the investigat io n in medical anato my and
p h ysiology through human d issection led to a powe rfu l in sigh t in art istic ana to my and the
rectitu de of h um an for m ; the m athematics o f navigati on an d ex plo ra tio n. contribut ing a
geome UJ' of space instea d of planes, to uched ofT the d evel opme n t of visual pe rspecti ve in
th e co n trol and measu re me nt of the third dim ension; the new helio ce ntric astro no my

{ . HI
LII \ I' /1' l~ / THJ<: D UA LIS M OF A RT .4 N D SCIENC/::

I
(
~
\

)
,

CR EA TI ON O F A DAM (DETAIL) . FRESCO.

M I CH E L A N GEL O (1 4 75-1 564) .

ITA LI A N. SIST INE C HAPEL C EILI NG ,

VATIC AN, ROME .

1' 91
rn ·s.o\ ,\1U ; A S ATO .\ O ·

projected motion o f th e body and d ynamic fo reshortening o f the figu re in deep space;
cel estial mech ani cs, the o ries of the int era ct ion of mass , space , and e nergy in physics, p ro-
vide d weig h t and so lidi ty of fo rm , an d sh o t th ro ugh diagon al ten sions and thrusts in d esig n
structu re: th e gravi ta tio na l field o f the p lane tary system put th e gr o u nd plane in to th e pic-
tu re (objectively analyzed fo r the fir st tim e in history) ; inte rest in natu ral science p rod uced
a n awareness of ho tan ical fo rm , correct description of animals, and atmospheri c re cession
in landscape and e nviro nmen t,
T he revolu tion in art, co nc urrent with the revolutio n in scie nc e , was direct ed
toward o ne overrid ing aim, T he artists of thc Ren aissance gave visual ex p ress io n to reaso n
a nd nature in th e birt h of h um an fo rm . Elementa l man, hi s surge an d drive. his passion
and re pose, pulsed and beat in th e su pernova of the in tellect, th e transcen de n t mirror o f
th e age. Wh at mad e th e sixte e n th ce m ury so rema rkable W'dS its d eparture from th e stu lti-
fied ap p lication of static co nven tions, It s esse n tia l ide a was an ex pand ing aes t he tic ,
co ncen trated 0 11 the obse rvation of ma il 's co n tin uity with th e unity of natu re , T hus, vc ry
sho rtly, the d ynam ics of th ei r con ce p ts led the m fro m one di scovery to another in their
pen e tra tio n of hu ma n ex perience , Empirical scie nce and natu ral p rocess becam e an ongo-
ing philoso phical principle o f arlo
According to th e new crite ria, the stric tu res in ea rlie r Gothic a rt we re held up
for close scru tiny and reva luation. The austere iconography di sso lved in a p rol ife ration o f
co ncre te ex perie nces and physical realities. The human figu re was th e first to chan g-c .
Slowly th e in d ivid ua l em erged . Cimahue, Gio tt o, Masaccio felt h im-his suffering, his
ecstasy, h is tClT01: An at omy galva nized the woo d en forms to life; nerve and sinew writhe d
with energy; th e man o f hope, of tum ultuo us passion and g ra nde ur su rgcd o n th e sce ne .
The Creation of Adam in Michel an gelo's Sistin e Fres co is th e ap p ro p riate an alogu e of th e
tim e, T he seaso ns, th e weather, th e timc of d ay; yo u th and age , manhood an d wo ma n hoo d,
birth and d eath ; the growth o f thin gs, the cycle of life bega n to ap pear in art. Leonardo ,
Ra p hael , G io rg io ne , T itia n , Tintcreu o saw the mysteries of na tu re, atm osp here and light,
se re nity and te nd er ness, poi gnancy an d pathos. In the West, the mo ral principles and eth-
ical va lues in personal beh avior prevailed in the van Eycks , van d el' " 'eyden , Bosch , Durer;
Grunewald , Brucgh e l, a nd EI Grcco.
The seve n tee n th cen tury, pressing clos ely o n , took a new leap into the fu tu re of
th e ind ivid ual in art. A q uicke ning process of scie ntific research , trans itio ns in soc ie ty, and
new philosoph ical co ncepts brought forth the h uman portrait, individual man in hi s
o rd inal]' environ me n t and specific lo ca le. T he baroque era, projecting th e great age o f
portraiture and the landscape in art, reali zed in vi sual terms (he discove ries of Galileo,
I I I \/'ITU I T H f ; D UA U SM OF A R T AXD SCIES CE

Ke pl e r, De scartes, a n d Newto n o n the mec hanics of m otion an d uni versal gravl ta tio n,
geom e try of m otio n , o p tics, and the spectrum of light. In the p hil o sophy o f H obb es,
Descartes, a nd Spi n oza it sus tained and exem p lified th e importance of relative human
in tell ige n ce , b asing u n ive rsal law o n scie nce, Co in cidental with th ese, th e so lo in strument,
the aria, th e recitat ive procla imed the in d ivid ual conscio usness in m us ic. In its p ortr ayal of
human warm th , baroque a rt synthesize d th e p ulse of an a to mical man with Harvey's
dis cove ry of the circ ulatio n of th e bl o od.
T he ba roq ue was an a rt o f realism, the realism of hum an p e rsonali ty, the
in sigh t into the cha racte r of m an. In its ge n re , its grace, its elega nc e , it h ad th e esse ntia l
"human to uc h." In its air an d space we r e th e flash es of th e d aily lives, th e activity, the
wo rk. Bu t its tour d e forc e was its pl ay a n d co un tcrplav of light. In its c h ia rosc uro was
reveale d the hum an d ra m a , the mo ods, the lightni ng a nd thu n de r of th e e m o tio ns of its
p eopl e, the livin g p eo pl e , In Velaz .quez ., in Ru b e n s we re the co u rt ly, th e refined , the ease
an d grace, the j oy o f life . In Vermeer an d de H o o ch , the gestu re , the tilt of h ead, th e
eyes in g reeti ng-in respo nse, in reflec t ion , in repose. In H al s, th e la ughter of men an d
women , th e cry of chi ld ren. In Re m bra n d t, th e p oo r, th e lam e , th e be nt, th e be mused;
th e stertorous so unds, the cough, the suspe nded brea th of tra ili ng wo n der a nd doub t;
th e sustained, pervasive sense of time, the unutt e rable p o ignancy of life. And always th e
landscap e-the fields, th e clouds, the sky; th e lo cal e of h ouse an d ga rde n; the thi n gs
of wo rk and res t.
The dualis m of art a n d SCIence, fro m its incep tion in th e Renaissan ce , h ad
crea ted a cycli ca l syste m of broadening aesthetic dimensi ons. As the boundaries in scien -
tific an d human activity widened, so d id the boundarie s of artistic e n deavo r. The pro cess of
in tersection and correlatio n in rel igious, soc ial, and human affa irs h ad b een an accep te d
pre m ise in th e p rogress o f a rt for mo re than two h un dred years, Now a stasis b egan to set
in, an imperceptible slov.. . in g of the process. With the rise of po we r ful m ona rchies in the
co n flic t a nd consolidatio n of p ower, the d ualism of art and sc ience began to show a
cleavage. What has been ca lle d th e rococo period in art of the eightee n th ce n tury was, in
effec t, a crisis in th e relationship of art to the progress of th e in di vidual in hi s tim e- a con-
ce pt that th e baro q ue era profo un d ly fulfi lled in its awareness of human worth. In Francis
Bac on 's words su m marizing the asp ira tio ns of the p rec edin g periods, the works o f th e
Re n aissan ce a n d the ba ro q ue eras sta nd. revealed: "On the ob serva tio n of nature we shall
build a syste m for th e ge n eral am eli o ra tion of mankin d. "
Towa rd the end of th e seven teenth ce ntury scie n tific pu rsuit h ad begun to sh ift
fro m an act of fa ith in th e im p rove m e n t o f m a n kind to a n increase in scope as an activit),

1:01
( 1/ 1J'1I1~ , J'lI E n UA.LI S.\1 O f ' A RT A.N D SCH;S C f :

o f e n te rp rise a nd a uti lity in co mm erce. Leibniz, p hiloso p her, m athematician , a nd advise r

to Frederi ck ] of Prussia , ext oll ed th is vi ew with d ecisive clarity; th e role of science is
necessary as an ins tr u m en t o f poli cy in the perpetuation of th e state. The dualism o f art
and science in the ea rly eighteen th centu ry ,,·..as in tensio n and transitio n . Conce pts o f the
figu re deve loped ge nerally along th ree b road lines of exp ressio n . The art of the no bili ty
a nd a ristoc racy p re se nted a mixture of thin ly disgui sed, taut co n tra d ictio ns. As spat ial \'01-
um e a nd recessio n of planes moved dee pe r, th emati c co nc e p ts declined into th e su pe r fi-
cial. the shallo w, and the banal. Co lo r and brush work in tensified and became mo re vivi d ,
while fo rm becam e fu gitive and in substa nti al. Ro coco art in the aristoc ra tic mo d e had
beco me a plaything of princes, a d eco r of palaces, a refl ect io n of o p ulen ce . It had become
all art of ad o r n me n t, o f miniatures, o f p reciosity in in tim ate d eco ratio n , It h ad beco m e
a n e xte nsio n of effe te and co u rtly refi nem en t, o f mythi cal-classic co nc octio ns, of foo l-th e-
eye pictures a nd hallu cin osis of visio n ,
It was in th e middle class, in the growi n g com m ercial power of th e bourgeois,
wh ere the firm note was struck. H ere , the a ristoc ratic lead ership yield ed to the burgeoning
p restige of mid d le-class taste and patronage , In portra it, la ndscape, and still life wer e pre-
sen te d th e su bstan tial new class and its ways, Because it was a sectio n of soc ie ty mainl y co n-
ce rned with m ercantile inte re st", the th emes of home , su rro u n d ings, and fa m ily
interest- landscape and still life- gain ed in importance as subj ects of art. Ar isto crat ic
efflo resce nce waned in the se nsuous ful m inations o f Van Dyck. Fra go nard, Wau eau ,
Bo uch er, Ti epolo . a nd Gain sboroug h. It su rr e nd ered to the le ss spectacular, mo re vita l
pro ducts o f Cons table, H o ga rt h , Ro m ney, Raeburn , Ch ard in , and Turner, In Am erica,
the bro ad stream of social moveme nt influ en ced the o rd erl y an o f Copley, Stuart,
West, a nd Trumbull.
Bu t the d islocatio ns of life in the eigh tee n th ce n tu ry brough t o u t a thi rd move-
m en t in a n , a line of argu m en t, as it were, of satirica l cri ticism an d savage soci al
co m me n ta ry. In vestiga tions o f science in new fields in p hysiology, embryology, and
mi cro sco p y, as well as o bservatio ns of p henomena in huma n affairs, led to liberalism , free
thought, and social ex aminat ion in ca ustic art an d litera tu re , Art be ca m e bo th literary in
su bject ma tte r a nd na tu ralistic in trea tm en t, in Greuze and Lo ng hi . Bu t emotio nalized
exa ggeratio n an d caricatu re of the figure wa s its e nd p ro duct , and its m ost e nergetic
exposito r was William H o gar th .
The end of the era gave rise to a series o f social sho cks that had d eep reperclls-
sio ns o n th e d eve lopment of art. Scientific in vention p ro d uced the Industrial Revo lutio n;
so cial invention p ro d uced th e American Demo cracy and the French Rep ubli c; artistic
nL"A, .\II C .-loVA TO.' ' '·

inve n tion p roduced the picto rial reportage of im med iate human events and adva nced
the movement toward modern realism and politica l cartooning. Coya. like the towerin g,
b ro odi ng Co lossus o f hi s etc hi ng, turn in g to look backwa rd at the past, wa s abo u t to m ove
in to th e fu ture of a new age with the th u nd ero us intensity o f a new co nce p t of th eme,
form , a nd style. At the ape x of his powers, Coya crossed the bridge of a new cen tury, a new
age ill society, a nd a new art. T he lin k had b e e n fo rged ; the e igh teen th ce n tu ry rushed in to
th e nineteenth; and a co nscio us symbolism of su bjec tive emo tionality an d di stortion
showed itself in the human figu re .
It was left to the Napoleonic era to fix irreversibly th e line s o f d emarcation
between th e ea rlier leanings of the ge n re realist haroque and the aristocratic rococo baroq ue
in to two antagonistic movem en ts: the acade mic respectabil ity of Napoleonic-classicist art and
th e ge n re libe rtari anism o f romantic-realist a rt. The te nde ncy to concentrate o n subject mat-
Le I' and arg ument of viewpoin t in thematic ma terial gave both movemen ts the characteristic
o f immed iacy in th e portrayal o f event". A" suc h , person ali zed adven ture an d m elodra ma
beca me an important featu re of art, and in this they were th e fore ru nn ers o f modern maga-
zine illustra tio n. T he two movemen ts were notab ly marked by th e recu rr ing th rusts and
co un tert h rusts of their d ivers e po sitions throughout th e Napoleonic era. Essentially, it was a
co n test for the o pinio ns of men; the drive toward egalitari an na tional ism ag ainst co nse rva-
tive au tho rita rianism . O n th e one hand were Coya, Cericauh, Delacroix, Daum ier; Fo rain ;
o n the other, Gros, David, Meissonie r, Ingrcs.
Th e principl e of an an d scie n ce as a dual rel a tio nship h ad been un d ergoing
an es tr ang eme n t. Now, a d islo cation was evide n t. T h e fracture between a rt and scien ce
was the re flectio n of a d eep e n in g d ich o tom y with in th e ge ne ral fie ld of scie nce itse lf
Scientific pursui ts had become lar gel y an act ivity of co m me rcial e n te rp rise , sanctio ned and
su ppo rted through th e benevo lent a ut hority of the sta te (Leib niz's view rea lized) ; acad e-
mil'S of scie nce . especially in th e physical and norm ative scie nc es , were th e p roper offi cial
bodies thro ugh wh ich the lead ing figu res p ursued their endeavors and re ceived offici al
recognition a nd co mm end a tio n; re fine me nt o f o bse rva tions , verification , and qu an tifica-
tio n in p roof of ea rlier accepted theo ries were th e domi nan t, reco gn ized lin es of inq uiry
ill th e co n tro lled acad em ies. H owever, n ew scie n tific inquirie s and discoveries in th e
humanist-Bacon ian tradition, as well a.s. in vestigations leadi ng to the emergin g h uma n and
so cia l scie nces, had no o fficial sanctio n o r status, and were viewed ,·..ith susp icion an d
ho stility. Find ings in th e p rogress o f the in d ividual were freque nt ly no t co nsid ered scie nc e
a t all. They were bitte rly fo ug h t in academ ic circles. Briefly, we may obse rve the acrimony
di rect ed aga in st su ch familiar ligu re s as Da rwin , Huxley, Pasteu r. and Freud.
(11\1'lfU I JBf: D VA.I.I S .'1 OF .-or r .rv n scu.xct:

An almost identical correl ati on e me rge d in cultu ra l and a rt istic circles. Toward
the latte r hal f o f the nineteenth cen m r)', the aca d emy o f a rt, with its proud rel ianc e o n
sta te sa nc tion , arrogan tly rejected those a rt ists (i n Fra nce especia lly) who did not ad he re
to the well-defi ne d stric tu res of neo classicist co ncept'i in themati c m aterial , tec h niq ue,
ma n ne r, form , and style. Cri tical romant icism , st ringe n t rea lism , and co m mo n place
imp ressionism wer e held u p to ri di cule and di sfavor as extolling th e crude, th e vulgar; th e
ga uc he ill art. The rebellion aga in st the aca d e my wa s precisel y in those areas o f grea tes t
aca dem ic divergence from th e h u manist-Baconian tra dit ion s in art, in revealin g th e
human co nd itio n o f the times. Academ ic d enial, lack of pa tronage , and p ub lic di saffec tio n
led to poverty, d iso rien ta tio n , and alie nation amo ng th e artists o f the period. Extremes
of perso na l rehelli on, bohe mi anism , escapism . and mental b re ak down wrac ked their lives.
Toward the e nd o f the ce nt u ry, the Pru ssian in vasio n of Fra nc e , th e d own fall of th e
decaden t monarc h y of Lo uis Xapolcon . an d the crisis in th e cmergen ce of the T hird
Republic b ro ug ht the art ist and hi s a rt to a turning point ill hi story.
III the on ru shing temp o o f th e indust ria l age and the weltering d iso rd e r in
person al life. the artist seized u po n two ex po ne nts of the importanc e of th e ind ivid ual as
a n answe r to hi s social rejec tio n and mo ral a ng uish . The late nine tee n th ce n tu ry po sed th e
r-i d d le o f man 's ex istence in a hi storical fram e o f refe re nce . Is man free or d etermined ? In
the e ighteen th ccntu ry. the ar tist believed ma n to be fre e to thin k, to reaso n , to d et erm ine
his own existence in natu re . Xow. in the nineteenth ce n tu ry, th is belief was chall en ged
head-Oil ill the co nfluen ce of sho cks a nd crises. The a lienated art ist saw h im sel f as a unit
o f life in a m ech anistic , d et ermined . mat erialistic worl d . H is a nswer was to seize upon two
co ncepts uf the individual: Be rgso n 's p hiloso p hy of vita lism , asserting th e life force in th e
individual to he a positive. conscio us act o f will in governing his present ex iste nce; and
Freud 's psych olo gical investigations into th e character struc tu re and pe rsonality behavio r
of th e individ ual . revealed in conscious and subco nscious states of being. H e saw a n answer
to the di le mma in his personal ex istence an d a rtistic creatio n . In assu m ing the principl es
of Bergson a nd Freud, he co ns truc ted a self-con ta ine d . in troverted . esoteric wo rld. In the
anguis h o f hi s so ul and the torment of his psyche. he create d a spiri tua l-psychological
unity, an int uitio nal-emo tio na l a uto no my.
Coya, th e p ro genitor of the modern movement, had reaffirmed th e h umanist
objective to the harsh realities of life in symbolic form , ex pressive line, and emo tion al
powe r. Ru t the impact o f th e in tervening yea rs had left th eir mark o n th e progeny o f the
protean Cova . Posti mp ressio nism , fauvism , cu bism , ex p ress io n ism, seeking refuge fro m
the respo nsibilities im po sed by t he tec hnological complexities of th e twen tieth ce n tu ry.
Dl'NA~ll C .-\ S .-4. T<H tl·

withd rew into a su bj ec tive world of cgostatic ca lm , intellectual repose , voluntaristic excite-
men t, and psychoneu rotic release. T he long road of ac hievement in art , of co m mu nica tion
to men , re solved through th e u nity of art and scien ce , had co me to th e ed ge of a precip ice .
The dualism was fin ally ruptured. The crevasse o f de sp ai r upen ed up a gulf of co nflicting
states o f experience, of fru stration and anx iety, introspectiun a nd e mpathy, conscious and
un conscious strivi n gs. disjunctive, half-realized momen tary appearances and esoteri c
symbols of experiences. An atomical form , the gro u n d plan e, princip les of rea son, sp ati al
structure, con tro l of d ep th-the wo rld o f art prese nte d throug h empirical p ercep tion and
o bjective cri teri a- were a t a point of n o return . The primal form in art, th e figure of man
had become a prisone r o f th e ego, held in co mm uni cado in a nougravitational space
voi d . The artist had rej ected scien ce in art.
 • POLEMI C
TOWARD T H E
LI B ERAT! NG
C R I T ER I A O F ART

vr TI''\ O '{ LOCK " 1'111- \!UR'['\( . . on a ny d ay of the wee k e xcept legal
holidays, the typ ica l ar t museum an ywhe re in th e coull try is open for visitors. T h e entra n ce
h all usua lly lead s the average aficiona do o f art th ro ugh a series of galle ries in ord e rly
pro gression from o n e imposing collection (() a n o the r, prese n tin g th e visual hi sto ry of
civiliza tio n , th e dram a of th e human m in d. As far hack as man co u ld reaso n, hi s wo rks a rc
th e re : evidence of the Neolith ic , th e d awn o f civiliza tio ns , th e a n tiq u e remains of d yn astic
p ower, the classica l tra d itions, th e interven ing lin es of hum an ist developme nt. the
Ren ai ssan ce a nd baroque flowering, to the mo st rece nt acquisit ions of m o d ern a n d
co n te m porary art; they are all th e re , mo re or less, in p eriodic array. As he progr esses
leisurely through th e halls, th e visitor is led through a p rocess o f tra nsitio ns in the ag es of
man . I Ie is h ardly awa re of the changes. vet their impact, grad ua l a n d movin g. is n o t lo st
o n h im . I Ie correlates the concrete visions of th e pa st into a stifling pro cessional of eve nts,
As h e reaches th e m o d e rn age. hi s eye is d eli ghted with th e ra d iance, the
lu min os ity, an d joy of im p ressionism . Yet he is vaguc lv disturbed by its u n m a nn erly
sket ch y appearance, its ra ndom sp o n ta ne ity, its lack of fini sh , its seem in g amate urish ness.
Then , as h e crosses th e thresh old to the n ew an, to pos timpressio nis m a n d beyo nd . d eep
into c ub ism. ex p ressionism , abs traction. a n d su rrea lism-the ir derivatio ns and d evi ati o ns-s-
th e alarm bell s begi n to ring in hi s h ead, the sire ns a n d the firewo rks go off, a n d o ur afi-
cionado o f a rt-who is n o t a snob, by th e way-is left in a morass of help less co n fusio n a n d
dism ay. The eve n tenor o f hi s mood is di srup ted in the co lo ri fic visua l viole n ce, thc acs-
th eti c assa u lt fro m the wall s. T h e sim p le progression is go ne; the con tact with life is d emol-
ish ed in a pyro technic profu sion of u nreco gn izab le fu lmin ations.
 In th e art of the past, th ere seemed to be no lin e of visual expression ou r visi-
tor to the museum co uld not foll ow. No m atte r h ow far back , even to Paleolit hi c cave a rt ,
h e co uld trace the thread , the prim itive urge , th e historic nee d , th e human kind. At tim es,
th e lin e stretch ed th in and ten uous; at o th ers, stro ng and firm. Bu t always it was there for
him to see , a lo ng unbroken line of human successio n, lin king a vast re ach of time , twen-
ty tho usand rears of change. Now in his own time , in th e day whe n the visito r and mo d em
man have arrived a t a new age of invention and d iscovery, recognizin g the d e mand o f eve ry
h um an need and th e p romised fulfillmen t of ever-y human d re am , th e historic lin e of art
co mm u nicatio n in human understandin g, imperative n ow mo re th an ever befo re , has b ro-
ken d own . T he new art that th u ndered d own at our re ceptive visitor to the m useum is filled
with an ecl e ctic di ve rsi ty of forms-biom o rp h ic, kin emo rphic, psych omo rp h ic,
mec hanom o rphic- all of them inte nsely perso nal, subj ec tive exp ressions of in ner sta tes of
bein g. The figure in art, the highest ex p ressio n of man's visual creative powers, the su bject
of twen ty th o usan d years of pain stak in g search , has been red uced to a numbe r, a cip he r,
an eso te ric symb ol, a kin esth e tic imp ul se d riven b y a prim itive-emo tional urge. Today,
an at o m ica l man , for all a rtistic pu rposes, is d ead.
Art , in th e mid-twentie th ce n tu ry, is in a p eriod of critical transi tio n . \ Ve a re
se eing today an ext raord inary concentration o f effort an d energy in the visu al ar ts never
befo re expe rienced at any time in h istory. Never h as th ere been so widesp read an in te r-
est , never have so m any ind ivi d ua ls participated actively in its creatio n. Ne ver have we
h ad so much co n tact with art of all kinds-art fr om th e dim r each es of tim e , art fro m
across the oc ea ns , art of p rim itive peo ples; a rt from th e past grea t e ras to the modern era ;
fin e a rt, co mme rcial art , industri al ar t, technical art, experim en ta l a rt, psycho lo gical art,
le isu re a rt, a mate u r art. It wou ld ap pear we arc seeing a great new Ren aissance in visu al
art, for in th e volu me o f art creatio n we arc 'vritnessing a cult u ra l p hen o me non of th e
fi rst magn itud e.
In the fro ntiers o f knowled ge and cultu re , art may be said to be in its h eyday
of explo ratio n. T he explo ra tory fervor of th e sixtee nth cen tu ry, using n ew logic, n ew
m at hematics, new science, opened the unknown areas of th e wo rld to co mmerce and phys-
ical co n tact of peoples and brought o u t a treasu re of artworks to the Weste rn wo rld, wh ich
o n ly now, in the t\..:en tie th ce ntu ry, is being experience d by artists in o ur tim e. Like th e
rich es of th e East in an earlier d ay, th is influx of art is begin nin g to be seen , felt, and assim-
ilated . The d ay of glo ha l exploratio n is accomplished. Now has be gu n the d ay of cultu ral
e xploratio n , so me five hu ndred years later. Yet ne ve r has the re bee n so much co nfusio n in
the arts as there is tod ay,
(II.\J'IU? II H l W A R D T HE UR ER ATI.·..U ; CRITI,'RIA O Y A R T

ST U DY FO R PA I N TI NG
W ITH WH ITE FOR M .

I NK , WAS Sf LY KA ND I N SK Y
(18 6 6 - 19 44) , RUSS IAN .
CO LLECTIO N MUS EUM
OF MOD ER N AR T,
N EW YORK
(KATH ER IN E S. DR EIER
BEOUEST).

T he t\...cn tic rh-cc n tu rv a rtist appcars to be in a state of co n flict a n d d iso rde r. H e

has a wo rl d of art to explore , yet he shows n o p urp os e, n o go als. H e seems to h ave lost h is
se nse of d irection as h e ranges acr oss th e u n charted a rt fro n tie rs. H e h as re jec te d th e com-
p ass; h e h as thrust aside sta n dards , crite ria , defin itions; he h as re n ounc ed scie n ce as a tool
in th e di scovery a n d d evelopmen t of art. H e h as rej ected th e hu m an nee d to rela te, to
co m m u n ica te the resu lts of discove ry.
If we re co gn ize it is th e m issio n o f science to d efine with clarity a nd p recision
the wo rkings of th e u n iverse , to relate with o rd e r an d h arm o ny th e new co ncep ts of time,
sp ac e, a n d e ne rgy into new an d be tt er ways of life , we reach the con clusi on that science is
th e m ost p owe r fu l instrume n tality in th e p rogress of ma n . To the a rtist, however, scie nce
is co nsidere d an invasion , a h in d ra n ce , a str ictu re upon h is free a n d personal in te rp re ta-
tion of th e wo rl d . H e sees the scie n tist as an intelle ctual instrum e n t- precise , logical ,
m a the matical, mechanical. H e sees h im self as a sensi tive o rgan of fe el ing, e m o tio n, ins p i-
ratio n, and in tu itio n. As a result, th e artist rejects scie nce a nd scie n tific th in king in th e p ro -
j ec tion of art. Ar t to be pure, h e reaso ns, must be devo id of scie n ce ; fe eling is no t p recise ;
emo tio n is not mechanica l; insp iration is n o t logical; in tu itio n is not m easu rab le- th e
artist is n o scien tist. Attem pting to d istin gu ish the wo rk of a rt fro m o ther works of life as a
llL\.'.-\ _\lIC .-tx.-trccr r

refin eme n t of cultu ral en deavor, distinct and separate fro m the ord inary and co mmonplace
necessities, th e artist has in effect said th at scie nce prods a nd pushes with th e wo rkaday
th ings to build a better mousetrap, while he , th e e motionally e nd owed aes the te , reprcscllls
1
the inspira tiona l wor k, the filtered aesthe tic re flex o f society, th e fin e a rts . It is a n eat tric k
o f tu rning the tables; th e hohemian wastrel and ga rret outcast. th ro ugh intellectual
legerd emai n and boo tstra p levi ta tio n, has beco me an ind ivid ual o f a pure kind . In this
stat e . he rises above plebeian st rivings to a position o f so phisticated reco gnition a nd so cial
gra nde u r, and fro m this re m ot e pin nacl e su rycys the ma rke tplace med io cr ity bel ow.
H Ol" deva statin g and destructive a view th is is ca n be ga uged by th e fact that in
c\'cry other area o f mod ern life , in eyery field of endeavor; scie nce merges eas ily, co m pa t-
ibly, productively-c-cxce p t in th e visua l arts. Only here is the view hel d-hy artists of all
idi oms, indeed . the whole of conte m porary soc ie ty- tha t scie nce and a rt d o nor mi x, that
th ey a re mutually co n tradi ctio ns, irreconcilabl e. Ye t th is is a d istortion of the truth , a d e lu-
SiOIl, a self-im posed decep tion . a re tr eat fro m life.
T he dislo cati o n o f an and scie nce h as never been so ap pa ren t as it is tod ay,
alm ost a h u nd red ycars fro m th e tim e it first reveal ed a d isturbance in th e co n tin uity of art
co m m u nicatio n. T he im p re ssionist rebellion, th e last flower o f th e human ist sp irit of th e
Ren aissance, still ex h ibiting its attac h me n t to scientific precep ts in its spectra l ligh t and its
recorded o bse rvations of th e mo men tary life of the peo ple , th ei r work, recreation , and
lei sure , was too wea k a m ove men t to triu mph oye r th e e ntre nc h ed auth ority of th e regrcs-
sivc French Academy, Wh en it withe re d a nd d ied after twe n ty years of frustratio n an d soci al
ex ile , the deep space of th e pictu re p lan e became a barre n shell; th e land scape clo sed
d own into a two-d ime nsio nal d eco rati ve patte rn o f sha pes; the vibran t p ulsat ing figu re . the
h um an an alogue . sh ran k a nd hard e ned int o an art ifact, a co nstructed in tell ectua l obj ect ;
the artist's emot ion al power and insight in hu man affairs subs ided into symbolic outcrop-
pings of ten uous momen ts of exci ta tio n , ap prehens io n , o r d esp air.
In th ei r seizu re u po n the "im m ed ia te" and th e "pe rso nal," th e foll owers after
th e imp ress io n ists di sengaged themselves from c\'ery know n p rinciple of spa tial struct u re
and d esign . They withdrew fr o m earl ie r co nce p ts o f fo rm , value, co lo r, a nd imag e . T h ey
worke d toward the to tal re jection of th e Academy. In th eir hatred of the "acad em ic," they
extirpated th e scientific lega(.)' (~f art, carefully n u rtu re d and ma rshaled over fifty ce ntu ries
of histo ric d evelo p men t. and e rased it in a sho rt span of fifty yea rs. In thc ir need to rebel
aga ins t th e "acad e mic," th ey rebelled aga ins t scie nce. The)' p rocla imed the di stinctio n of
th e "fine arts" a nd ga"e it to soc iety as a new d escrip tion . un iquely diffe ren t from aca-
d emic art or the utilitarian co m mercial ar t. They p resented to th e e n tire co n tem po ra ry
( 1/ \/'11 I-t II

generation of so cie ty and th c art ists who fo llowed th e doctrine that "art" was above scien-
tific discip line, above definitions and criteri a. The need to communicate in art, to he
responsible for the ex change of a rt expe rience int o human expe rienc e , was co ns id e re d to
be an ana ch ro nistic demand o f ag gressive aca de m ic vu lgarity, and was held beneath co n-
tcmpt. The rebellion against the "ste rile ," th e "mechan ical," the "acadcmic't-c-u-ulv a
h u man cry of an gu ish-had become a di stortion and a del usion . T h e finc artist had turned
his ba ck on re ality. H e became an in coherent h igh priest of good taste, an absolute arbiter
of eg ocen tric mirror-i mage art, a melancholy, invo lu ted mic rocosm turned in u po n itsel f
to a n in evitable d ead end.
Yet the impulse to art is unq uestio nably (he impulse to life. The art p rocess and
th e life process are an indissolu ble ent ity.The co mpo nen ts of one are th e co m ponents of th e
other. They ma y be uneven, hut never alie n; they may bc o u t o f join t, but never ou t o f uni on.
T he need to create, to syn thesize experience, is a p rimal force in art. Becau se it is th e

TWO ME N_
LIT H OGR A PH .
FER NA N D L EGER
( 18 8 1- 1955)
FR EN C H CO LLEC TION
MU SE U M OF MODERN ART,
N EW YO R K (GIFT OF
E DG A R KA UF MA NN J R.) .

1:1:1 I
dist illed esse nce of perception and ex perie nce, art n eeds its adh erence to life . Bu t the
work of art of tod ay n eeds, m ore than ever before , th e e nergizing transfusion o f rom-
monly sha red experiences. It need s a conscious agreement , v-ith th e cross-fe rtilizing, wid er
em p ir ica l o b jec tive .
Artists of today sta nd at the cross roads of immense opportu nities a nd po ssi-
bilities. \\11a t th ey have d iscarded earlie r in the scie n tific disc ipline of art as ac ademic,
inhibitory, and repressive of free ex p ressio n they no w su bstitute , stra ngely, with new
sci ence! In th eir search for a new ba sis of art witho u t restrain ts, th ey lay hol d on th e
wo rld 's sto re ho use of an, which they now have a t the ir co m ma nd. T hey fe el the impact
o f new sc ie nt ific fiel d s a nd att empt to re so lve these in visua l terms, Virtua lly the entire
gamnt of huma n a nd social d isco ve ry, scie n tific an d te chnical adva nces have fou n d th e ir
pl ace in th e fre e interplay of th e d esign str uc tu re . Never in th e entire h isto ry of art h ave
so many variations of a rt exp ression o ccurred in a single given era. The ra nge of
conce pt s a nd m ove m en ts is tr uly eno rm o us; even as th is is bei n g ,.. Tit te n, new o nes are
bein g ho rn . T h e listing of a few a t random is to in di cat e the multi pli city of reac tio ns to
th e tec h n ical-scientific-a na lytica l age .
Thus, sta rt ing wit h im pressionism , we h ave : pointillism , ncoirnpressio nism,
postimpressionism , fauvi sm , cubism (analytical and synthetic ), expressionism (th ree
sc hoo ls, pe rh a ps more ) , Orph ism , su rrea lism , abstr ac tio n , d ad a ism , fu tu r ism , nonob-
j ectivism , nco p lasticism. co ns tru ct ivism , purism , Bauh au s, primitivism , social real ism ,
d yn amism , abs tra ct ex p res sio n ism, abs trac t su rre alism, mob iles, sta biles-and on and
o n , c t cete ra . T he list see ms e nd less. In these definit ions ca ll be see n so me of th e
d escri p tive lead s to th e la rge r en vir onmen t o f the age , where the a rt fo rm has attempt-
e d to e mb ra ce psych ol ogy and psych oan alysis, natural hi story; biology, chemistry, p h ysics,
kine tics, mechanics, engineering , arc haeo logy, ant hro pology, m icroscopy, te lcscopy, e tc. In
th e fissio n and fus io n o f two-d imens ional spacc, the artist uses scie nce pragmatically, expe -
rie n tially, witho ut who le co ncep ts. Neve rt heless, it fo rm s the basis of hi s art. But it is not a
complete art. Fo r, in the p rac tice o f it, the artist simu lta neo usly rejects th e ex iste nce a nd
in flu ence of any scie n tific rigor, co n t ro l, cri terion, or sta nd ard . H is art, perforce, , v-ithout
object ive direction, rel eases a welter of ex quisitely personal, eclectic minutiae.
If we q uick ly sca n the art ho ri zon an d examine th e a mazing out p u t o f art
tod ay, we find e nd less ex perim e n ts in textu res; in conclusive sha pes, m asses, fo rms; po si-
tivc and n egative space ; te ns io ns of line and mass; co n tras ts in co lo r; line variatio ns;
eclectic worki ng together of art o ld an d new ; ce ll struct u re; a u to matic writing--e ndless,
preci ous, p ur ist varia tio n s, po we rl ess to co me to grips wit h itse lf. to p ro claim any
 (,11:\1"/ U~ 1/ T O\\'ARD T H E LIJ,ERATL,\,G C RITf ;RIA OF A R r

d irection o r value judgm ent fo r o thers. The figure in art-always the to uc h ston e of th e art
of an y e ra- h as beco me th e visua l ad mission o f the artist's failu re to cope with the eth ical-
moral , socia l-h u man needs of ou r time. It is a sym b ol of di slocation and depersonalization ;
the id eo graph of the alie n ated man , in secure, lon ely, with ou t fibe r ; the portrait of the
a rtist, the a u to gra p h of the au thor.
Probab ly th e most di sturbing phenomenon in the art o f the current century, a
resu lt of the d isloc ation in th e dualisrn o f art and scie nce, is th e profoundly pe rvasive indif-
fe rence of the who le con te m porary ge neratio n of artists to formulate a cle ar-cut definition
o f a rt itself. The obscu ra n tism , th e evas ive a rg u men ts an d d enial s, th e lack of any direct ,
for thright statemen t, is evidence of a d ee p-going cris is in art. With the exce p tio n of a few
sch ola rs, n owh e re in th e field of an h as th e re appeared a challe nging assertion to say wh at
art is in our time.
In the soc ial a re n a of mode rn livin g, th e most e ngaging d iversion is the exten -
srve p rac tic e o f ge ne ra lized a n d p e rsonal analysis. Because we live in a technical-
scie n tific-analytical age of ca lcu lating mach ines and statistica l tru ths, we resp ond to the
p owerfu l pressures of analytical behavior-s-to d efine , to clarify, to id e ntify. It is a great
ga me of analysis; di ssection and decortication of the unde rlyin g mechanism s in every
segme n t o f th e social str uc tu re , fro m psychoanalysis to soci al su rg ery. V/e p ra ctice the ana-
lytical gam e everywh e re exce pt in th e fine arts. Here , in th e arts, th e e motional fo g rolls
in , intellectual inertia overtakes us, and the cu ltu ra l swam p remains undefined, unex-
p lo red . Wo rds like style a n d taste have no clea r m eanin g exce p t, perhaps, in com me rcial
u sag e . And th e special ca st e te r minolo gy- -f eeling, intuition, inspiration, perception,
creati vity--are ritualistic ceremonial expressi o ns of artists, un de file d by sim p le definitions
ex cept in th e la bo ra to ries of clini ca l psychologists.
The special wo rd art is a sacred te mple , a m yste rious in n e r san ctu m of artistic
pu rsuit, wh e re magic al in tell ectual p owers in teract with pri mo rdi al o u tpo urings of th e irra-
tio n al su b conscio us. Pa ra p hrasing Thucyd id cs. who h as p ut it a b ru p tly: Wh en co m mo n ,
everyday words lo se their d efi n itions a n d m eanin gs, th ere is a general crisis in a give n field .

\ To go fu rthe r, wh e n a rt te rminology h as lost its p owe r to convey sense, id ea , or mean ing

of a r t ex pression , the n the artist, the art fiel d, the whole cu ltu ra l e n d eavo r, is co n flict ed,
confused , and d iso rd ered; it be comes a chaotic wast eland , a lost con tin ent o f the culture.
The n et result h as b een to le t lo ose a carn ival of art d ile ttantism an d chi-chi art
so ph istica tion concealed be hi nd an imposin g fr ont of syn the tic rh et o ric , aestheti c lyricism ,
a n d e motional bathos. T h e state o f a rt tod ay is such that it ca n n ow be perfo rm ed by tyros
a n d amate urs with virtually no stu dy, p reparat io n , or train ing. In galle ries an d ex h ibitio ns,
U1 'S ..\ .\JIC A.XA TO.V \ '

GIRL WITH
DOLL CARRfAGE ,
PAUL KLEE
0 879 -1 9 40) SWISS
COLLECTION MUSEUM
Of MODERN ART.
CIHVILU II TO\\ "AR V 1'1110 L IBf:R.4. T L" C; CUrn;RI.4. Of" AR T

the a mate u r aesthete can n ow compe te O Il equal te r m s with the seaso ned, kn o wledgeabl e
m a ster with suc h faci lity tha t h ardly a nyone, Ircq nc utly n o t eve n art co n no isse u rs an d cri t-
ics, can tell good art from bad art, a mateu r a rt fro m p rofessio nal art. Wh en the qu e st fo r
brevity and simplici ty h as bee n reduce d to infantile primitivism, we have lost the valid ity of
co nce p ts; whe n the crea tive urge to reveal life h as b een dis torted in to a waywa rd surge of
un direc te d e ner b')', we h ave lost co n trol of directi on and experimen ta tion; when th e searc h
fo r cl arity a n d order has been d ive rte d to piecing o u t a m ea n in gle ss j argon of a mate u r
misbehavior, we h ave lo st o u r arti stic heritage ; when the n eed fo r d efiniti ons, standards,
a nd criteria h a s bee n sed uce d by vacuous e mo tional m umblings , we h ave seen the p e r ve r-
sio n of th e philoso p hy of art and aesthetics. \ \'he n the artist has surrende re d hi s status , h is
au thority, his principles, hi s p rofess io nalism, th en the a mate u r h a s take n oyer, an d the
jungle is upon us.
The proble m of th e am a te u r in art is rea lly th e problem of the artist in socie ty.
To say that the amate ur has invad e d the arts , and that the fine arts are b eco m in g an ama-
te ur a rt , is to say th at th e a rtist has defaulted in h is obligation to the so cial envir o nme nt.
Bu t this view alo n e does n ot fa ce the issue sq uare ly, fo r it woul d force th e co nclusio n that
th e artist alo ne is re sponsible fo r th e neglect and deterio ra tion of a r t. To say th a t the artist
h as rej ec ted th e n o r m s of living, has re m o ve d h im sel f fro m so c iety, h as turn e d away from
reali ty to promote h is inner p erso n al image o f life and art-for-a rt 's-sa ke isola tion ism , is to
say the exile p refe rs the d esert, the su icid e enjoys cu tt ing his ve ins, the tortured m a n
re lishes hi s a nguished crie s for hel p . In truth, th ese a rc but the pa thetic a ttempt,,; of the
withered , tr u ncated m an to becom e a wh o le ma n. The issu e at h and is re a lly a d ual
pro b lem; it is not only the artist 's inbreeding an d involu tion-it is al so society's force d
estrangement and neglect of th e artist . If th e re is a crisis in a rt , a di sintegration of it"; m oral
fib er, a decay of its historical precept"; a n d p h iloso p h ica l virtues, it is bec a use so cie ty first has
di savowed an d di sabled it as an intellectual re so u rce , a cultu ra l n e ce ssity. a so cial and cduca-
live force. It h as re fused its permissio n to b e integrated with the tec hnologica l, scien tific
advances in our time, except a s a u tilita ria n . co mmercial, a n cilla ry a rt. To e ngage a solution
o n th is basis n eeds a mo ra l reawakening of society a n d a conceptual reworking of a rt.
Th e ree sta bli sh me n t o f se lf-co n tro l in th e a rtist a n d social resp ect for a rt
devolves o n creating aga in a n ew dualism of a rt a n d science in the twe n tieth cen tury. T he
o bscure termi n olo gy must be clarified an d attached to co mmon ly shared associations; p e r-
sonal values must be defined acco rd in g to ge n e ra lize d experience ; the personal su bjec tive
purpose must be widene d to embrace the b ro ade r social goal. T h e im mediate and u rgent
n e cessity, the fi rst o rder o f th e day, is to rede fine the o ld wo rd art. T h e cl iches, the
nonse nse , m us t be strip ped off. Art must have a new in te rpre tat io n, in fused with new
meanings a nd valu es, in order to find its eq ual place with o ther positive cultu ral pursui ts
in o u r time. It must mean as much to th e populati on as m edicine. su rgery. bacterio logy-
o r physics, e ng ineeri ng , a rch itcc tu re---or steak , mash ed potato es, ap ple pic. It m ust be
e xec u ted so abl y and u nderstood so well th at it wi ll sta nd stro ng and firm as a skyscra per
does when it is done wcll-or it will co llapse in ruins when it is not. Art m ust be refin ed
in to a critical in tell ectual tool to meet these challenges. New cu tting edges must be given
to th e old "saw," fin e-h oned and sharp, di am ond-hard a nd to ug h , to stand lip under the
fric tio n and abrasion of life . To be "art," it should be made responsi ble for co mmu n icatio n
o f iLS ideas and co nc ep ts; it should refl ect th e life and tim es of the a rt ist, his integrity, his
ethics, h is dem ocrati c ideals in th e progress o f man; it sh ould show his d eveloped skill and
judgmen t in p rojecting significant, expres sive form; it should reveal inve n tio n and o rigi-
na lity in transm itt ing the aesthet ic expe rien ce: a nd , above all, it should ari se o u t of the envi-
ro n men t, th e soc ial-h um an-scie n tific culture base as the co n tro lling factor in its creati on .
This d o cs no t mean tha t strictu res or rigid co nve n tio ns m ust be p laced on th e
artist; nor d o cs it say that ex perimen ta tio n or freedom in perso na l expressio n sho uld be
cu rta iled o r abrogated; no r d ocs it p ropo se that there is only o ne w'ay of seeing th e wo rld
a ro u nd us , one outlook, one style o r m ethod of approach . It docs not ask th e art ist to o bey
o r be subscr-vient to any fixed rule, regulat ion, dogm a, o r tradition. It d o es not set up
abso lu te s of authority. or im pose conditioned reflexes of co n fo rmism . However. it docs ask
the artist to respect and rely 0 11 the po sitive norms, val ues , a nd tra d itio ns that still o perate
and still fu nc tio n in the stu dy and p reparation of th e artist, th at still apply in th e cultura l
backgr o und of mode rn art creation. These sho uld be seen as the educative resource , th e
im perati ve precondition for the survival and growth of art.
Socrat es, we are to ld . attempting to p robe into the nature o f law, speaks o f the
laws of men as a response to th e so cial pressures that arise o u t o f human co nd itio ns in the
natura l envir onment. And the refore, he argues with penetrating in sight, to understand the
nature o f law we m ust first understan d th e law of nature. T h e liberating princi ple of art lies
p recisely here. in th e Socrat ic approach to the co njoined rel ationsh ip of two m utuall y
attracted, interact ing fo rces-man and nature, nature a nd man. T h is .\)' ll n g i st ir princip le, if
we ca n refer to it as such , argu es for a rela tionship of ideas, in To ynbee 's words , ill a co n-
text of cha lle nge and re sponse , respo nse an d cha lle nge. It se izes u pon d iverse a ttitud es of
thought, probin g for intrinsic au rib u rcs of contraction and expa nsion , re fine ment and
exte nsio n; it en larges th e field o f intellectual vision, and refin es the area of criticaljudgmen t;
it tends to lim it su bj ec tive bias and mental myopia.
("IL\I'IH~ II TO WARD T iff; UH n~A T I."' ( ; C RfT l': R IA or A RT

If we a p p ly th e prin ciple to o n e of the central problems of art, the presence of

the amate ur in th e fine a rts, we m igh t uncove r these p ro vocative correlatio ns : To u n d e r-
stan d the amateur of art, we m u st first und erstand the art of th e amateur; to recogn ize the
p rofe ssional of art, \.. .e m u st recognize the art of the professional; to e xp la in th e presence
of the amateur in p ro fessional a rt , we must e xp lain th e presence of the p rofessio n al in
amate ur a rt. Suddenly, th e critical qu estions r ise to the su r fa ce : In h ow man y ways is
pro fessional art an amateur art? Can p rofessio n al art be easily imitate d by the amate ur?
T he way is o pen for o ther challenging assertions. Fo r in stanc e , th at mu ch -ab us ed old h ab it,
skill: To discover the skill in art, let us first d iscover the a rt in skill. Or: To ask whe re the
old tradi tions are in mode rn art, we must first ask whe re th e modern is in the old art. T h is
is not a m ere game o f idea inversions o r word j ugglin g. If it 'w ere , the n e w statem e n t of
id eas in reverse would not b e so sticky with uneasy, ast ringent m eanings th a t q u ickly leap
to m ind. No r is thi s a conclusive demonstration posed as a n a nswer to the p ro ble m s of
a rt. It is an exercise of reaso n , an analytical approach in the examinatio n of h ith e r to
unassailable notio n s. It might be see n as the fir st in cisio n in clich e and sloga n surgery to
a rrest the d eterio ratio n in a rt.
A new dualism of art and scie n ce, if we can agree on th e p remise as indispen-
sa b le to a rt today (as it was in the Renaissance) , must again seek to intro du ce commonly
un derstoo d crite ria an d standards. \Ve must reestab lish ce rtain majo r lin ks with the past as
histo rical back groun d , consisten t with art progress today. \fc must in co rp ora te the old
trad itions that a rc still viable, still alive today. But which are the living trad itions a n d h ow
can we b e sure? Let us a pply th e syn e rgistic p rin ciple and m a ke an in cisio n .
O ur civilization is predominantly a n adva nc ed tech nical age of scie n ce . It
develope d its abu ndant grea tn ess fro m earlier civilizations a n d beginn in gs. Now, a ques-
tio n : Where d o the ea rl ie r civilizations appear in th e m od e r n age of scie n ce? \Vc m us t
fir st ask , where does the mode rn age of sci e nc e appear in ea rl ie r civil izatio ns ? The
answer seems clear: in those civilizations th a t have m ade scientific contributions. T he re a-
son \VC sea rch out the o lder civilizations, and a ttac h th ei r find in gs to o u rs, is a scientific
reason. T h is is tru e h ist o rically fo r our h uman ist-democra tic in stitutio n s as wel l.
The refo re , the answer to the o lde r tr ad itions in m o d e rn art lie s in the con te x t of th e
larger fr am ewo rk: those old art tr adi tion s that tend to live on h ave su rvived for a humanist-
democratic scientific reason .
Where modern art h as p recisely been inte rested in the art of the worl d's cu l-
tures, ac ross the seas and in the pas t, is the human re aso n , the scie n tific reaso n . But it has
done this willy-nilly, capricio usly, d riven by impu lse ra th e r th an direction . It h as ch o se n ,
D L '\ '.·t.\Il C ,-\ .'\'..1.1'0 .\ 11 '

thro ug h uncritical acceptance of the ni neteenth-century art ists' h ostili ty and rage against
th e anti liberta rian French Academy, to cont in ue the d isparagem ent o f the scien tific,
human anato mical figure as a ste rile, mech anical, aca de m ic regressio n in art. It p ro -
nounccs an atomical mall d ead in a ll. Ana tomy as a rigor, a d iscipli ne in th e re fine me nt
an d skill of art, is d ebased in practice , study. a nd educatio n . The word a natomical is today

FI G UR E. WOOD CUT.
U N KNO WN FO LLOW E R
OF TITI AN , FR OM
A N DR EAS VESAL IUS
( 1 51 4 - 1 5 6 4).
DE HUMANI
CORPOR fS FA B Rf C A.

(.f o}
CH.\1"IIU II I D H 'A R D Tin; URJ<:R ,\ TlSG CRI T ERIA. OF ART

a term of contempt, and is made synonymo us with "aca demic" in art circles. The rejectio n
o f the anatom ical fig ure as a co n trol has weakened the sup p o r tive str uctu re of a n, a nd one
after ano ther, scientific criteria a re to rn loose and discarded. T he a tte m pts to a ttach "new
scie nce" in a rt are essentia lly p e riph e ra l, tan gential , q uas i-scie n tific, make shi ft concoc-
tions; pa rti a lly reali zed, fr agme n ta ry d evel opments. Art, by the se n ew valu es, h as become
the undisc ipline d arena o f th e ro man tic d el inq uent and th e p layboy a mate u r, wh ile the
ha rd-wo rk ing p rofessio n al figh ts fo r his life. A nd, sad ly, the term modern in art is th e ta rge t
no w of the unco nc eale d co n te m pt an d sco r n o f th e p o pu la tio n.
Because th is pole mic un d e rscore s the n ee d to ret u rn to ra tional d efini tions o f
th e e n tire nome nclature of art an d th e reworking of su bs ta n tive n ew sta n d a rds , th e retu rn
o f the h um an an a to mi cal fig u re to th e lexi co n of art is a m ..ijo r co n d ition to ward the estab-
lishmen t of a new d uali sm of art a nd science. The p re m ise o f the hu man figure does not
pro pose a res tatem ent of medical a natomy. To red isco ver Vcsa lius is n o twen tieth-ce n tury
tri u m ph ; Vesa lia n a natom y m ust b e given ba ck to Vesa lius. An advance in ana to my fo r a rt
must be m ad e in artistic a natomy. M uscle a n d b o n e str ucture must be left off where th ey
inh ib it or des troy u nd erstand in g of su r face fo r m , art istic a n d exp ress ive form . Th e
anato mical figure of art m ust make a co n tribution to th e d yna mi cs of th e livin g fig u re , of
in terrelati onsh ip of m asses in m otio n , of ins ights in to the fig ure to be used by artists an d
st uden t>; of art, n ot medical students a nd su rgeons. Bec a u se life to day is so co mplex a n d
varie d, mul tipl ying its dime ns ions with cn~ ry p assin g day, th e since re, creative artist m u st
b e quick to react wit h keen insight and increa se d awareness to the changing profile o f
con te m p o rary life . Be ca use h e must show ve rsatil ity, flexib ility, and dive rsifica tio n in expe r-
im e n tal b e h avio r, h e must ba se hi m self se curely 011 the hu man root, th e warm kinsh ip of
h is scie n tific broth e r, the co nsangu ine associati on wit h the large r socia l environ me nt.
For whatever it is worth, this b o ok proposes that it must be d one in n ew ways,
whatever they may be, wit h resp e ct fo r the h u m a n figure , the a rtistic ethic, the scientific
p recep t, th e hu m an goal.
r:
 OV E RVI EW

• THE FIGURE
I N ART
HISTORICALLY
DEVELO P ED
\nI.\TE"F,l{ ~L\Y BL S.\ID o f th e h isto ri cal de velopment of a rt generally, the
h uman fig ure p resen ts th e d ee pest insi gh t into the soci al-cu lt ural co nc e p ts of art, from
a b orig inal tribal culture to the most adva nced civilizatio ns, past or present. [f art ca n b e
se e n as th e refined e n de avor of human asp iratio ns , th e fig u re in a rt is it s mo st important
exp ressive co nce n tra tion. The inheren t p roblem in its a rtistic invention, wh atever it s
cu ltu ral source, is th e at tempt by the artist to re solve hi s p h ysical ex perie n ce and ae sth eti c
pe rce p tio n into a m ea n ingfu l, sig ni fica n t visual form . But the limitations of his so cial-
c ult ura l vie wp o in t interpo se a m en tal screen be tween the co u n tless physical experience s
a n d hi s capacity to ab sorb them . T h us, the artist 's p erceptions are re fined into a con-
den sed aes th etic fo rm-the art style o f hi s soci al e nviro n me n t. To speak of a style in th e
n arrow se ns e of the in div idual artist is to d isco ver personal m a n n erisms a n d tec h niqu es
in the a p p licatio n o f tool s an d m edia to su r fac es a n d mat e ria ls in a n in d ivid ualized,
expressive way_Attrib ut es of thi s kind a re easily di stin guish ed and are firm ly imbedded in
personal works of art as much as th e a u tograp h or sig na ture of the a rtist is part of the a r t.
To e n large th e field of definition , however, to embrac e ge ne ra tio ns of artists in a so cio-
lo gical fram ewo rk of cu ltu re, tha t is, a give n e ra in a n , is to speak o f the ge nera l a rt style
of th e tim e . If th e analo gy of th e p ersonal sig natu re or h andwritin g holds [or the
individual artist, then the b asic language construc tio n , ge ne ra lized ex p ressio ns , idi oms,
a n d co llo quialisms co u ld be sai d to belong to all the people of his period as well as to th e
artist. T h us , to exp lain the a rt style of a n e ra, a n overview is taken of the hi storical matrix
of the period, the major eve n ts and their impacts on livin g process a n d thou ght process,
and th eir ge n eral influences on a rtis ts. These a re broadly ch isele d , in b as-relief, as it
we re , to p res e n t th e pro cession o f the h uman fig u re in limited, sig n ifica n t, visu al
co n ce p tio ns of art.
 SURV IVAL MAN : T H E FIGURE OF NECESSITY

P ER I OD Up pe r Pal eolithic Agc (O ld Sto n e .-\geL in Western Eu rope:

Aur ignacian Period ( C1 1U .\ uo .o no lU .. - J o.O()() H.C. )

B A CK GR O U XD The figure of Paleo lithic m an is one o f stern necessity. ofharrlship

a n d priva tion in a pri mi tive. a ntagon istic environmen t. T h e figure h e painted on the walls o f
h is cave or ca rved 01 1 a rt ifac ts of usc were mostly a ni ma ls- more im porta n t to h im tha n

POLYC H RO M E B I SON lnuuau figu res. They arc figur es tha t a rise o u t o f th e im m ediate an d p ressin g need to su rmo u n t
(D ETA IL F ROM A the d aily attri tio n of wan t, sca rcity, an d h u nge r. Beca use ea rly m an lived a life of pe rsonal
CAV E PAI NTIN G).
A LTA M I RA, SPAI N.
privat ion, he c re a ted co u cret elv rea l, obj ecti velv im po rta n t figures of a nim als, h is figures o f
CO U RT ESY OF n ecessity fo r su rviva l. Figures o f h imself were sm all, n onpe rsonalizcd. an d uni mportan t. To
THE A M E RICAN
hi m, h is cave a n ima ls were d im ensionally real, as real as Paleo lith ic m an saw th em in physical
M US E U M OF
N ATU RA L HISTO RY. existenc e. They a re not id ea, spiri t. or sou l, hut ex ten ded livi ng e m bodi ment in actua l reality.
( :lU./ ' n:N 11/ TH f : F/( ; UR f : 1.,' A.R T H I S T OR I C A I . L \ ' llI,TU J )J'Ell

HA N D S IL H OUE TTES
S U PE RI MPOS E D OVE R
B ISO N (D ETAIL FROM
A CA V E PA INT IN G)
SO UTHER N FR A NC E.
CO U RTES Y OF
T H E AME RI CA N
M USE UM OF
NA TU RA L H I STO RY,

.. '
•
..

To hi m , what could not be experienced through concrete physical contact could not be dep icted; the
depiction itselfwas th e parallel extended physica l reality. T h ese figures a re as m u ch rea lity to
a primitive. p ra gmatic m ind, an d esse n tia lly alive, as refle ctio n s in wa ter a re alive, as footprints
a re alon g the m u dd y ban ks o f a stream, as th e imprint of a hand is in soft cla y, as th e sha pe of
buttocks or body fo r ms are whe n they a re p res sed into soft earth. Early m an m ust have
observed these phenomena of immediate , co ncre te
WI LL ENDOR F VE N US ,
imp ressio n s. Thus, th ey are th e first rec ognizable
STO N E STATUETTE ,
visu al realizations of "fo rm" in graph ic experie n ce in K RE NS , LO WE R AU STR IA
CO UR T ESY OF
the h istory of the h uman race. To see hi s foo tprint" as
T H E AM E RI CA N
m ovi ng. as real, as hi s other-same-self, to see a n im als MUS EU M OF

leave foo tprin t" and bodv prints as well, led to th e NATU RA L HI STO RY,

h ighe r recogn ition of trac ing the p rocess o n the walls

of h is cave . They are , there fo re. not m agical b ut sta rk-
ly re al, other-same-self dcpicuvc p ain tin gs of im rnc d i-
ate, co n curre n t physical actuality; to d rive an arrow
in to the a nimal figu re e nsu re d th e success of th e
ensu ing hunt.
AT T R I B UT ES Ca ve art sh o ws in no way
a bstract, symbo lic , o r e xpressive fig ure s. T h ey d o
not in any way app roach the mod ern sim p lifica tio n
of fo r m ; n o r d o th ey in a ny se ns e employ re fi ne-
men t or styliza ti o n of idea. T h ey are th e \'e ry b e st
OL"A Af I C .-\ N A T O.\ f}'

the caveman could do, Hi s a nimals look more dimension ally rea l because he saw th e m as
la rge , power ful , a nd vi ta lly im po rta n t to his su rviva l. H is human figures are nondimen-
sio nal and flat because of his dimly realized , undeveloped co nce pt of sel f in a small,
non indi vi duated tri bal cult ure , \\'o rks suc h as th ese are the prehisto ri c antecedents o f
p rimitive m agic figures, and th ey su rvi ve in the p resen t d ay through su pe rstitio us ri tual
pract ice in the analogo us use of voodoo figures, hat e effigies, an d d evil dolls.

ANCESTRAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF MAGIC

P ERIOD Neolithic Age (New Stone Age ) , wid espread in Europe, Afric a , Asia,
th e Ameri cas ; persists in m an y areas today « II~ ( .\ 10.OllO IU , - 10 0 0 B.C .)

BA C KG RO UN D T he figure of a ncestral man is a magical e n tity, e nd owed with

su pe rnatural quali ties, animate d wi th spirits o f powerful a nc es to rs and fo rces of nature.
Modern primitive man, like his ea rlier co u n te rpart, auernpts to co n tro l natu re und er d if-
ficul t and d ispara te co nditions of life . With his ceremo nial figu res, id ol s, masks, totem s,
and charm s, used in spir it-worship rituals, he hop es to exercise contro l ove r life an d
d eat h ; fa mine , d isease , a nd war; fertility, bounty, and harvest. The figu re o f magic is used
to co n tro l cau se and effect in nature. It is a su rviva l of the life process afte r d eath, and a
retu rn o f th e sp irit powers in to the life pro cess.
ATT R I B U T ES An cestral man is not th e living figure of actual existenc e as the
figu re of necessity is in cave a rt. Because it is a ce rem o nial figu re , an im at ed \vrith qualiti es
of su pernatu ral existe n ce, it is formal and str ict accord in g to ri tu al co nven tio ns and tra-
ditions. It is a d ep let ive symbol ra ther th an an image; it lean s to simplified fo rm , rather
th an th e real. Its forms are undi fferentiat ed , im pe rso nal reductions in to an abstract, rigid
fo rma t, generally symm e trical, sta tic, and severe. Fre q uently, suc h fo rms may show a wid e
vari ety of d eco rative motifs, but it is not d ecoration fo r aesthe tic reaso ns o r intrinsic
embellish ment. Ra th er, it is a d ecoration of meani ng , p urpose , and use , co nsisten t \..; th
th e original purpo se of the ri tu al figure itself-that is, to en large u pon its magical pro p-
e rt ies, its ability to co n tro l natu re. Because th e random forces o f nature are unpred ictable
and fre q ue n tly di sastrous, the figure of magic often shows seve rity, fear, te rror, and
d emonic violence . Mo re often , such figu res are ins cruta ble and rem o te , e nigm atic as are
the imponderable natu ral fo rces. T hey a re hum orless as a whole; b u t whe n th ey show
h u mo r, it is a terrible kind, arising from cruel ty, irrationality, and re tri bution for misdeed s
and tn isbehavior toward th e spirits.
I>L" A .\fI C A..VA. T O .\ I\ "

ETERNAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF IMMORTALITY

PE R IOD Bro n ze Age, in Europe, Mid d le East , Asia , Americas : Egyptia n , Near
Eastern , In d ia n , Chinese , Earl y Am e rica n civi lizations ( IIH \ J .-)()() IU. \.P. I10tl)

BAC KGRou :s-n T he e mcrgcnce of powerfu l, stable, complex socie ties, th e early
civilizations fro m their tribal Xcolit h ic fore runne rs, rests largely on [our major d evelo p-
m en ts in socie ty: th e discove ry o f seeds to m anage crop growing a nd. fann ing; the d om es-
ticatio n a n d h e rd ing of anima ls to con trol a co n tin uous food su p p ly; knowledge of the
seasons and develo p m e n t of a cale n dar to regu la te fannin g an d ferti lity; a n d the ab ility to
work metal s in to to o ls a n d a rtifacts for wo rk , ' \<\ 1'. b uilding , a n d worsh ip . Thus, th e n eed to
exercise magic in the co n tro l of ra ndo m forces of n ature through p owe r ful a ncesto r sp ir-
its was su blim a te d in to a m ore d evelop ed beli ef in orderly, com pe te n t na tu re go ds. The
advan ce in hu m a n exi ste n ce b rought m a rked cha n ges in rel igion: from a ncestor sp iri ts to
nature god s, from occasional ritual p ractice to organized reli gious wo rsh ip, from sh a m a n s
and witch doctors to pri ests a n d go d-kings, fro m control of spi rits for th e n eeds of m en to
religious behavior of me n to war d go d s. T h e figure of ete rnal man thu s ch a nged [ro m an
an cestral tote mic figu re rep resen ting a trib al spirit to an immortal god image represe nting
a sp iritu al activatin g power in th e o rde rly p roc ess of nature.
A T T R I n U T Es T h e fig u re of im mo rtality tends to sym bolize th e fiel ds o f human
activi ty an d bel ief. They sh ow stab le , d eveloped. se m ina u u-alistic forms, fo rma l a n d sta tic
withi n their closed con tours. They ten d to be a rc h ite cto n ic in st ruc tu re a n d sym metrica l

KING CHEPHREN
WITH THE FALCON .
FROM T HE MOR TUARY
TEM P L E AT G IZEH. GRA Y
D IORITE STATUE .
FOURTH DYNASTY, EG YPT.
COURTESY OF
TH E METROPOLI TA N
MUSE UM O F ART .
(" II( I I T In FJGl ' R E tx A RT 1I1SHJRI CUL1 - IJf:n·:I.OI'1': J)

WIN GED EAG l E-

H EA D ED B EI NG. FR OM
T H E PA L A CE OF
AS H U R-N AS I R- A PA L 11.
A L A B ASTE R RELlEF.
N I MRU D, ASSYR IA
CO U RT ESY O F
TH E MET ROPOLl TA N
MUS E UM OF A RT.

',/:' '.: -- .;

CYC L A DIC FIGU RE O F

A WOMAN OR GODDESS.
MARBLE STATUETT E
THI RD MI LL ENN IU M, B.C.
CYCLAD ES ISLANDS,
A EG EAN AREA . COUR TESY
O F TH E ME TROPOLITAN
MUS EUM OF ART.
H L \ 'A..\Il C .-\.\rA TO ." ~ ·

YA MANT A K A. LO RD OF
THE U N IV E RSE, WITH
H I S SH A KTI BRO NZ E
STATU ETT E. TI B ET.
COU RTESY O F
TH E ME TROPO L ITAN
M USE UM OF A RT.

in design, and project an enduring e te rna l a p p ea ra nce. Ch a racte ristically, th e y a re

fre que n tly m ad e of du rable stone a n d metals. T heir plao-nu-nt in g-reat temples, shrines,
sa nc tu ms. a n d recessed nic hes give s th e m a frontal. a bstract, so m ewh a t unnatu ra l lo o k.
Because th ey a rc pa rt o f th e sacred struc tu re tha t houses the m , their po sition ill closed
pla ces an d th eir fro ma lity o f fo rm s show th ey we re m ean t to be se e n fr o m one uinuing direc-
tion only_ Po rt rait s of g re at priests a nd royal go d figures are sym bolic p o rt raits subsu med
within the de pic tion of the god imag-e with whom they are ide n tified a n d whose wors h ip
they su p e rvise. It is la rgely in this age tha t extensive d eco ra u o n develops represent ing n a t-
ural forces that the go d s control. These arc largel y two-dim ensional , sym m e trica l sym bo ls
re vealin g the bo unty o f plants a nd c ro ps. fertility of anim als, p ower and capability in W ; lI -_
( /I \ I' 1 'J.: "J

IDEAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF PERFECTION

P ERIOD Age of Id ealism , in so u theaste rn Europe; Greek and Roman civiliza-

tio n s (ClRC\ ~)()O R.C -\.D. I;jO )

BAC KG R O UN D T h e tra n sitio n fro m th e dynas tic a ut h ori ta rian civiliza tio ns to
the so cia lly a n d cu ltura lly more advan ced civiliza tio ns of Greece an d Ro m e re sts o n the
e m e rg in g re la tive im po rta n ce o f th e in d ivi d ua l. th e p ersona, in so ciety. Greece , sitting
astrid e the Med ite rra n ea n stra tegic ally close (() three co n tin e n ts, beca m e a n early great
m a ritim e p ower, inviting tra d e , mi gra tio n o f peoples, a n d cu lt u ra l co ntact in to its o rb it.

L E FT:
APHROD I TE.
A NC I EN T REP LI CA
OF A G REEK WO RK,
MAR B L E STATU E.
C OU RTES Y OF TH E
METRO POLI TAN
M U SEUM OF ART.

RI GH T:
M EDI C I VEN U S.
R EP LI CA OF OR IG INA L
I N TH E U FF IZ I
GA LL ER Y, F LORE N CE .
MA RB LE STATU E.
GR EEC E.
COUR TESY OF TH E
M ETROPO LITAN
M US EU M OF ART.
These gave rise (0 th e free r, mo re flexi b le . d ynam ic soc ial in stitut io ns in th e Hellenist ic
wo rld of so ld ie r-citize ns , de mocratic go vernmen t, an d politic al equali ty. Ali individ ualism
d evelo ped in O n -e r e a n d in her lat er Ro ma n prototyve. ra tio nal, p rc scien tific observa tio ns
of na tu re g re w. a n d belief in the unity of man a nd gods in n ature evo lved . predica ted 01 1

th e ex iste nce o f un iversa l tru th , Religion changed fro m the wo rship of n ature go d s to wo r-
sh ip of the virt ues a n d goodn ess o f n ature in go ds , They believed in the Id ea o f th e Goo d ,
th e cr ea tive ca use o f the uni verse a nd ideal, pe rfec t states o f bein g, a n d laid e m p hasis 0 11

h a rmony, math e ma tical o rder, a n d p erfection o f the un iversa l worl d , in co existe n ce an d

u nity with th e personal worl d.
A T TR I B UT ES Greek a n d Ro man a rt th us atte mp te d to rea lize id eas of perfe c-
tio n in m en and women as gods , d erived from th e real. e m pirica lly o bse rved wo rld of
n ature a nd unive rsal truth . T he figu re o f pe r fectio n is, the refo re . constitut ed as a livin g fig-
ure , co n ceived acc o rd in g to reasoned ma themat ical proportions o f ideal crite ria, Beca use
the y a re mo rt al a n d ph ysical , th ese figu res sh ow ca refull y o bse rve d , pe rsonali zed h u man
for m, Their a ttached go d-id ea l virt ues, h owe ver, g iye th em a sym b olic grac e , el egan ce , a n d
ch a rm , sus tain ed ill an a ura of id eal se re n ity a n d d ignity. Su rfa ce fo rm is co rre ct, re fined ,
tact ile , and se ns ua l, p rojec ting heroi c attri butes rath er th a n th e co m mo n place, The Greek
fig u re of pe rfect ion differs fr o m the struc ture d two-d ime nsio nal Irontality o f Egypti an a n
in the livin g m ovemen t o f the body, supple at h let ic fo rm , res ilie n t te nsi le g race , d yn ami-
cally balanced in th ree-di mensio n al spa tia l d e pth-the art-style re p re senta tion o f indivi d-
u al impo rta n ce in H elle n istic society.
C I/.I/'!J'U 1/1 T IU; FH; URF I 'V A R T II I STOln c.H. T. }" THTF L O ! ' /cl )

MORAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF PIETY

P ERI O D Th e Middle Age s, in Eu rope; Weste rn c iviliza tio n (Ea rly Christian,
Goth ic , Sc h o lastic p eriod s) « I fH \ \.1) . ;-IOO- \ .ll . I too)

B ACKGRO U ND The d ecline o f Ro m an institutions and H el le ni sti c culture

a fter th e fall o f th e empire le ft Europe in a stale of a narchy a n d d ecay. It was su p p la n te d
by m e d ie va l c u ltu re in the r ise o f fe u da lism , the re viva l of le a r n in g in the chu rch , an d
th e develo pmen t of urban cen ters a n d trad e in sma ll principal it ies and duch ie s. The
a cce p ta nc e and sp re a d of Ch ris tia n d o ct rine b rought cohesion in la n g u a ge s, thou ght,
a nd cult u re in the \-rest, in sp ite or th e se r fd o m of peo p le , wa rring p rinces , a nd chaotic
condit io ns of life . Christi an ity r e pl ac ed pagan ism and panth ei sm with a m onoth ei sti c
m o ral rel igion, b a sed on th e belief th at the p he n o m e n a o f na uu-e a re th e works of
Divin e A u t h o rity, that ma n is the reflecti o n of Go d. Emphasis was placed o n th e vi rt u -

C RU CI F IX IO N
WIT H TH E VIR G I N
AN D $T , J OHN .

BRO N Z E P LA QUE .
EL EVE NT H CEN T U RY.
COUR TE SY O F TH E
M ETRO POLI TA N
M USEU M OF AR T
DLV..\ .U lC: A . ..·..\ T O \' l ·

o us. go od life : man must ch oose he twee n good a nd e vil. the mora l a n d immo ral. if h e
is to b e judged fo r hi s rewa rd in h e aven o r punishment in hell , The goal o f m an 's life
was the go od or hi s soul; h is ea rt h ly body was the agency thro ug h whic h h e wo uld rece ive
th e e ven tu alj ud gm e n t. T he m in d o f medieval ma n was always fixed o n moral values a nd
th oughts of life after d eat h . Belief in th e Second Coming o f Christ as the first millen nium
drew n ca r was a powe r ful infl uence o n h im: the old p ro ph ecies o f doom a n d npoca lvp tic
di saster filled hi s th o ugh ts with the visio ns a n d anguish of the Last Jud gmen t. The ascetic
life, the austere o utlook, d ee p p iety, a n d act s of faith in re sponse to the warn ings o f eart h-
ly sin a n d eternal p unish me n t, were ch a racte ristic o f th e cu lt u re or th e ag e ,
ATTR I BCTES The figure of mo ra l man , de velo ped un d er the aegis o f the
c h u rc h, was a te ns ely seve re, d eeply e m o tive projecti o n showin g extre m es of fear, terro r,
sp irit ual to rm en t, a n d reli gi ous ecstasy: ot he rwise, it presente d a n exp ressionless , a us-
terel y pious, ascetic sp iri tuality in a wit h drawn ac ce p tance of fat e , Because these figu re s
a rc fre quen tly se e n in ni ches, panels, po rt a ls, ga te ways, and arche s, th ey tend to h e
el onga ted a n d struc tu red in th e sh allow, e nclose d places assigne d to th e m. In fo rm .
t he)' a re stric t. wooden , sty lized, symbol ic d istort ions. T he fe ud al h ierarchy in society
o fte n re flects the hi erarchy of figure sizes a n d figure po sitions acco rd in g to th eir re lative
reli g io us signi fica n ce . Thus, Ch r ist an d the saints are shown mu ch large r in sca le th an
th e wo rs h ipe rs b el ow the m . The tie r p e rsp ective of this p eriod is a product o f feud al
strictu r es and co n ven tio n s. T h e iso la tio n of sh a p es in th eir e n capsu lated space s pro-
d u ces close d-in form s, a bs tract p atte rn s wit hi n th e lim ited d ep th of fie ld . They a rc
ico n ograp hic sym b o ls in mea nin g and p urp o se; as sur-h . wh ile th ey se rve a decora tive
end , th e y promulgat e the id ea that the ch urc h is h aven a n d re fu ge from the evils of
eart h ly exist ence .
CTH,/'n.U III TH f~ f"l( ; { 'RF: 1.\' AUT lIl .';"/DUI C.H.J.Y J>fTf:IOPI-:n

.. /
~
..

A + I.

ABOVE ;
TR IPTYCH IVORY
FOURTEENTH
CENTURY ITALIA N.
COURTESY OF
THE METROPOLITAN
MUSE UM OF ART.

RIGHT ;
THE LAST JUDGMENT.
Oil ON WOOD.
JAN V A N EYCK (0 . I H 1).
FLEM ISH . COURTESY
OF THE \tETROPOLlTAN
MUSEUM OF ART

" (.'
 UNIVERSAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF PASS ION

P E RI OD Age of Hu m a n ism . in Euro p e; Re n ai ssan ce e ra

(t I R e \ \ D . 1100 - \ .D . Iliflo}

B A C K (;'R O U ~ 1l Revival o f lea rnin g in sch o lastic th o ugh t of th e Mid dl e Ages,

ad van ce d by the church in th e sp read o f C h ristian beli e f. so ugh t to regain th e cu lt u ra l
h eritage of Greece and Ro m e after th e d a rk period in Euro pe. Id ealism in p h iloso p hy,
ra tio n alism in th o ugh t. an d individualism in sodelYwere merged in the Christia n mo ra l
doct rin e of th e goo d life a nd the eq ua lity of m e n in th e eycs of God. Scholastic philosop hy
propo unded th e h uma n ist belief th at faith a n d scie n ce co u ld exist to gether for th e be tte r-
m e n t o f m a n kin d . The o bj ective o f the Re n aissan ce, th erefore , was to strive fo r a n
in creased aware ness o f the processes of n a ture as a d iscovery of th e works of Go d . An
in evitab le ch ain of p rogress in th e life of m e n d eve lop ed . T he ob se rva tio n of n a tu re ush e red
in th e scien tifi c age. Discove ries of th e o bj ec tive wo rld , m an a nd h is p lace in na ture , led to
ch alle nging co n ce pts th a t u ltim a tely assailed the co n servatism o f sec u la r a n d re ligious
authority, Gro wth of scie nce , in ve n tio n , e xplorat ion , productivity, n at ionalism , and n e w
wealth brough t the eme rgin g individ ual conscio usn ess to a cross ro ads in h isto ry an d in art.
The m odern age h ad bee n bo rn.
A T T R I BUT E S In th e figure o f h um a n ism, t he Renaissan ce a rt ists saw m an as a
m o n umental fo rm , a figu re of gra n d e u r a n d h o p e , suffu sed with th e lo ngin gs, th c
strivin gs , a nd the p assio n s of u n ive rsal m ankin d . Still re flec tin g its me d ieval influences ill
th e m o ral life , it moved to a n e w sta ge in aesth etic a n d e m o tive powe r fro m its p recursor.
In its co rrec t a n atom ica l form s. vi tal a n d wri thin g with e ne rgy, it sym bolize d life as it. m igh t
be . It showed a co n sa ngu in ity with reason a n d na tu r-e, with belief in Cod , with faith in m an .
In fig u re stru cture, it proj ec ted te nsions a nd d iagonal thrust>; ac ross grea t fle xible
a rabesq u es o f linea r m ovem e n t. Surfaces tend ed to be p e rfe cted ac cord in g to the classical
Gree k id eal; linear con to u rs were tac tile , showing sup p le . m uscula r g race a n d a na to m ica l
clarity; form was h e roi c a nd strove for th e m n numen ral; so lid ity and e n d urin g sign ifica nce
a bove a n d b eyond ordin ary e xperi ence we re its Func tio n al aim. The Renaissance figure in
(.H\T'If1~ III T HE FT(; UR E tr: A RT 111.';T O RICA.I.I. l ' l)JTI~ I. O PL U

sculpture was never m eant to b e se e n from one p o sit ion only, but in th e round , in a th ree-
dim ensional sp ace. In painting, it was give n its e ternal, awe-in sp irin g eff ect throu gh its
architectonic structure, its sym lllc tr y and spa tia l balanc e , whi le its panorami c u n iversa lity
presented the movin g, as pi rin g tra nsce n de n ta l m an of hope and p assion.

STU DI ES F OR THE
LI BYA N SIBY L.
RED CHA LK.
M ICHE L ANGELO
( 1475 -1 5 6 4). ITA LI AN
CO UR T ESY OF T H E
METR OPOLITA N
MUS EUM OF A RT.

THE A N N U NC IATI ON .
CHA LK WITH GO UACHE .
C OR REGG IO ( 14 89 - 15 34 ).
iT A LI A N CO UR TESY
OF THE M ET ROP OLI TA N
MU SE U M O F ART
Hl"X "UIl C A.X .-\, HHIl"

INDIVIDUAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF PERSONALITY

P E RIOD Ag-e of Eu lighn-nmcn t. in Euro pe: baroq ue era

t< IIH\ v.n, I (ioo - .\.Il . I ~()(J )

I-L \ C K G RO U :,\O The g-rowi ng fervor of na tionalism , th e in cr easin g: rel ia nce o n

rational thoug ht , and th e adva nc ing importance of the ind ivid ua l m a rked the cu lm ina ting te n-
sions and cris es of absolute royal power and o rth od ox religious authority in the baroque era.
T h e con tin uing movement in ex p loration. scie n tific progress a nd invention , the Reform a tio n.
th e growth of m e rcan tilism. a n d th e d iffusio n of weal th in the I; SC of the powerfu l merchan t-
bo urgeoi s class gaye the Re nais sance-humanist asp ira tio ns a new surge forward . Libertari an
id eals caught th e ima gin ati on o f men eve rywhere: in En gland. the Glorious Revolut ion ; ill th c
Xew World. thc ..Ame rica n democracy; in France . the First Re p u blic. T h e art o f the period
reflected th e unease and th e ch a ngin g cha ra cte r of the times. It was an an based importantly
o n th e h uman individual . O il n atu rali sm in o utlook, on re alism in insigh t. It was esse n tia lly an
art of the port ra it; the monumental in art was re d uce d to a repre sentation o f ge nre m a n in his
social m ilieu ; th e he ro ic sym bo lic ge ne ralizatio n was particularized to e m b race Lite ordina ry
pe rsonal im age . The femi n ine figure app ea re d Io r the first time ill history as a n onid ea lized,
emotional, living. pulsating fo rm , respected as a n equal to her cOnlemporat:' opposi te in art.
Thc lan dscape evo lved as a correlated e n tity with the portrait of the individ ua l in his substa n-
rive background . The co urtly, th e refi ned. th e o rdinary peo ple pre vailed. The moods of nat u re
fused with th e m o od s o f man; th e flux of seaso n , weath e- r; and tim e o f day co inci ded with th e
dra ma of feelings. e m o tio ns, an d passions. The spectacle of th e natural physical world m erged
in e ndl ess co nti u u iry with th e in d ividual huma n world .
ATTR IB UTES The art o f the baroque emphasized ch ia rosc u ro light on hum an
fugit ive ski n su rfa ces. as dist ingu ished from a rbitra ry monumental h eroic sc u lp tu re fo rm . It
d evelo ped p lastici ty of su rfaces as we ll as tacti lity o f co nto urs. In co lo r. it cha nged the dense .
m o n ochrom a tic values of d arkn ess into th e lumino us, ch ro m a tic transparen cies of shadows.
It p roduced the a unosp hc rici ty of spa tia l vol um e in co uj u uctio n with the p lan imet ric rcces-
sio n of pers pective. It crea ted th e surge to war d the m o m e n tary a m i the spo l1 ta n eo us, the
emotive and the expressive in human d e p ictio n , as differentiated from the stable and the
cont ro lle d . the devotional a n d the significa nt in the e n d u rin g Re na issa n ce tableau x.
Svm m envand fo rm ali sm we re su p p la n ted by d ynam ic imbalan ce a n d nonfonnality. The lin -
ea r CO il to u r. th e impeccabl e su rface ill pai n ti n g , gave way to di ffus ion of edges, a nd b rus h ed-
ill pain te rly su rfaces. Sinc e ri ty, sym pat hy, m otion , a n d vitality of hum an p ersonality was th e
goal of th e baroque in a time of dynamism an d tension in hu m a n affairs.
CI1..\ I' TFU III TIlt. nr.CIH: 1X AWl" 1I 1'';TO f~l (;A ' .I.Y IH:I T I.OPED

THE MERRY
COMPANY.
OIL ON CANVAS.
FRANS HALS
(1580 -1666) . DUTCH .
COURTESY OF THE
METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART .

O L D W OMAN
CUTTING H ER NAIL S .
Oi l ON CANVAS.
RE MBR AN DT VAN RUN
(1606 -1669) . DUTCH .
COURTESY OF THE
METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART
 PERSONA L MAN : THE FIGURE OF PATHOS

" ERIO D Ind ustrial Age , in Eu ro pe; ro man tic, realist, im p ress ionis t periods
« JlH\ v.u , I ' \ O O- \. ll. I~l()() )

n A C K ( ~ R O U :'\ D The results o f eigh tee n th-ce n tury ra tionalism , free thought , and
scientific an d socia l progress brought the productivity of the machi ne age with its new tech-
niq ue s in co mmu n icatio n, co mme rcia l ex pa nsio n, and co mpet itio n between natio ns an d
social classes 10 produce co nflicts and cr ises in th e leading COUll tries of Europe. Heavy blows
were d ire cted aga inst co nse rvatism in gun~ rn melH an d soc ial instiu uions: in Fra nce, especi al-
lv, Napoleon ic aut horitarianism p rovoked the hillcrest antagonism . The art of the era devel-
o pe d tenden cies to nonconformism ; patro nage was held ou t to th ose art ists ,d10 reflected
co nservative viewpoin ts an d acad emic tradi tions: those who d efied the strictu res were rej ect-
ed and sco rned. Resistance ga\-e way to rebellion in subject mail er and style, ill un o rth odo x,
nonacademic experimentation, ill subjec tive, emotive leani ngs. Archaeological d iscoveri es.
impelled by th e fruits of Xapolco nic co nquest, an th ropological begi nnings in research o f
ea rly cultures, growth o f p uhlic m useums and co llec tio ns of historica I. exo tic, a nd Oriental an
g<l\-e imp ulse to new ex press ive fonns and inde pendent move ments in an. In the arti st's desire
for res pect, to main ta in persona l clign irv; to espouse libertarian views. to wo rk fre ely without
restra in ts, he so ught rel ease in reb ellion, isolatio n in personal self-to rture and exile , esca pe in
bohemian dissoluti on, and ex clusio n in in tellectu al withdrawal and cmof i o ua ] fantasy.
ATTRI n UTES T he art o f this period reveal s a d iversity of fig ure in terp re tatio ns.
\\llilc th e portra it contin ues, it is not a major forc e as it was in the haroque . Figures te nd
to be mi n im ized withi n th e landscape: the land scape becom es a m ajo r acti vity: and there is
a new tendency to pain t still life as th e in cr easing co ncen tr atio n in su bject mat ter. It is as if
the a rt ist need s so me reassuring sense of sta bility, order, security. and serenity from the
d ifficult afflictio ns he h as to bea r. The figu re of realism gives distinction and valid ity to
nin e teenth-cen tu ry art . \ \'h ile ro mant ic pain tin g str esse s m an 's ideals a nd hopes, realist
paint ing shows h is human co nd ition, h is personal life , his pathos, suffe ring, an d reso lve to
struggle agai nst adversity. Its su bject" arc the lowly, th e common place, the plebeian: the d is-
torted, the lam e, the g,-otcsq lle ; th e d own , the b q~ga r. the p rostitu te. It see ks beau ty of th e
inne r person, not of the outer ap pea ra nces. It reveals no bility. grace , a nd huma n warm th
and te nderness through toi l, tro u ble , a nd attr ition . Moveme n ts te nd to turn in ward, fo rm s
close and contract. T he Renai ssance explosive su rge a nd expa nsion wither and shrink in
realist fo rm . I lope is co nyc n ed int o grim d et e rm inat io n . Ba roque co nc en tra tion 0 11 facial
impo rtan ce co ng eals in realism to a ge stu re, a movemen t o f the body, a fitfu l con trac tion

1601
11/ 1/'/ U~ III T HE FlG U RF I S A..RT ll JS I DR l C A.L U· IlEn:L OP ED

o fte n se h ands a nd fe e t. Realism gain s its im m e n se powe r of pa th o s from its torm e n ted fo rms
locked in ineffab le h uman p o igna ncy, The figure of im p ressio ni sm, wh ile di fferent in fo rm ,
co nceals a sim ila r as tr inge n t ou tloo k in its ligh t an d atmosphe ric rad ia nce. It te lls of th e e ~L';C

and re laxatio n of th e o rd in a ry pe ople; th ey a re rcspcmsivc to th ei r le isu re , yet in th e ir

momen ta ry im p ulses an d spontaneo us reac tions to the th r usts of th e industri al era, th ey are
bystand e rs , spect a tors, and yearni llg se ekers in a d isjo in ted wo rld of sim ulate d pleasu re .

DON Q U IXO TE A ND

,/' SANCHO PAN ZA .

C HARCOA L W ITH IN K .
HO NO RE D AU M I E R
(1 808 - 18 7 9 ). FR EN C H.
CO UR TESY OF
THE M ET ROP OLI TAN
MUSE U M OF AR T

.
I ..
-.: .... -----_, ...
I· ~(
"

TH E ARTIST' S MOTHER .
C ONTE CRAYO N.
GEORGES S EUR AT
( 1859 ~ 18 9l) . FRENC H.
CO URT ESY O F T H E
M ETROP OLITA N
M U SEU M OF A RT

O L D COURTESA N.
BRON ZE STATUE .
AUGUST E RO DI N (1 8 4 0- 19 1 7 ).
FR EN CH. CO U RTESY
OF T H E METROPO LI TAN
MU SEUM O F A RT

((il l
 ANALYTICAL MAN : THE FIGURE OF INTROSPECTION

PER IOD Te ch nical-Scie nt ific-Ana lytical Age , in Eu ro pe a n d Am e ri ca ;

mode rn e ra (p ostim p ressio n ism, cubis m , ex pressio n ism , su rrea lism , a bstra ct io n, e tc.-
twen tie th cen t u ry)
B.\ CK GRO C Xn The mode rn e ra ill a rt ma y he said to be g in in th e lat e n in e-
teen th centu ry in Fra n ce with th e defeat of Lo ui s Xapol con. the occ u pa tio n o f France by
Gcrman forces, a n d th e creat io n of th e T hird Republic. It is n o ac cide n t that Fra nce, whi ch
h ad been h ailed earlier as th e lead in g exponent of culture and thc a rt s in Eu ro pe, sh ould
b eco me th e b irthplac e of' the new m od e rn ism in art. Th e rejecte d , d isenchant ed in h erito r
of a pro ud cu ltu ra l past , publicly di sinh e rit cd a nd humilia ted , un leash ed h is creative
energies into a multiplicity of co nce pts an d forms, fa r beyon d th e com p re he nsio n of th e
public a n d p ress o f hi s time. With the ex ce pt io n ofa few sym p ath ize rs, he was deri d ed a n d
downgraded to virtual isolation from so ciety. The tu rn of th e n ew century. whic h saw a
furt he r in crease in inve n tion an d tec hn ological growth , also saw gr eat coucen trario ns of
n ationalist power an d irred e n tist rivalries , whic h eve n tu ally spi lle d oyer int o revo lution
and world war. Caught up in th e cat ac lysm o f events, the artist sough t refuge wit h in
himself. H e n cefo rth , th e a rtist ga\"e primacy to his su bjective. e mot io nalistic, existe n tial
te nd encies. Thc e n d o f impressionism saw th e decline of th e objective visu al image in a rt .
Objec tivity di sso lved into su bj ec tivity: im ages a n d appearances turned in to symbols a nd
esse nces; em p irica l realism vap o rized into egoce n tric , a na lytical art. The to uc hs to ne of
mode rn art lies in its dual perso n ali ty of sp o n ta n eo us, im pulsive, vo luntaris tic act ivity
joined with the psychologica l, su bconscio us wellsp ring o f fee lin g an d emotion .
.-\TTRIB CT ES In broad scope, th e re a p p ear to be fou r main curren ts o f fi gure

co nce pts in modern a rt , wh ic h may he said to have m o tive pO\n~r to proj e c t in ner states
oJ hfing in expressive fo rm. These m a y not be tota lly defin itive o r inclusive , b u t th e y
a rc p res e nte d lu -re fo r pu rpo ses of ge ne ra l unde rstand in g. T hey a rc the sJ' 1/('slhelir; th e
kin esthetic; the nJ!Jtf'sth ft i r ; a n d th e rerebresthetlc . as d escribed and illu strated in the fo l-
lo win g pages.
( 'I II J' I J,}{ III

, reac tio.ns
.. 1 from se nse
" 1to-reac
The se n. sa -axttrr:tion for e-volvcc
. m , cncrgv
fee lings,
. . ve
, , rh-ives , and p rI nlltl .
indu ce rI 1)\'
. emouve > S"'''ESTHETI C
, . e ex pcn-icnccs
_ of P c"
se ns ual u rges.

O DA LI S O U E WI TH A
MO ORISH C HAIR .
I N K . H E N RI MATI SS E
( 18 6 9 - 1954 )
F RE N CH . CO LL EC TIO N

MU SE ~~T,
OF M OD ER N
N EW YO RK

( B EOU EST OF
LI L LIE p , B U S S).

F O U R B AL LET DA NC ER S.
I N K. PA B LO PI CAS SO
( 1 8 8 1- 1973).
SPA N I SH CO L LE CT IO N

M US E U M OF E W YO RK
MO DERN A RT. N
( G I FT OF MR S, J OHN O.
ROC K E F EL L ER J R.)
D"''<.·''''I1 C .-\ S. -\TO .\ I1·

> KL,\' f:STH rn c Th e physical refl ex fo rm , in du ced hy nonruti o nal

p h ysical r eflexes o r n euro muscular excitatio n th ro ugh feel in gs o f tension , irrita tio n ,
agit a tion , o r a n no ya nce .
STUDY.
PE N AND IN K.
WASSI LY K A N D IN S KY
(1866 -19 44 ) , RUSS IA N.
CO LLE CTIO N
MUSEU M OF MODER N
A RT, N EW YO RK.

AUTUMN R HYTH M.
OIL ON CA NV A S
J AC K SON POLLOC K
( 19 12 - 1956 )
AME RIC A N.
C OURTESY OF
T H E MET ROPO LI TAN
M US EU M OF AR T.
/11 \/ 'I/'U 1/1

> C RnJTLS TIlET1 C T he em pathy-an xie ty fo rm , derive d from anxiet y an d

pam III withd rawn , hidden feel ings of frust ratio n, fear , and desp air, to a nguish , cha os ,
and dread .

STAT ES O F MIND - THE FA REWE L LS .

TH O S E WHO S TA Y. TH O S E WH O GO .
P E NC i l. U M B E RTO B OCCIQNI
( 1882 - 19 16 ). ITA LI A N
CO LL EC T IO N M US EU M OF MOD ERN AR T,
NE W YOR K ( GIFT OF VI C O BA E R).
... ~ .,.. $ . V' .
. ~' ,. . n:.~
1"
7' } :
I

I
\
I "
HEAD O F A UTUM N.
I NK

PAVE L TC H E LI TC HEW
(l S 9S- 1957)
AMER ICA N. CO LLE CT I ON
MU SEU M O F MO DERN
ART. N EW YO RK
( G IFT OF LI N COLN
K IR STE IN ).
 '> C r.' JU : H R 1::S T Hr.'T IC T he int ellectual reasoned for m , revealed th ro ugh a rea-
so ned process o f logic to arrive at time-space re la tivity of forms , wit-play interrela tio nship
of shapes, mecha nics of structure. dynamics, a nd design .

M A N W I TH GUITAR .
O IL ON CA N VA S.
GE ORGES BRAQU E
(188 2-1 9 6 3). F RE N CH .
CO L L EC TI ON MU SE U M OF
MODERN A RT, N EW YO RK
(BE OUEST OF
LI LLI E P. B LI SS ) .

BEL OW:
DAYB R EA K.
O IL ON CANV AS.
IREN E R I CE PE RE IR A
( 19 0 7 - 19 7 1) . A M ER I CA N.
CO URTESY O F T H E
M ET ROPOLI TA N MU SE UM
OF AR T (G IFT OF
EDWA RD I. GA L LA G H ER J R.,
1955. THE E DWA RD
JOS EP H GALLA GHE R II I
ME MOR IAL COL L ECTION).

~~ ......
"

~ ::~~~;~~T ~-'- ~~. _

.~,'
(11\/'11'.1< III TIn: FIGU R E 1S A RT Il IST OI{lC ,\ U .}· ll f Tf:U)f'EJ)

Art a nd artists m ay be a nalyze d accordi ng to th e ir m ~~ l or characte r istics a nd

sim p ly g ro u ped as the follo win g su m m ary sh ow s. Wh ile not. all-inclusive , th ey are:

> Th e syn es th e tic: imp ressio nism, fa u vism , Bl ue Hider cxprcs sionis m-c-Mon ct.
Ren o ir, Matisse , Derain , Marc, e tc.

> T he kinesthetic: abs trac tio n, fu tu rism -c-Kandin sky. Bo cc ioni, e tc .

> Th e crypte sthe tic: postimpressio n ism , Die Bruckc ex p r es sio n ism , su rrea lism,
da d ai sm -c-M u n c b , En sor, Ro u au l t , va n G o gh , G a ug u in, P ic a ss o , Kirchner,
Nold e, Klcc , Ch ugall. Da li, e tc.

> Th e cereb re sth ctic: cu bis m , co nstructivi sm , n ono b jectivism, purism - Picasso,
Braq uc . Gris, Malcvich , Mondrian . Gabo, e tc.

Fre q uently, individual wo r ks of a r t may have a spec t" o f m ore tha n o ne of the
above form characte r istics, such as wo r ks by En so r, Kokoschka, Pic asso , an d oth e rs, T h e
reader is a ske d to investigate fo r hi m sel f wh ere o lde r a rt p e rsist s with a d d ition a l r efin e-
m en ts, in Maill ol , Lachaise , Leh m br uck, Ep stein , O roz co , Rivera ; o r whe re new and o ld
u n ite , as in d e C h ir ico; or wh e re the new goe s into furthe r transitions in the inv o lu tio ns of
a bst rac t im p re ssio n ism , ab stract su r realis m, abs tract exp ressio n ism.
In summ a r y, we m a y arrive at th e co ncl usion that th e n e w mod e rnism in a rt
h a s attem p te d to remove t he ge ne ral objec tive e x pe r ience fr o m th e fig ure co nc epts of
o lder a rt, a n n has le t it b e co m e an artifact oj the mind and the emotions. To u nd e rst and
t.his premise will g ive m e anin g a n d ins igh t to th e eso te r ic inve n ti o ns of the fi gu re in th e
an of to d ay,
 PROPORTIONS
AND MEASUREMENTS
O BSERVAT ION S ON
C H AN G IN G P ROP ORTI O N S
tur. L\\;( ):'\ OF I'IHl l'OHTIU;";" of th e h u m a n fig ure is eq uivale n t. so to spea k, to
th e foo t-r ule in m e asu r eme n t, the a xio m in geo me try, the polestar in navigatio n. lt pro-
cla ims th e universal hum an n orm , th e id eal cri terion of d isci pli n e in a r t. Btl! to speak o f
all idea l cri terion in the figure is to tak e a fixe d posit io n simi lar to layin g out a Procrus tea n
bed o f human p roportions. It p rcsc ll ts Ih e u ll easy cho ice o f ch o p p in g the fig u re or stre tch-
ing it to fi t, with o u t rega r d to th e relative individ ual expressi on . It lie s in the am b ig uo us
posi tion o r bein g a bsolutely r igh t in gen era l an d totally inco rre ct in p articu lar.
Traditionally a n d h isto r icall y, the figure h as long bee n estab lish ed as seven
a n d on e-half h e a d s in len gt h . Eye r sin ce th e a rtis ts o f G ree ce deve lope d its proportio u s
some twenty-four h u n d r e d ye a rs ago, it h a s asse rte d i ts au thorit y based on the r ati onal
o r d e r o r geom e t ry correl a ted with the u ltimate id e a l of a bs o lu te u niversal tru th. Th e
sc u lp tu res o f Phi di a s we re h e ld concom ita n t wi th the a rc h ite ctu r e o f Ict inu s a n d
C a llierates. T he se we r e d evel oped fr om the ma them at ics o f Pyth a g o r a s a n d were
e m b o d ie d in th e P la to n ic-A r isto telia n wo rl d system of th e Id e a o f th e G o od. Th u s, the
id e al h um an c o n s tr uct a nd th e p e r fe ct a r ch ite c tu r a l str uc t u re were c o nceive d a s u u i-
vet-sal arc h itec to n ic e n titi es : th e purity and p e r fec ti o n of th e one was co n siste nt with
the o r d er a n d h .u -mo n v o f t h e other.
Certain ly, th e a rt ists o f Rom e r ec o gn ize d the su p e r bly s ta b le val ue s o f th e
H e lle ni sti c syste m an d d efi ne d the Ro m an ca n o n o f p rop o rt ion s acco rd in g to the
G r e ek au th ori ty. In the Re n a issan ce reviva l of a rt an d le a rn in g , fifte enth-ce ntu ry art is ts
so ugh t to ad van ce th e sp irit of h um a ni sm in the t ra dit io n of H e lle ni sm. Da Vinc i a n d
Durer so ught to re d iscove r th e G r ee k ca no ns in th e lig h t o f n ew kn ow le dge . An d
be cau se the Rena issa n ce was th e d awn s tage of th e mod e r n scie n tific e r a, th e G re e k
11\ "-".-\ ,\1 1(; .\ "". " T O ." \·

fig u re has tend ed to su rvive in art to day un chan ge d as the id ea l c rit e ri o n of h um an

proport ion s, se ven a n d o ne -ha lf h ead s in leng th .
H owe ver, whil e we may u n de rstan d th e survival of th e Creek tradit ion , th e
va lues o f m ode rn life im p os e g rea t mi sgi vings on th e acce p tan ce of th e ol d syste m . [11

th e fift eenth ce n tu ry, even the m e tic u lous Du re r gave u p hi s q u est wh e n h e fo u n d th a t

th e id eal figu re d id n o t su it his a rt. whi le Mich e la n ge lo . a n d £ 1 Gre co la te r. d iscard ed
it altoge th e r to favo r gia n tism and elo ngatio n in t h e ir fig u res of hum anity a n d d evo-
tion . ' Ye live in a sh a rp ly co n tras te d wo rl d of se ma ntics, re lativity, a n d spee d. Mo re th an
eye r, th e n e w n eeds in a rt contradict the old figu re . To maintain a fixed cano n o f p ro-
portion is to co n tin ue to b el ieve in th e fixed sta rs, th e fini te u n ivc rsc , a n d ze ro as th e
e n d o f a qu antity. It wo u ld r u le out o f ex istence suc h id eas as helm,' ze n >, seco n d sig ht.
list e n in g wit h the th ir d car, th e fourth dim ension , the sixt h se nse , th e fifty-mi n u te
h our, th e m inute th at seems a yea r, a n d th e ex pan din g un ive rse . It wou ld ru le o u t
Picasso a nd c u b ism, Kaudi nskv a n d abstra ction , van Gog h , Ma tisse , Ch agall . Barla ch .
an d Soutine, as well as primitive a r t.
\\'e a rc faced with a co n tr ad ictio n . \\' hy advan ce a sta n dard of p roportion for
th e fig ure at a ll? If th e unstable d im e nsions o f life arc ch a nging t h e rel a tionsh ips in art
so qu ickl y, perhaps th e o n ly re lia b le inde x in art is th e a rt ist's own pe rsonal j udgme n t.
\\1h y no t le t the c rea to r o f art b e th e so le j ud ge a n d a r bite r of its ru le s. in cl ud in g pro -
p ortion? Wel l, h a rd ly; e ve n here we face a fin al j udgm en t as a bso lute as th e fo rme r, for
it wo u ld e n sh rine as principle th e chaos of unlimited perso na l o pi n ions aga inst the
co nce p t o f agreed collecti ve experience .
The cou rse is so mewhere in the m id d le gro u n d. A figurc p ro portion IS necesswJ
to art; but it must first be a p rop o rt io n of its own e ra , and seco n d , it must respond to th e
artist's problems in his tim e. That is to say, fr om the first it must be a figu re not o f d emigods.
n ature gods, or go d s o f n atu re , hut of mo d e rn asp iratio n , inspiratio n , a nd hum an na ture. It
sho u ld be a figu re of th e gmem l ag rf'n nenl in th e cu ltu re , like a stat istical avcra ge in whic h
evcryo nc has his part. Seco nd , as to th e artist's problems, p rop o rt io n sho uld be use d ill thc
learni ng s tagl~ of art, n o t its goal. It should he u nderstood as a po int of departu re . like th e
Greenwich meridian; it sho uld lead to n ew ex pressive adve ntu res in th e seq ue nce of a rtistic
gr owth . It is, the ref ore, a student' s p roport ion, not a maste r' s, as it was in Greece . It is m ea n t
to b e a pre pa ra tory stag e o n ly in creat ive inven tio n a n d is pr oposed as a meas ure o f COIIl mO ll
sense in figu re skill fo r th e stud e n t ill art, not all im positio n upon th e maste r of art.
The p re mise a dva n ced h e re is a jJriuciple of preparation, not a Procrustean
ca lio n of p roportions. It is n o a bsolute; n o fixed o r rigid determ in a nt, n o terminus;
IJYX..\ .\JIC AX.-\HHI\·

eve II the poles tar is n ot one star h ilt five . the m agn e tic fiel d wa n ders fro m its p ol ar ax is.
and th e sp he re we lin ' Oil is an im pe rfe ct o b la te m ass.
T h us, th e co nt e m pora ry figure p ropo rti on for the art stu d e n t sh o uld b e a ll
affi rmat ive view of a rti stic p ropo rti on d e velo ped fro m th e admi ra tion , a ffec tio n . a n d
enthusiasm o f the population as a wh o le . 11 sh o ul d b e th e a thlet e , the o u rd o ors m a n . t he
man of re crea t ion . It sh o uld be co m po u nded of nu trit ion . vitamins. a nd hea lt h. It
shou ld ta ke its p hys ica l att ribu tes fro m the fields of hvgi c nc. ph ysiol o gy, a n d m edicine .
11 sh o u ld b e a figu re of e n d u rance . vita lit y, a n d vigor, In sh o rt . it sh o u ld h e the p rolO -
typ e of th e best sta n d a rd s o f twc mi c th -ccruu ry civil iza tio n , not the Gree k, Rom an , o r
Re n a issa n ce . T he fi gu re p roport ion this a na to my advan ce s is, th ercf ore ru u -nsurc d hy a
sta n d a rd of fiKht and three-onnrter hrads for th e Icngth o f th e figure as th e con le m p o ra ry
p h ysica l idea l of our time.
If we mu ltipl y th is proport ion wit h th e leng th of the an' rage m a ture physica l
h ead o f almost n in e in ch es, th is figu re will reac h a hei gh t o f a p p ro xim a te ly six fee t fo u r
in c h es-certai n ly n ot wit ho u t its p ro totyp es in m o d e rn life today. Co ns ider th e co n tra st
Ilsing th e Greek c rite r io n : mu ltiplyin g th e se ve n-a n d -a-h alf-h ead fig ure wit h th e h ead
leng th a bove, th e Gree k id ea l fig u re of p e r fe ction reaches a towe rin g [ ine In't jioe inches
in adult reali ty. h ardl y t he h eigh t of a high school sop ho more today ~

Fortunately. th e ca no ns o f proporti on arc n o t irreve rsibl e . an d the oll ly

a b solutes th at a re kn o wn to exist lie i ll the ir df'Jinitiolls o n ly. Fo r the a rt stu d e n t wh o
must ex pe riment . who m ust beha ve creati vel y. this m us t In: reassuring. l Iowcvcr. O IlC

wo rd o f caution : To b ehave creati vel y in a rt m ea ns b ehavior with skill; a n d ski ll co mes

from di scipl in e . n o t derange me nt. The a rt ist who kn o ws th e rules- an d proportion is
o ne of th em- kn ows whe re to ben d and how to b rea k th em .

GENERAL PROPORTIONS AND MEASUREMENTS OF THE FIGURE

T he figu re adva n ced h e re departs fro m t h e trad itio n al le n g th of se ve n an d

one-h al f heads. a n d is es ta b lished at l'iKht a nd ttnre-cnartev brads fo r th e total figure
length . Us ing t he head as a u n it of measure me n t to de termi ne t he figure's p ropo rt io ns .
the divi sio n s are as follows:
1f/1/'IJMII O U."f.R\ 'AIHJ Y '> (I.\' C If .-I .\ ' ( ; /.\' ( ; / ' /U U ' O IU/ O .\' .'>

'rr u: FRO :'-:T T O R SO Th re e h eads long. from a lin e drawn across the sh o u ld e rs
to th e pubic arc h . it d ivides (a) acros s t he bas elin e of th e pec torals: (b) ac ross the lin e
of th e umb ilicu s. o r n avel : (c) across th e lin e o f th e p u b ic arc h .
T Ht: BA CK T O R SO Three a n d a h a lf h eads long . from a lin e d ra wn across th e
sho u lders to th e b ase of the b u ttocks. it divides (a) ac ros s the baseline o f th e sh o u ld e r
blades: (h) ac ross a lin e dra wn th rough th e r-en ter of th e exte rn us o b liq u e m uscles ( th e
line of the n avel in fro n t ) : (c ) ac ross th e li n e o f the coccyx bo ne at the b ase of the sp ine
( t h e lin e of the p ubi c a rch in fro n t) ; (rl ) ac ros s th e lin e o f th e base of th e buttoc ks.
Dl·"'A .\lI C A S .", TO .\Il ·

1\

;
'-

Til E N E C K O n e-h alf h ead long in thc e rect posit ion . fro m th e p oi n t o f th e
c h in to th e p it of the n eck.
'rm: A le\ 1 Two an d thrce-fourths head s lun g. fro m the colla rbo n e att ach-
m ent to th e wris t, it d ivid es a t th e elb o w acro ss th e lin e o f the umbi licus. The wrist lie s
on t he p o si tio n of th e grea t tro ch a nte r, across the lin e of th e p uh ic ar ch in fro n t an d
th e co ccyx h o n e in th e rea r. The h and le n g th ad d s three-fo urths o f a h ead to the arm :
t hus. the to tal le n g th o f the a n n is th ree a n d a h al f h eads.
( / / \ I' /1'.1< 1 \ 0 1J.... I~ R \ .:\ i toxs OS CIIA..\ ·( ;L....( ; l ' R O l'ORTl O X .'>

T IlE L E(~ Fou r h eads lo n g , from th e great tr o ch an te r to the h ig h in ne r a nk le

bon e , it di vide s m idp o in t a t th e k n e e . The foot a d ds o n e-fou rth ofa h e ad to th e le n gth ;
t h us, th e total leng th of th e le g is fo ur a nd o ne-fo u rth h e a d s.
T HE HA N D T hre e-qu arte rs o f a h e ad in le n gth , o r th e di st an c e from th e
p oi nt o f th e ch in to th e h ai rlin e ; th e wid th is o n e-quarter of a h ead wid e , o r th e di sta nce
fro m the base of th e n ose to th e poin t of th e ch in .
T H E F OO T T h e foot le n gth is e qua l to th e length o f the fo re arm , o r o n e a nd
a third h eads long; th e wid th at the front o f th e fo o t is o ne-h al f h e a d wide.
T h e fin e r d etai ls of m easu remen t in th e bod y arc d evel oped in ch ap ter S, "Details
o f An a tomy," an d a re in teg rate d with th e sp eci fic d escriptio n s of each of th e fig u re se ctio ns.
 MASSES .
MEASUREMENTS . AND
I NTE RRE LATION S HIP
OF FORMS
DETA ILS OF ANAT OM Y
THE HEAD

'rm: C; R E AT i\IASS ES Th e h e ad co nsists o f two m a jo r m asse s: the cra n ial m a ss

o r ha ll o f the h e ad a nd th e tap ered cylin d er of th e face. Ea ch h as a str o ngly d e vel o ped
fo r m a t its base . The hall of th e h ead e nd s in a cu rve d ridge of hon e j ust over th e eyes-
the fro nt a l ridge o r viso r of th e brow. T h e ta p ered cyli nder o f th e face e n d s in th e c urve-d
rid ge o r th e lower m andible . th e h orseshoe (If tile jaw.
> .\ H .'A S lJ R J: M t ;.\' T S Seen in side vie-w, th e cra nial m ass e n ds a t th e bridge or
th e Il I )SC u nd er the visor of th e brow, half\"f1y down th e le ngth o f th e he a d . 1'1'0111 th e to p o f
th e crown to th e ba se o f th e chi n . To the re ar, the occip ital h u lge on th e h ea d e n d s lo wer.
0 11 a line m id",..rv be twee n b ro w and chin. d ra wn across the sku ll.
;> P 'UJI ' ORT [O ;\ :S From the fron t, the h e a d is ovoid in shape. Fro m the- sid e ,
two suc h egg shapes su pe rimpose one over th e other, Se e n in front vi ew. the widt h of tilt'
h ea d is two- thirds th e length ; di \i d in g the h e ad lengthwi se in eq ual halves. from crown to
c h in , will produce two parL"i of the width of the head . O n e o f these parts spaced th re e tim es
in th e le n gth of the head will ach ieve th e proportion of the egg m a ss, a I.. n io of 2::{-two
pa rts widt h . three parts lengt h . Fro m th e side view, using the su p e rim p o se d egg sh a p e s,
one u p right, the ot her on its sid e joi ned a t th e top, the hea d co ns ists of three tria n gula r
eq ua l pa rts: j aw hin ge to m id d le of the crown ,j aw h inge to bridge of the n osc .
 THE B ASI C SHAPES OF THE HEA D -
THE C RAN IA L MA SS A N D
TH E CY LI N DE R O F TH E FA C E.

I, XI
HL~.·\ .\lI C .-\.'\' .\ 1·0 .\ 1 \

TilE SE CO X I) :\ R Y :,\U S S E S In ge neral, th e re are n ine im po rt a n t sec o n d a ry

ma sses 111 th e h ea d . a ll of th em con cent ra ted in th e faci al a rea. T h ey a rc: ( 1) th e bro w
rid g(.'; (2) the ta pe red wedge o f th e n ose ; (3) th e ch ee kbo n e: (.... ) th e e ye so cke t; (5 ) th e
ba rrel of th e m outh ; ( fi) the box o f th e chin: (7) the a ng le of th e lower-j a w, o rj aw poi nt:
(8 ) th e side a rc h o f th e chee kbon e; (9) the shell of th e ca r.
> ME A ,'; tI JU-~ ;\1 E ST.'; ( 1) The b ro w rid ge is at m id-di sta n ce fro m crown 10 ch in .
(2) The wedge o f th e n ose is a t mi d poin t 01 1 th e face from b row to chi n . (3 ) Th e c he e k-
h one end s 0 11 a lin e drawn across the hast" of the n ose . (4 ) T h e e ye soc ke t o p ens a t th e
b ro w rid ge a nn e n ds o n a lin e drawn a t m id point acr oss the nose (5) T h e ba rrel o f th e
m o u th b egin s at th e nose base a nd e nds two-th ird s th e le ngth d o wn fro m n ose to ch in . The
widt h of th e ba rrel cuds at po in ts d ra wn di rectly unde r the ce nters of the eye socke ts. (6)
The bo x o f the ch in occup ies the re m ain ing thi rd fro m no se to ch in base . (7) T he a n gle of
th e j aw, th e jaw point. lies on a lin e d rawn across th e lowe r lip of th e m o ut h ba rrel. (8 ) T1J(O
sid e arch o f th e cheekbo ne a ngl es lip from th e c he ekb o ne a n d a ttach es a t th e ea r Oil a lin e
dra wn across th e ho tto m of th e eye so cke t. (9) The she ll o fth e car, fixed behi nd thej a w, lies
across th e positions of the br ow ridge a nd base o f th e nose.

{
i
\

THE G RE AT MA S SE S OF
TH E HEA D WIT H TH E
SECO ND A RY MASSES ADD EO,
THR EE- QU AR TE R V IEW.

IHt' l
CIlII'JlUI n r l A 1L <" O J.' A SA, H I ,\l 1'

POS ITION I NG OF T HE S ECON DA RY FA C IA L MASSES.

HL,.,lA :HIC ANATO M r

LOCA TIO N OF THE FAC IAL

MA S SES IN VAR IABLE
VIE WS OF THE H EAD .
THE BROW AT MI DPO INT
ESTAB LI S HE S THE
PLACE MEN T OF
S MAL LER FO RMS .

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 -a~f!'i'.-: ..~
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,.-/.-:.
-,

POI NT S T O R E:\I E ~IB ER I ;\' DR AW I N G (I ) T he nose is as wide as a n eye len gth .

(2:) T he head , trou t view, at the brow is five eye le ngth s across the width . (3) The ear is tilted
sligh tly back, at a fifteen-de gr ee angle; it swings like a gate sligh tly fo rward from its att ach -
mc n t. (-l) T he bridge o f th e nose. the slant o f the eye soc ket, the b'Toon >of th e cheekbo ne
toward its base. a m i th e point of the j aw all lie on a Iorry-tivc-dcgrce an gle fro m the ce nter o f
th e head . However; when see n fro m a three-q uarter vi ew, the angle widens slightl y as it curves
arou nd th e h ead . (;l ) The lowe r lip is recessed u nder th e u pper lip ; th e lower d en ture is a
sma ller a rch th an tile u p pe r. (6) Til e lowe r eyelid is less arc hed th a n the uppe r; th e uppe r eye-
lid lies on a wide r curve of th e eyeball. (7) Th e base ofthe nose, ba se o f tile ch ee kbon e , hase
ofthe ea r lobe , a n d base of th e sku ll always lie on a lin e drawn across th e h ead , fro m a ny an gle
of d ew. (H) T he under -section o f th e jaw, see n From below, slo pes d own from th e ch in to th e
neck at a fiftee n-degree a ngle; it loo ks like the wid e e nd ofa fu un cl j am mcd into th e horse-
sh oe of the jaw. (9) No te well: To place the eye correctly in it.. soc ket, start the corner of the
eye Oil a lin e d rawn dir('rt~\" obm !(' the end of the nostril; this wi ll ho ld fo r (mJ Fin o of th e head .
( 11 1/'/1 Ii \

.'

;
 T H E MO'"El\lE X T or T H E H E AD To rota te the hrad from a full fro n t view to a
three-quarter or seven-eighths turn, includ in g the side position , th e first problem th at
presen ts itself is the amo u n t o f th e hack of th e head to be d ra wn in at specific sta ge s of the
rotation, T h e so lu tio n can he developed eas ily using th e following procedure: (a) First
draw a fu ll fron t view o f the head shape . with no de tail s. Now draw in th e bisecti ng cen te rs.
vert ica l and hori zon ta l lin es. di vidi ng the head in eq ual pans in both directions. (b) To
m ake the head tu rn, place a lIf'W renter iinr down th e le ng th at a th ree-q uarter position
from the first ce nte r line. (c ) Measure th e di stance be tween the o ld a nd new ce n terline.
T his is th e amou nt of turn, o r ro ta tio n , o f the head . (d) Take thi s ex ac t measure an d place
on th e head at the ba ck. This will give th e correct am o u n t o f shape to the skull co rre-
spo nd ing to th e amou n t of turn .
If th e tu rn is in cre ased, th e in creased amo u nt will be add ed . Try it first ri ght
turn , t hen left. No tice th a t if the tu rn goes to the fu ll side view, it will gain exactly at
th e hack o f" th e head what has be en los t fro m the fro nt. Th e sa me syste m can he
a p plie d to th e up-and-down movement o f the head. Th e cha nge o f lin e ac ros s th e b ro w
h o ri zontally, whe n m oved d o wn to a n ew pl ace m en t, will be m easured a nd ad de d to

th e LOp o f t he hea d .

.JI.-~
.
~- - - -~
\ '7
.. J
\
.......__..,.-, 1 '"

~
ClHI'//-.N \ H t .' TA I I .5 OF ANA T O.' lY

\ Ve must take note of a second p roble m in the ro ta tio n o f th e h e ad-the

placemen t of the jawline o n th e h ead as it turns. Notice , as the h ea d m oves, in wh ateve r p osi-
t io n it is drawn , the j awline te nds to re ma in stab le . The h ead as an uprigh t o void m a ss,
ro ta ting on the ne ck, retains a consta nt width a cross the h ead as it turns. T he j awlin e wid th ,
therefore, will no t change, no matte r h o w much is a d d e d to th e ba ck of the h e ad.
 Let us co n sid e r a third pro blem in ro ta tio n-th e sidr plunr oI'Ii" tread, th e form
edge, m oving fro m the temporal a rc h d own the co rner of the brow a n d cheekbo ne to (he
sid e of th e chin , O bse rve h O\,' thi s edge tends to divide th e fro nt a n d sid e o f the face alo ng
a line drawn almost exactly in h alf be twee n th e le n gth wise: ce n te rline of the face and (he
j awli ne , It will do thi s in wha tever tur n po sitio n th e h ead has bee n drawn b ecause of th e
cons ta n t cu rves ac ross the fronra l ma ss o f th e face,

IHHI
/ If 11'/ 1 U , DETA./l. ,"i OF .-\X."\ Tl H I \"

D ETAIl.S OF THE FA CE : TilE FI-::\T URE S

> Til E E r E The e yeball , almost as large as a go lf ball , in th e human head is a n

e xp osed interna l organ o f th e body p ro tec ted hy great struc tu res of bone, th e brow rid ge
(su pe rci liary arc h ) a n d the cheekbo n e (zygo matic bo ne) . It is suspe nded fro m the ro o f o f
th e eye so cket (o rbit). The eyelids c u rve lik e short visors on the eye; th e uppcr cur ves wide r
ac ross thc fu lle r ci rc um fe re n ce of th e o rb, whi le the lower turn s on a sh o rter a rc , aro u nd
th e base a rea. Seen from a side view; th e lowe r lid lies a ngled down alm os t forty-five d egrees
fr om th e uppe r lid . Surround ing th e eye is th e orbicularis muscle, e n clos ing ann circling
the orbit . It gi\'(~s little sh ap e, h oweve r. to th e su rf ace for m o f so cke t and c h ee kbo ne.
THE EY ELIDS
APP EAR AS V ISO RS
SURR OUN D IN G
TH E OR B.

TH E EYE POSITI ON ,
SIDE VI EW, STARTS
ON A LI N E
DR AWN UP FROM
TH E NOSTR i l WI N G.

190 1
 /)F1'-\1 L.<; OF A XA. T O ,\f l"

<,

_ . .r-

~ __''' ' ''--'......__...= ::..

_
~ ....
;::-;:;;;;;;-;;:~ ~i' -"
THE AXIS OF THE EYE.

T HE UPPER LID ARCHES

HIGH INSIDE THE SOCKET,
WHILE T HE LOWER LID
CURVES TO THE OUTSIDE
OF THE SOCKET.

19 11
I>Y X..\ .\II C .-\.,\'.-\-n u l ' "

T HE EY E IS DEEPLY
SET WIT H IN TH E
SURROUN DI NG
STRUCTURES OF
THE BRO W AN D
CHEEKB ONE .

-,
( 1/.\ I' J H-I. \ InTAIUi O F A X A T O ,\ n '

1931
IJ L ' ·,-\ .\lH: A. S .-\·ItUI 1·

> THE . .\"0 .')1; The nose co ns ists of four im porta nt masses: th e upper nasal
mass, tapered and wedged in to th e ca rt ilagino us (alar) hall o f th e nose, an d the two win gs
(ala) o f the nostrils. T he hall of the no se swing s into a furrowed hook (sep tu m ) u nder th e
base and meet s th e pillars of the upper lip . The nostril wings, moving fro m the hall o f the
nose, flare out to the sid es, th e length o f an eye apa rt. The nostri l cavities are u-ian gu lan-d
in sha pe a nd sh ould be drawn large e no ugh to acco mmoda te the thickness o f a finger.
,

1\ '

\
 (11 \1'11 H \

TH E TAPE RE D

~
. . .,.
WEDGE MAS S
OF TH E NO SE
I N VAR IOUS
H EA D POS ITIO NS .

.r ...·
•

I
I
" " ," :\ ,\11 C .-\S A.T O ," 1'

j
I
(' Il.-I J' I T N \ D E T A.IL S O F A .'"~ .'"' -I' 0 .\ 1\'

~~'
!'!' .... - "

T H E HOOK OF
T HE NOSE ( SE PT UM)
D ESCE N DS
LOWE R THAN THE
NO STR I L WIN GS.

1971
 > T HE 1.1]>.0; The lip s a rc su rro un ded by a sp h incter muscle (o rb icularis otis)
a nd a ttac h a t the sides of the mo ut h to th e buccina to r m uscle, wh ich crosses horizo n tally
from th e j aw. T he up p e r lip , wider th an the lower, is sha ped like a flatt ened M. The g r ooVl: of
th e M (p h iltru m) th rusts forward like th e p rO\\' of a sh ip (tu be rcle). T he 100vc r lip is d evol-
oped like an ex te nded w. The ce nt e r hTJ.uoye receives the tubercle of th c uppt' r lip, while th e
an11S of th e W C0 1111 two elliptical lobes . Bo th lips have th in ly edged margins th a t li m their f0 Il11S.

r
(I/\I'/IH\ D E T .\ ILS OF .-\ X. \ H ).\ I \ ·

/
I
DrX A .\f'C .~ S.~ T O.\ ' l ·

> THE E AR The ea r is shaped like a shell, wider at. the top rim, narrower a t
th e lobe . It co nsists of fou r major shapes: th e outer, wider rim (h el ix), the in ne r ri m (a n ti-
heli x ) , th e coy e r of th e ear o pen ing (tra g us), and th e lobe (lo b ule ) . T he ea r ca n be
divided into eq ual thirds le ngthwise: fir st, at the upper rim where it enters th e bow l of th e
ear; seco nd, the len gth of the trag us: third , the flesh y lo be. T he inner rim is di vid ed at the
to p in to two arms and shaped like a bent Y. Em p hasis in d rawin g sho uld be given to th e
hard for ms o f the carti lage , and softened on th e fleshy lobe. T h e bowl of the ear sho uld be
d rawn la rge enoug h to acco m mo d ate a thumb.

{ 100 1
IJ t-v . \ .\1 IC .-\ .'\.-\ H'," ' "

T ilE ~ IAJ()R \ IU S C L E \IA SSES The muscle masses that give shape to the face arc
g ro uped fo r sim p licity in d rawin g a n d a rt iculat io n of fo rm. The stro ng masseter muscle ,
lockin g in th e angle of th e jaw fro m the cheekbo ne , CO il trois th e form o f th e wide pa n of
the ch eek. It co m p le tes the fortv-Iivc-degrcc con tour lin e of the inner o rb it o f the
droppin g eye, fro m th e hri d ge o f the Hose , obliquely across the face . to the jaw point. The
zygo matic m uscle starts angularly down from the Front of the cheekbone to the outer
uppc: r curve of the mo ut h . The crease around the mout h is the edge of thi s m uscle. The
buccinator co m p letes th e crease a t th e tigh t kno t in the corne r of the mouth a n d moves
ac ross to the jaw, unde r the masset e r. Because it is d ee p-se t, it shows as a d e p ressed a re a in
t he mid d le o f th e lower chee k. The tria n gu la ris. at th e wide o u te r p art of the t-hi n, m O H~ S

fro m th e corner o f th e mou th to th e fro nt ja\,·. The q uadratus starts u n der the lowe r lip
an d slants toward the triangu laris on the from j aw protrusion. T h e cleft in the chi n is thus
ex posed, T he temporal arc h. the somewhat hollow a rea of the te m ple. lies a bove the zygo-
mat ic o r cheek bo ne arc h a n d to the side of th e h row ridge. Ahh ongh it is filled i ll with a
bro ad flat ma ss- t he tc mpora l musclc-c-it is still de pressed enough to receive th e bul ge or
th e up pe r pa lm of the haIHI. T h e forwa rd edge of thi s m uscl e clcarlv ex p oses th e tem p o ral
line, the side pla n t' of th e forehead.

1. TEMPO RA L

2. FR ONT A LI S
3. ZYG OM ATIC A RC H
4 . OR B IC ULAR IS OC ULI
5. MA SS ETER
6 . Z YGOMA TIC US
7. OR BI CU L A RIS OR I S
8 B UCC IN ATOR
9 . TRIA NGU L A RI S
1O. 0 UAD R ATU S
1 1. M ENTA LI S
( 1l .\I'TlH. \

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D \ "X .-\.\ I1 (; ""\.'.'..1" HHI1"

W R I i\iK L ES O F T H E FA C E Wri n klin g in th e face ca n h e ge n e ralized into a syste m

of three m . ~ o r patte rn s: the frontal , th e o bli que, and th e la te ral. T h e fro ntal grout) sta rt s
ce nt rally around the no se, circles the ch in , an d drops o n the u n d erstru c tu re o f th e jaw into
th e nec k. T h e upward m oveme nt fr o m the nose fo rms a sh a rp co m p ressio n a t the hridgc
and m oves in d eep fu rrows to the fore head, b e ndi n g sligh tly out ward . Th e ohli qul' bI"JT.JIlj}
m oves fr o m the in sid e o rb it o f th e eye obliq uel y down th e cen te r of th e ch ee k, cu ts across
th e ce n te r of the j aw, and tu rn s unde r th e m id d le u n ders ur face of th e n eck . On th e b row,
it rin gs the b u lge of th e fron tal sin us a bo ve th e e ye a n d fo rms a cu rved m ovemen t "l<T O SS

th e m id d le of th e fo rehead. T he lateral grollj} sta rt") a t th e o u te r co rn e r of th e eye, th e

crow's-feet. and sp reads backward to th e ea r, d own to the masse ter muscle an d aro un d th e
j aw poin t to th e ne ck . Upwa rd , the c ro w's-Ice t wheel a ro u n d the outer ed ge of the b ro w
a nd thrus t h igh i ll thin wrin kle s toward the fro n t fo rehead . T h ese are th e majo r wri n kle
patterns, usu ally developed in the deep rece sses uf b one and ch a n n els bet ween muscle s.
Varia tions acco rd in g to age a nd musc ul ar flaccidity will acco u n t fo r ref i n e me n ts in th e
d ra win g of pa rtic ular in div iduals.

110 11
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11°71
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F ACI AL C HA i' G E S A N D C HA RA C T E R I ZA T I ON In fo rm structu re , the head ge ner-

ally shows th ree basic shapes o r varia tio ns: the long h ead , o r d o licho cephalic; th e ro und
head, o r m eso cep hal ic; and the b ro ad head , o r b rach yce phalic. T hese are the vari an ts
fro m which th e artist ca n obse rve individ ual m ino r chara cte ristics. ' Ve may observe th at
lo ng heads ge nerally show elo nga tions o f form in nose , ears, a nd ch in , and that bro ad
head s reve al sq uare d , broad fo rms. H owever, ind ivid ual diffe rences show a re markable
varie ty of d igressions from acce p ted id eas of fo rm . Th e ind ivi d ual has h is u nique q uali ties,
an d these should be o bserved against the backgro und of ge nera l kn owle d ge. T he va rie ty
o f head s prese n ted here sh ows how th e stu dy o f the individ ual has dictated the interp re-
tat io n of character and the manne r of ex p ress io n.

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ME X I CA N WOMAN.
WATERCOLOR.
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B EETHOVEN
IN K AND WA S H.
OL D MA N,
IN K THROUGH WATER
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SA UL
I N K A N D CRAYO N.

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PATRIARC H. PASTEl.

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BLIN D M AN I NK AND C OLOR

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NEGRO . INK . SCR IBBL E
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JA KE . COLOR ED I N K.

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THE NECK

T H E ",IA SS E S The COI U Ill Il olthe n eck originates at th e ba se of the sku ll a n d CUI-yeS

back a nd down wa rd ill a large arc to a positio n e n d in g .u th e co lla rb o nes. Qu ite low in the
bac k of th e neck, th e proj ccuug spi nous process, a hard tu be ro sity of bo ne , ca n he felt with
the palm in the middle recess be twe en the sho ul d e r muscles. T h is projection id en tifies th e
beginning of the rib cage to th e rea r. To th e fro n t, th e colu m n e n ds a t the occlusion o f the
clavicles. th e co lla rbo nes a t the p it of the neck. The n eck colu m n co ns ists o f five im p o rta n t
masses, They give sha pe and form to th e neck. Wh e n th e y are drawn badl y, the fo rm is
destroyed. Fu rt h e r. the ce rvical vertebra e, the seven n ec k ho n es, have n o exte rna l form-
producing effect wh a tso eve r, The five neck shapes are: th e mi d d le trachea l funn el , starting
fro m the wid e slo pe un der the j aw and taperi ng to th e tippe r box of tile laryn x (tile Ad am 's
a pple), a n d wedgin g in to the pit of the n ec k; th e two wind ing sid e m asse s o f th e ste r-
nomasto id , m oving o u t fr om bch inrl the ca r to th e front co llarbo n es; and th e two ba ck
ne ck m u scles, th e up p e r arms of the tra p e zius, a tta ch ed to the base o ft h e sku ll and wide n-
ing onto the back sh o ulde rs. T h ese g ro ups a re eas ily obse rved a n d re tain th eir di stinc tive
form s in all manner of views. T he trapezius, see n frontally, has a d eep fossa, o r tr ench ,
be tween its thic k fo rm a n d the coll a rbon e.

1. DIGASTR IC A NTE RI OR
2. SU B MAXI LL A RY G LA N D
3. STYLO HYO ID A N D DI GA ST RIC POS T ER IO R
4 . H YOGLOSS US
5. L A RY N X
6. OMOHYOI D
7. STERNO HYOID
B. STER N OMASTO ID
9. TRAPEZ IUS
10 L EVATO R SCA PUL A E
1 1. O MOHYO I D
12. C LAVIC L E

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:'> I L\:-;UR EMES TS In the e rect figu re . the n eck fro m th e front is one-ha lf a head
in le ng th Irom thcjawt o th e pi t of th e Heck. Fr om a sid e view. th e nec k m e e ts the j aw mi d-
point be tween the c h ill co n to ur a n d th e j aw point . T h e wid th o f" the nec k fro n ta llv is not
q u ite as wid e as the jaw. I Iowevcr; O il th e lin e of the Ad a m 's apple . j ust un de r th e -jaw. th e
su -rn o m ast o ids begi n to co mp ress wh ile the trape zius broaden s ac ro ss th e sho u ld e r a rea .
THE MAJOR
MASSES
or THE NECK. I

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T HE SEVENT H CE RV ICA L
VERTEBRA POSITIONED
ACROSS T H E LIN E
OF T H E SHOULD E RS.

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I'O I X T S TO RE~IL\I B E R 1:\ DRAW IX(~ T he h ead ill tu rnin g . twisting. and stre tchi ng
m o vem e nt s co nst a n tly pulls th e neck with it as it monos. It is wise , th erefo re , to obse rve th e
p ositi on o f th e c h in an d its d irection in (h e d raw in g. The n ec k, as a ril le. in varia bly fo llow s
th e ac tion p osi tio n of th e ch in . If tlu- h ead twists, the n eck will twist to fo llo w th e chi ll.
Be cause th e a b ove is tr ue , the box of the la ryn x will tend to re m a in ce n t ra lly
lo ca te d just under th e j aw a rc h . Xow. o bse rve ca re fu lly: A lin e sta rti ng- from the ce n te r of
the nose , a n d d ra wn through the cente r of th e lips. ,,~ II con tin ue d o wn an d d rop o n to the
b ox o f th e larynx . This will iu va ria blv occu r in a lm os t eye ry position of th e he ad , fr o m
o rdinary to ex tre m e vie ws. lip o r d o wn . Thus, grea t co n trol 0 1" h ead an d ne ck relat io nsh ip
ca n he m as te re d withou t di llic ult y ill place m ent.
The head on the co lum n o f th e n eck ac ts like a floa ti ng , hohh ing co r k o n wa te r.
T h e m ovemen t o f th e body tends to upse t th e h ea d . Bu t th e h ead , co n tro lli ng the ac tivity
o f th e body, ac ts like a hTyroscopc to o p p ose th e move m en t of the upper torso. It is a good
idea . th ere fo re . to balance the h ea d ge n era lly in o/J!JOs;l;on (0 (h e a ct io n o f th e to rso ,
un le ss, o f co u rse , the h e ad must he sh own o th e rwise for so m e sp ec ia l reaso n .
( 11 \ /' f I H \ In·; "lA. Il. . .· or AX.·1 TO .H) ·

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THE TORSO

THE C I' I' E R TORSO .\ IASS ES The uppe r th oracic mass of the torso , the rib GIg-e. is
sha ped like a wedged bo x: broad ac ross th e co llarbones . it d escends a n d co m prcs-'ics to th e rib
base above th e elbows. The e n tire wedge is balanced like a box Lip ped ba ckwa rd 011 its ed ge
a t a fifteen-de gre e tilt. The e ntire le n gth in thi s position is one and two-th irds heads lo ng. T h e
front slo pe o f th e chest is th r ust forward the le-ngt h of a head to the diap hrag m arch an d
lapel'S two-thirds of a head to the base o f the cage. T Ilt' ba ck slope o n the trapezius is thrust
o n ly two-th irds ofa head backward, an d co m p re sses o ne full head le ngth down to th e lib base.

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TH E F RON T TORSO
DESC ENDS A HE AD
L EN GTH TO TH E t
DIAPHRAGM ARCH .
(1/ .11' I J J.: \ /)I-;I.4.1L'.; O F .rv..\ TO .\1 \ .

I I :!71
( 11.'1.1' f I J.I \ llE TA. 1LS OF ..tv. t TO .\n ·

Til l': I,O \ \' ER T OR SO l\lA SS Th e lo we r m ass of th e torso , the p el vic m a ss, is sh a ped
lik e a Ilau encd we dge box, narrow at the wa ist an d wid e r at the buttocks. The m a ss is
lip p e d fo rwa rd a t th e ab d o me n a n d slopes backward a t a Fi fteen-d egree a n gle , opposin g
and ba la n cing th e move me n t o f the r ib cage. The two m asse s a re se pa ra te d by a s pace o ne-
h alf a h ead in le n gth , from the rib cage to p e lvic gi rd le .

TH E B AC KWARD
TI LT OF
TH E PE LVI C MA SS.
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TH E MID - A X IA L
R EG I ON O F TH E
TOR SO: T H E PE LVI C
M A SS BA L ANC ES
AND OP POSES
TH E UPP E R TOR SO
I N MOVEM E NT.

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 T HE ~ I A.J 0 R :\I US CL E ~ IASS E S The front to rso con tains five important m uscle
m asses: th e two p ectoral chest m asses, divid ed centrall y hy th e ste rn um; th e a bdominal
m ass, rectus a b do m inis, th e sheath of the in te rn al organs, divided into th ree tie rs ho ri-
zo ntally and two co lum ns vertica lly by th e lin ea alba, reveali n g six sec tio ns : a n d th e side
su p port muscles co nnectin g ribs a n d pelvis. th e (\\ -0 extc ru us o blique masses . The smaller
m uscles of th e ri bs, th e serratu s a n te rio r gro u p, lie transve rsely on th e ribs under th e pec-
torals. ' Vjth th e arms down , five se rra tu s slo ts m ay h e see n, Wit h th e arms up, a six th
beco mes visibl e o n ei th er sid e of th e rib cage , hi g-h lip un d e r the borders of th e p ectorals
in lin e with th e ni p p les.

1. SP LE N IU S CAP ITI S
2 . ST ER NO MAS TO ID
3 . TRA PE Z I US
4 DE LTO ID
5 LEVATOR SCAPU LAE
6 OMO H YOID
7. CLAV I CL E
8 . BICEPS
9 . STE RNU M
10. TE RES MA J OR
1 1. PECT O RA LI S MAJ OR
12. L ATIS SI MUS DOR SI
13. SERR ATU S A NT E RI OR
14. LIN EA A L B A
15 . RECT US AB DOMIN I S
16. U MBILIC US
17. EXTE R N US O BLIQ UE
18 . ING UIN A L LIGAMEN T
(1I .\I'rJU\ [ H:TA.l I ..s O P "-\ S A.T O M Y

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1. S U PE R C I LI A RY ARCH ' 3 . TR IC EPS-LATERA L HEAD 24 ANCO NEUS

7 ZYGOMATIC BON E 14. TR IC EP S- LONG HE A D 25. BI C E PS
3. STER N O MA STOID 15. L ATI SSI MU S DO RS I 76. BRA CH IAllS
4. MASSETER '6 SAC ROSP IN ALI S 27. PA L M A RIS LO NG US
5. TRA P EZ IUS 17. OLEC RAN O N 28 FLEXOR CA RP I RAD IA LI S
6. SE V ENT H CE RV ICA L VERTEBRA 18. EX TER NU S OBLIOU E 29 . EXTEN SOR CA RPI U LNAR I S
7. ACR OM IO N '9. ILIAC C REST 30 . FL EX OR CA RPI U L N ARI S
B DE LTOI D 70. GLUT E US M E D IUS 3' . EXTE N SO R OIGITO RU M
9. TRAPEZ IUS 71. G LUTEU S MA XIM US 3 2 . EXTE N SO R CA RPI RA DIALIS B R EVI S
'a . I N FR AS PIN ATU S n TR ICE PS- M ED IAL H EAD 33. BRACH IOR AQ IALlS
11 . T ERES MINOR 23 . B R A CH IA U S a a. EX TE N SO R CA R PI RAD IALIS LON G US

". TE RES MA J O R
 (ILl/'l'" \ lH.T A.ll. S OF .-\.\'XID.\lY

T he hack torso co m prise s fou rte en la rge m uscle groups, seve n 011 each sid e o f th e
sp in e . T he se arc: the kite-sh aped trape zius high up on the back, connecting sku ll a nd
sh o u ld e r blades an d tapering into the sp ine ; th e latissimus dorsi, or slin g m uscle s. attach-
ing high under th e arm a n d d escendi ng to th e ba ck of th e pel vis; th e ex te m us obliques.
continuing from the fr o n t and anchori n g 011 the a rch o f th e p e lvis; th e sacrospinalis
columns , the erec to rs of the sp in e, centrally located in the lower m iddle of th e back; th e
glut e us m edi us m a sses, butt re ssi ng the ins ide cu rve s of the hip arch e s a t the sides; th e glu -
tcus rnaximns m asse s, the b uttocks, thrusti n g from th e inside rear of the pelvis an d sac r u m
an d ;lu ach in g in to the legs; and , fin a lly, th e muscle groups on th e sho u ld er blade s, th e
d eltoid, in fras pi n a tus. te res mino r, and te res m ajor, all o f th em cross in g to the arm .

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1\1 E AS U }{ E ~ I L '\T S The torso , fro nt d ew, measu re s o vera ll th ree heads in len g th .
wh ile the bac k to rso m easure s th re e and one-half h eads ill le ngt h . Th e fron t m e a sure-
m en ts d ivid e thus: from a lin e drawn ac ross the co llarbones to th e base of the pec tora ls,
one h ead len gth: fro m the p ecto ra l lin e to th e u m bili cu s, or navel , a seco nd head le n g th ;
fro m th e n avel to th e pubic a rc h , a th ird h ea d len gth , Th e lo we r visce ra l ma ss o f th e
a h dom in is fron ta lly ca n he see II a .. a h ead sh a pe wit hi n th e p el vic ba sin.
The measurements o ft h e hac k to rso sh o w the se divi sio n s: fro m a lin e d ra wn across
th e extreme widt hs or th e sho uld e r blades to th e base poin ts o f th e b lad e s, o ne head
len g th ; fro m th e poin ts to th e m id-po sitio n o f th e exte r n liS o bli q ue mu sck-s. a sec o n d head
length (u will he n ot e d th a t thi s lin e is d ra wn fro m ac ross the nave l posi tion . fron t) ; Iroru
th is mid-p osi tion to the e n d o f th e sp in e , or con:)'x bo ne (th e p u b ic a rc h rear) , a th ir d
head length ; a nd fro m th e co ccyx to th e ba se o f th e b uttoc-ks , one-half h e ad leng th .

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POI :'\""TS TO RL\ IEMllER 1:\ DRA\\T'\ G The e n tire g ro u p of back muscle s ca n be
eas ily positioned with the M diagram o f the hack. The large M should be placed on the ba ck
rib ca ge a t a h eigh t just lower th a n the sh o u ld e rs and drawn dOWIl to the sh o uld e r blade
p oi nts. The arms o f th e M id en tify th e edges o f the sho u ld e r blad es. T h e b lad es ca n th us
be affixed. The insid e of the M, th e deep v, is the tapered lin e o f th e tra pezius. Thus, th e
mass o f trapezius above easily falls into place. The side latissim us masses ca n now be la id
in under the arms of the M to the inner v. T he middle lower grou ps, e recto rs and ohliques,
d esce n d a nd widen fro m un d e r th e poin t of the in n e r v. Location and p lacemen t of m us-
cle masses with th is d evice will produce facility in th e drawin g of fo reshortened o r e xtre m e
views o f the back ill body movem en t.
II1\1'11U\ ll Wf'A lI.S Of' AXATO,\f l ·

T h e fro n t torso a t the sho u lders a n d colla rbo nes ha s th e a p peara nce of a slo p ing
dia m o nd sh ape . In di fficult views. across o r clown . this sh ape e nab les th e artist to lo ca te the
neck tunn eling in and to place th e origin of arms across the sho ulde rs.

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To place the serratus muscles o n the rib cage correctly.a line drawn from th e pi t of th e
neck through the nipple will cross th e pe ctorals and rib cage at a curving forty-five-degree angle
10 th e base of th e Jibs. This line, below the pecto ra ls, hol ds the five serra tus slo ts in place.

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 T h e collarbones. seen toge ther. ha ve the a p pea rance of a co a t h an ge r turned
u psid e down. Taken separately. the form of ea ch clavicle presents a ll elo ngated S lin e
of movement from fill)" viewing' po sition.

11.111
c 11.\1'111.:. \ lJf.TAIVi OF .-l.VAT O .\ n '

The pelvi c m ass, rear view, h as a di stinct blittnjlJ shape in d rawing . The two up pc r
wings a re the glut e us mediu s m asses und er the iliac, o r p elvic, c u rves. The lo we r \\-iugs a rc
the glute us m a xim us, o r buttock m asses . In th e se pa ratio ns o f the upper a n d 100n: r wings,
th e g reat troc h an ter p ro trusio ns of the leg ho nes a p pear.
 I I\ ·X .\ \ I1 (: --\.'- .-\-'-0.\ 11·

T he shou ld er b lad es sho uld he understood as a flo at ing anch or of bo n e on th e

back . This "a nc h o r" a tta ch es to the a rm hone a n d m oves freely. swinging o r slid in g lik e a
ga te with eycry m ovem e nt of the a n n. \\'h e n the arm is up. the acrom ion. th e hi gh ridge
of the blade, swings down; wh en the ann is down, the acro m io n swings lip .
.S O/l' writ: The e ntire m uscle mass of th e upper to rso around tilt' body has one
ma jor func tion-e-tc 1l10n~ th e arms. The m id-axial m ass. front an d rear, bends, twists. o r sta-
bili zes the two to rso masses. T he lower to rso mass. below th e p elvic gi rdle, ac tivates the legs.

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I. EX TENSOR D IG ITO RUM

2. EXT ENSOR CARP I U LNARIS
3. ANCO NE US
4. OLECRA NON
5, BRACH IALlS
6. TR IC EPS
7. A C ROM ION
8 . DELTOID
9 . I N F RA SPI NATU S
10. TRAPEZ IUS
11. INFRASPINATUS
12 TERES MINOR
13 TERES MAJOR
14 LA TISS IMUS DORS I
15. SACROSPI NALIS
16 EXTERNUS OBLIO UE
17. G LUT EUS MEDIUS
18 SACR U M
19 G LUTEUS MA X IM US
2 0 VA ST US EX TER N U S
2 1 EXTE N SOR POL U CI S BRE VIS
22 AB DU CTOR POL UCI S LONG US
23 EXTE NS O R CA RPI RAD IALIS B R EVIS
24 EXT ENS O R CA RPI RAD IALI S LO NG US
25 B RAC H IORAD IA LI S
2 6 BI CE PS
27- STE RN OMASTOID
28 . DELTO ID
29 TRIC EP S- L ATE RA L H EAD
30. BRAC H IALIS
3 1. B IC EPS
32 . BRACH IQRA D IALIS
33 EXTENSOR CARPI RA D IAL IS LO NGUS
3 4 EXTENSOR CARPI RAD IALIS BRE VIS
35 . EX TENSOR DIGI TO RUM
36. EXTENSOR CARPI U L NAR IS
37. U LNAR H EA D
38 FL EXOR CARP I U L NAR IS
39 . ANCO NEUS
40 OL EC RAN ON
4 1. TRICEPS-LONG H EAD
42. SERR ATUS ANT ER IOR
43 . LATISS IMUS DO RSI
44 . RECTUS ABDO M IN IS
45 . ILI AC CREST
46. EXTERNUS O BLIOUE
47. G LUTE US M EDI US
48 . G REAT TROC H ANT ER
4 9 TENSOR FASC IAE LATA E
5 0 . RECTUS F EM ORI S
5 1. SARTO RIUS

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Brazo
THE ARM

TIlE U PPE R A le\ 1 T he upper ann is a rather flat , elongated tapered form fro m
sho ul de r to e-lbow, surmoun ted by a broad , high m ass of m us cle. T he me m be r consists of
th ree major m u scl e masses: th e bi ce ps Irontallv, with the b ra chia lis as a co m pone nt for
bending th e lo we r mem ber; th e triceps 1.0 the rea r fo r st ra ightening it; a n d th e d eltoid to
the side, high up-the sh o uld er m ass-for raising the e ntire arm. The thrust o f shapes on
the uppe r a rm p resents a constan t opposi tion: The b iceps a nd triceps move Iroutwa rd a n d
backwa rd , wh ile the de ltoid . hi g h e r u p , thrusts sidewa rd and upward. The delt oid may be
compared to the glu teus masses of th e lower torso. Each g rou p elevates its lo we r m e m b er;
The d e ltoi d raises the arm fr o n t, sid e , and hac k: the glut e i ra ise th e leg side a n d re ar o n ly.
 DLx.\.\ " C .-tX .-\ T O .\ I}·

T ilE r.o wi.« :\ 10 1 T h e lowe r a rm p rese nts a ro u nd ly deve loped ta pered m ass
fro m elbow to th e fla tte n ed fo rm of th e wris t. Th e masses o f the fo rearm lie o p posed to th e
uppe r arm m asses, movi ng generally from o utsid e to inside agai nst the torso . The forea rm
consists of three importan t muscle g,-ollps: th e under forearm group. th e flexors, fo r bend-
in g th e palm a n d cle nc hing the fin gers; th e o u ter fo rearm g rou p. th e ex te nso rs, fo r
straig lu e u ing the p alm a nd o p e ni ng the Fi ng e-rs: a n d th e bra c h io radialis gro u p, th e su p ina-
tors, attached 10 th e upper elbow on th e outsid e o f th e arm a n d d escend in g th e le n gth of
the forearm to the in side of th e wrist , for rotatin g the palm of the h and outward. A fourth
smaller uiuvck-, the p ro na tor, origina tes on th e inner el bow projec tion o f th e hu m erus an d
crosses 10 the fo re a rm 10 pe rform rot ati on of th e palm in ward to the bod y.

1. INTE RO S SEUS 13. A B DUCT OR POLLI CIS B R EVIS

2. L U N ATE PROM IN EN C E 14. PA LMAR IS LO NGUS

3_ EX TE N SOR POLLIC IS BREVIS 15. F L EX OR CAR P I RAD IALIS

4. A BDUCTOR POLlIC 1S LONGUS 16. PRONATOR TERES

5 . EX TEN SO R CARP I RA DI ALI S B REVI S 17_ MEDIA L E PI CO N D YL E

6 . EX TEN SOR CARPI RADl r, LI S LO NG US 18. B RAC H IALI S

7 BRAC H IO RAD IALI S 19 TRI C EP S- M ED I A L H EA D

8 . B RAC HI A LlS 2 0 . TE RE S MA J OR

9 B IC EPS 2 \ PECTORALIS MAJOR

10 . DE LTOID 22. LAT ISS IMUS D ORS I

1 1. CLAV ICLE 23. SERRATUS A NT E RIO R

12 . AD DU CTO R PO LLl CI S

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 1. INTE ROSSEUS
2. ULNAR HEAD
3. EX TE N SOR D IG tTOR UM
4 EXTE N SO R CARP I ULN A R I S
FL EXO R CA RP I U L N ARIS
6. O L E C R A t~O N

7. BRACH IAUS
e. TR ICEP S
9 DELTO ID
10 . ACR OM IO N
11 . TR APE Z IU S
12 . I NF RA SP IN ATU S
13 . EX T EN SO R PO L L I CI S BR EVIS
14 A BDUCTO R POlU Ct S LON G US
15 . EX TE N SO R CAR P I RAD IA LIS BR EVI S
16 . EXT EN SO R CAR PI RAD IALI S LO NG US
I"J. B RAC H IQRA O IALIS
2 - -
18 . B IC E PS

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TR IC EPS -LO NG H EAD 20

2 TR I CE PS - L AT E RA L H EAD
3 T RI CE P S-ME DI A L H EA D
4. B RA C H IALI S
5 M EDIAL E PICOND Y LE
6 . OLECRANO N
7. F LEX OR CA RP I RA D IA LIS
8 PALMA RIS LO N GU S
9 FLE XO R CARPI UL N A RI S
10 EXT ER N US OB LI OU E
11 ILI A C CR ES T
12 GLUTEUS MEDI US
13 . GR EA T T ROC H A NT ER
14 . A B DU CTO R PO L LIC IS LO N GU S
15. EX TEN SO R CAR PI R A DI A LI S LO NGUS
0)1-- ----''----- -
16 . B RAC H I ORA DIALI S
17. P RON ATOR T ER ES

18 . L ATISSI M US DO RSI
01-- ------;-
19 B I C EPS
2 0. DE LTOI D
21 . TER ES M AJ O R

" TERES MI N OR
23. A C ROMI ON
2 4 I N F RA S PIN AT U S
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1. CLAV IC L E
2 . D ELTO ID
3 T RICEP S
4 . BRACH IAUS
5. LATERA L E PICO N DYl E
6 . OL ECR ANON
= - --:0 7. EXTE N SO R CARPI RA DI A LI S B REVIS
8. EX T EN SOR D IGITORU M
9. AB DUC TOR PO LLIC IS LO NG US
10. EXTE NS OR POL lIC I S B RE VI S
1 1. LU N ATE P ROM INE NC E
12 . B IC EPS
13 BRAC HIO R ADI ALI S
14 E XTI::. N SO R CARPI RA D IA LIS LO N G U S
15 F LEX OR C A RP I RADIALI S
16 IN TE RO SSEUS
17_ ADDUCTOR POlUC IS

11 S'l(j l
 l 1/ \l'rI N \

T RA P EZ I US 12 . B RA C H I QR A D IALI S

2 C LAVI C L E 13. EXTEN SOR CA RP I RAD IALIS LO NG US

3. DE LTO ID 14 . EX TE N SOR CA RP I RAD IA LIS B REVIS

4 . T R ICE PS - LON G H EA D 15 . EX TE NS OR D I GIT OR U M

5 . TR le EPS -L AT E RAL H EA D 16 EXTE N SOR CA RPI U L NA RI S

6 B i C E PS 17. FL EX O R CARP I UL N A R IS
7. B RA CHIA LI S 18 TE RE S MA JOR

8 B RAC H ID RADI A LI S 19 ULN A R H EA D

9 . EXT E N SOR CA R PI RAD IALI S LO NGUS 2 0. P ECTORA LI S MAJ OR

10 . OLECR A NO N 21. L AT I SSI M US DORS I
9
11 . ANCON E US 22 S E RR ATUS A NT ERI OR

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;\.IEAS URE ~IE .:'\TS The uppe r a n n , starting at th e sh oulder gird le , dro ps to a lin e
drawn across th e to rso from the umbili cus thro ugh th e m id-p osition of the cxtc rnu s
oblique. Thus, th e bend of the elbow lines u p with the navel. Fro m this posit io n, the lower
ann moves down to th e wrist at a poi nt in line with the g reat trochan ter, th e bony promi -
nonce high 0 11 tln- side of the leK This point lies o n the line d rawn across th e lower to rso
from th e pubic a rch (front) to the coccyx bone (re ar) . \\re m ust noll' that the d eltoid
m uscle is full y a h e ad-le ng th d eep on the side of th e ann , a nd this position lies across th e
lin e of the base of the pectorals on the chest (fro nt) and across the base of the sho ulder
blades (re ar) . T he biceps muscle in the front uppe r ann is on e h ea d in length fr om pec-
toral to fo rearm. The e n tire arm m ay be sa id to be two a nd th ree-quart ers h eads in lengt h ,
from shoul der height to wrist. \Yith the h and added , the arm is th re e and a h a lf heads long.

1 ABDUC TOR D IG ITI QU INT I

2 . ULN A BON E
3. LU N ATE PROM IN E NCE
4. RAD !U S BON E
5 . EX TE N SOR POL LI C I S B REVI S
6 . A B D UCTO R PO L LI CIS LONGU S
7. EXTEN SOR CA RP I UL N AR IS
8 FL EXO R CARP I U L NA R I S
9 EXT EN SO R D IGlTORUM
10 EXTE NSO R CAR PI RA D IA LIS BR EV I S
1 1 A N CONEUS
12 EXTEN SO R CAR P I RA D IA LIS LO NGUS
13 OL EC R A NO N
 T H E E l. B O W T h e elbow p rcsen1.5 a large , tri an gulated protruding su r face at th e
ha rk join t of th e arm . The backwa rd p ro jec tio n . or ol ec ra non-a-the e lb ow p rotr usio n of
th e ul n a- is a broad, hooked fo rm tha t ac ts as a lo ckin g device in stra igh te ning th e a rm.
It n arrows to a th in wedge. O n ei th e r sid e o f th is pro m inence, the up per a rm bone, th e
hume rus, o pe ns a fo ssa to receive it. The h u merus base h as two large side p roj ect ions. bo th
of whi c h arc visib le from th e rear; th e in n e r is larger and more d omin ant. The elbow a rea
th us formed. with its sin e poin ts wide a n d h ook thrust hack, a p p ea rs visual lv like a n
in vert ed pyra mid su p po rt . T he h ead of th e rad ius, see n Oil the side u p pe r forea rm , is hard ly
visible und er the a rc hed mou n d of th e brachioradialis m uscle .

________1
nr....·.·\,\ IJ C --\. .'\".-\'1"<1.\ 11 '

P O I :\"T S TO R E ~I t: l\l B E R I N DRAWI N G The fla t part of th e wrist is lo cked to th e

flat pan of the palm. It linIn ch an ges. Thus, as th e arm tu rns , the palm turn s.
T h e turn of th e p alm o n th e fo rea rm ca n comple te a fu ll h alf circle , or a I HO-
d egree arc o f rn ovcm e ru fro m sup in a tio n to pronat ion .
The fle xo r muscle m ass o n th e u n der fo rearm is se p a ra ted from the u p per exte n-
so r mass bv the line o f th e ulna. the bony edge running from the e lbow to the outside h ead
of the wrist.
The a rm s h ave treme nd ous freedom o f m o vem e nt. To u nders tan d th ei r capacity
fo r a ctivity, th e a rms m ust be u n d e rstoo d to a ttac h to the b ody n o t at th e sh o u lders, h ut
in to th e pi t o f th e n ec k. The clavicles , the refore, a re really ad d it io n al exte ns io n s to th e a rm
lengths; thus, th e co m p lex of bo n e le n gth s produces a m ech a n ism with a n unusual ability
for moveme nt.
 ( 11.\ 1'IIN \ 1)1-:"1".. \//....,. ( )l-" ASA H J.\f \ ·

1. DE LTOID 15. G LUTEU S MA XI M US

2 P ECTOR AUS MA J OR 16. TRAPEZIUS

,.
3. B IC EPS 17. ACR OM IO N
4. TRIC E PS 18. CLA VIC LE
5. B RACH IAU S PR ONATOR TER ES
6. B RA CH IORA OIA U S 2 0 . FL EXOR CARPI RAD IA LI S
7. EX TE N SO R CA RP I RAD I AU S LO NGUS 2 1 PALM AR IS LON G US
8. EXT E NS OR CA RP I RAD IAUS BR EVIS 22 . I NTE ROSS EU S
9. AB DUCTO R POL L IC IS LONGUS
10 EXTE NSO R POL U C tS BRE VIS
23 IN F RA SPI NATU S
2 4. TER ES MINO R
I
11 . EXTE NSOR D IGI TOR U M 25. TE RES MAJOR 6
12 . EXTE NSOR CA RP I U L NAR IS 26. L ATI S SIM U S D ORSI
--~.---=_{ 11
13 . GLUTEUS ME DI US 27. EX TER N U S OBUQUE
14. IL IA C CR EST 28. F L EXO R CAR P I UL NAR IS
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 La mano
THE HAND

TH E ~ I A SSE S O F T H E H A ND The palm o f th e h and is a fla t, sq ua re-s h ap ed we d ge

of for m , somewhat thicker and wider at th e wrist, a n d slightly narrower a n d th in n e r at th e
fin gers. The p almar side h as th ree mo u n ded masses: th e thenar group, or b all of th e
th u m b; the hyp o th ena r p romi nence above the littl e fi nge r; and the lu m b rical pad s acr oss
th e ba se o f the pal m . A d ee p , tria ngul ated h oll ow lies in the ce n te r of the palm . The
interosseus muscles a re below. but th e y presen t littl e su rface a p pea rance. The d orsal , o r
hack, vi ew of the palm presen ts a h a nl , bony su rface , d ominat ed by the series of tendons
moving down from wrist to fingers across th e projectin g ra m p of kn uc kles.
Two m u scle fo rms a re visible o n th e hac k pal m: th e ra th e r large in te rosse us mus-
cle be twee n th umb a nd fo refin ge r, and th e abducto r m ini m i muscle o n th e outer cdge of
th e palm a bove th e little fin ger.
T h e finge rs show n o muscular m asses; their un d e rsurfaces a re soft a n d p added for
gripping and cle nc h in g. wh ile th eir to p su r fa ces a re q u ite skeletal, rev ealing m arked pro-
trusions o f th e kn u ck le ca ps ules.
The wris t bo nes on the back surface of the palm show a ma jor mound when the palm
is fle xed : the lu n ate or semilunar carpal bone, lyi ng betwee n the occl usio n of the radius a n d
ul n a at the wrist, Oye r th is mou nd . the ram p of exte nso r tendon s desce nds to th e finge rs.
( 1/ \l'11 J.: \
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1. FL EXOR D IG ITOR UM SU B LI MI S 1 1. ABD UCTOR PO l liC IS LONG US

2 . FLE X OR CAR P I U L N A RIS
3. P I SIFO RM B O NE
4. PAL MA RI S BR EVIS
5. OPPO N ENS D IG ITI Q U INTl
6 . F LE X OR D IG ITI QUIN TI BR EV I S
7. AB D UCTO R DI G ITI Q U IN TI
8 . LUMBR I CA LS
9. TE NDO N S-F LEX OR DIGI TORU M SUBLI M IS
10 . EX TE N SOR POLL I CI $ B REV IS
12. FL EXO R CARPI RAD IALIS
13. PALMA RIS LON GU S
14 OP PO N E NS PO LLlCrS
15 . A BD UCTO R PO Lll CI$ B REV I S
16 . FLEXO R P OLlI C I$ BRE VIS
1 7. TEN DON -F LEXOR P OLUC IS L ON GU S
18 . A DDUCTOR POL LlCI S
19 . I NT E ROSS EU S
2 0. F I NGE R PA D
 \-- - 0
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1. TENDO N-EXTENSOR CARP I ULN A R IS

2 . UL N A BO NE
3 FLE XOR CARPI U L N AR I S
4 AN NULAR LIGAME NT
e TE N DO N S-E XTE N SOR DI GIT O RU M
6 AB DUCTOR DIGITI QUINT!
7. HE A D -F IFTH META CA RPAL
8 BASE - F IFTH P ROX I MAL PH A L A N X
9 STY LOID P ROC ESS - RAD IUS B ONE
10 LU N ATE P ROMIN EN C E
11 . TE N DO N-E XTE N SOR POL LlCI S LONG US
12 . TE N D ON-EXTE N SOR POL lI CIS BRE VI S
13 IN TE ROSSEU S M USC L ES
14 . K N UCKLE CAPS UL E
P RO X I MA L PHA L A NX (I )
" s. M ED IAN PHALANX
i (I I)

17. TE RM IN A L PH A L AN X (I II)
 --------~---jG

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1. ANNULAR LIGAMEN T
2 . L U NATE P RO MIN ENC E
3. TE N D ON - EXTE NS OR CARPI RA D IA LI S BRE V IS
4. TE N D ON-E XTE NS OR POLlIC 1S LON GU S
5. TENDO N-EXTENSO R CARP I RADIALI S LONG US
6. INTE ROSSEUS MU SCL ES
7. TENDO N- EXT EN SOR D IGIT OR U M
8 ADD UCTOR PO lliC IS
9. LU MB RICAL
10 . PROX IMAL P HA L A NX (I)
11 . MEDIAN PHA LA N X (I I)
12. TE RM I NA L P H AL AN X (I II)
13 ABD U CT OR P O LLlCIS LONGU S
14 . EXT ENSOR POlu c rs BRE VIS
15 FL EXOR CA RPI RADI ALI S
16. PAL MA RIS LONG US
17. TRA P EZ IUM CAR PAL B ONE
18 O P P O NENS PD l U CIS
19. FI NG ER PA DS

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F LEX OR CAR PI ULNA RI S

2 . F LE XO R DIG ITO RU M SUB LIM I S
3 . PI S I FOR M B ON E
4. OP PO NE NS POlLiC IS
5 . F L EX OR DIGITI OU IN T! B REV IS
6 . PALMARI S BR EVIS
7. A B DU CTOR PO L LIC IS B REVIS
8 FL EXO R PO L LlC I$ B R EV IS
9. A BDU CTO R D I G ITI Q U INT I
10 . A DDU CTO R PO L L IC IS
1 1. EXT E N SOR CARP I U L NARI S
12 U L N A R HE AD
13 . TR I QUE T RU M CAR PAL B ONE
14. TE N DON- EX TEN SO R CA R PI ULN A R I S
15 H A M AT E CAR PA L BO N E
16 T END O NS-EXT E NSOR DIG ITOR UM
17. IN T E ROSS EUS MU SCLE S
I>L" .-\ .\ f/ C .-\ S A TO .\' \ -

;"I EASlJ R E M E :\ '("S Th e length o f th e h and m ea sures three-qua rt e rs th e le n gth or a

h ead , o r th e di stan ce fro m c h in to h airline o n th e face; the wid th o f th e han d m ea su res
th e d istance fro m nose to c hin . The fin ger length s d e rive their m easu reme n ts acc o rd ing
to th e mi ddle th ird li nge r o f th e ha nd . It is the lo n gest fi n ge r a nd is equal to the le ng th o f
th e palm . T hus, u sin g th e m id dl e fin ge r as a norm , th e le n gth s of th e inde x finge r a n d the
fo u rt h ti n ge r e n d a t th e ba se o f the fin gernail of the m id dle fin ge r, wh ile th e litt le finger
e nds a t th e sec o n d fin ge r join t of th e fou r th fi nger. T h e th um b wed ge starts in th e m id-
position of th e palm . The first joint lin es lip wit h the kn uckl es of th e palm a nd then ends
at th e positio n o f th e first knuck le o f th e index ti n ge r.
Eac h fin ger sect io n, with th e exce pti on of th e thu mh, di vid es a t two-thi rds th e
length of a j}f('("('(ling sect io n. Fo r in stan ce , in the inde x fin ge r, th e firs t secti o n , p h ala nx I,
is a th ird longe r than the mi d d le sec tio n , phala n x II- o r the o ther way aroun d : Ph ala n x II
is two-th irds as long as phalan x I; th e smallest, phala nx II I. is th erefo re- two-th ird s as long
as p ha lanx II. T h is measu rin g syste m a pp lies to all the fo u r finge rs of th e h a nd . T h e
thu m b. h oweve r, is sim p le r : Its two sect io ns, p hala nges I and 11, are of eq ual leng th s.
Finge rn ail le n gth s lie acro ss till' m idpo int o f the te rmin al fin ger sec tio ns , p h ala nx
III o f each fin ger, incl ud in g th e th u m b.

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 IH' ,'\i AMIC .-\."IiA H).\Il"

A CT IV ITY OF THE H A N D T he hand may be said to have three kinds of ac tivi ty:
rhJth m, developed from a relationshi p ofLhc parts in struc tu re a nd form ; action, developed
from the ca pability of th e hand to o perate in a specific ma nner; and movement, d eveloped
fro m th e visu al patte rn o f behavio r in the actio n of tile hand .
> RH }"THM (l ) From a sid e position lo o king ac ross th e top o f the hand , th e palm
and fingers have a wa velike rhythm. The wave rhyth m ca n be o bse rve d o n the e n tire length
of the forearm , risin g over th e wrist, d ro pping d own th e palm, rising ove r the finger, d own
aga in , and up the lift of the fin ge rt ip . The u nde rsurface of arm and hand follows thi s wave
motion exactl y. Freq uen tly, the d ifficulty in d rawing th e han d lies in the rigidi ty of fin ge rs
and pal m . \Vh cn the hand ap pea rs mechanica l and lifeless, th e wave rh ythm will restore
the livin g qu alit y of the hand in d rawing, (2) A seco nd rhyt h m effect of th e hand is the
arc hed or domed rhqtlun o f th e palm of tile hand. The palm is never flat. T h us. the fin gers
lie acro ss th e cu rved d ome of th e palm; the high point is eq ual to the middle fin ger and
curves away o n both sides to the th u mb and little finge r. This arc h ca n be observed easily
fro m a fin gertip view into the palm , No te how low the th u mb ap pears fro m th is view,
(3) Loo kin g down 011 the top, or d orsal , view of the hand , th e lin gers look like spo kes of a
whe el radiating fro rn th e hub in th e to p o f th e wrist. Seen th is way. th e longest, middle,

TH E WAV E RHY THM OF

FIN G ERS , S IDE VI EW
 ( II \/' J JI( \ l)Jo:TAII. .'i OJ-" A NATCH n ·

THE ARCHED
OR DO ME D RHYTH M
EFFE CT OF THE
PALM. F ING ERTIP VIEW.

I
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finger is quite straigh t. The oth er fin gers, no ma uer how sp read , te nd to cu rve in towa rd
th e middle fin ger, Only th e thumb see ms to arc h away from the ce n te r finger, (4) Study a
sec tio n of a finger, a p halanx from a top view. The knuckle joints widen , wh ile th e shan k
betwee n narrows. Thus, from thi s view, a sym met rica l rh ythm of widening and narrowin g
o n all fingers ca n be observed , T h e thumb shows th e effec t most clearly.

11731
 llr.V.--\ .Hl C A ."AT()~Ir

TH E SY MM ETRIC A L
RHYT H M; WIDE N ING
A N D N AR RO WI NG
OF B ON E FORM S.

FIN G ERS TE N D TO
CURV E IN TOWA RD TH E
LO NG M IDDLE FINGE R

....
( II \ t- I I N. \ IH:T--\ 11..'.; ( )f .-l.'".-l"ID .' l l ·

> .·\ CT IO.\' (1 ) In the jll>x illK acti on o f th e lingers. fill fingers clo se to a n a ng le of
n inety d egrees, o r a right-angle bend at the knuckles. In closing a fist, eac h finge r closes
the join ts to th e ninety-d egree sq uare co rne r posi tion. (2) T he wrist in flexio n ca n he bent
to a ninet y-degre e angle. This is not quite true. however, if th e fist is closed. (3) In clench-
ing the fist, th e last three fingers of the hand close into the holl ow tr iangle of the pa lm,
T he index linger closes in to the thum b. Th us, the index linger in a fist is alway» mo re
forwa rd than the closure of the o th e r th ree finge rs. (-l) In closing and u nc losing the hand,
 n l".v .4..\IIC .4..'.'A TO .\l )·

--~- ~ ....

\ "

th e little finger fo lds firs t. The others foll ow in order, to the thumb, which is the last to
close. In unclosing, the order is reversed: the thumb unfolds first, the littl e finger last.
(5) The thumb, from a clo sed position against the for efinger, s\\~ n gs outward to a ninet y-
d egree angle with the palm. An ex tension o f the angle in d rawing may appe ar qu ite
ab normal. (6) Th e thumb, in op po sitio n to the palm , cros ses in its ex tre me po sitio n to th e
liule fin ger. Beyond th is lin e it ca n no t go.

/ .
/
(

/' ,
 nL,\'A..M H : . \ .' ".-1 T O .'I 1"

TH E O RD ER OF 1. FLE XO R CA R PI UL NAR I S
CLOSI N G T H E F IN GE RS 2. TE NDO N- EXTE NS O R CARPI U L NA RI S
3. ULNA R H EAD
4. T E ND or~ - PA L M AR IS LO NG US
5. TR IQ U ET RU M BON E
6. P ISIFO R M B ON E
7. AB D UCTOR D I GI TI QU IN Tl
8. PAL M A RI S BR EVI S
9 . FLEXO R DI GI TI QU IN TI BR EVIS
10. TENDON S- FLEXO R DIG ITO RUM SU BLI MIS
11. OPPO N ENS DI GI TI QU INTI
12. P ROXI M A L PHALAN X (I)
13 . M ED IAN PHALAN X ou
14 TER MINA L PHALAN X (III)
15. TEN DO N S-FL EXOR D1GITOR U M SUBLI M I S
16 " TE ND ON- AB D UCTOR POLLICI S LONG US
17. FL EXO R CAR PI RA D IALIS
18 O PP O NENS POLLICIS
19 . A B D UCTO R PO L LIC IS BREVIS
20 PA LM A R APON EUR OS I S
2 1. FLE XO R PO LLI CI S B REV I S
22 TE N DO N-F L EXO R POL LI C I S LON G US
23. ADDUC TOR POLLlC1 S
2 4. INTE RO SS EUS
25 LU M B RI CALS
2 6 . FINGER PAD S

/
/

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 > .\ l C)\ ' E.\ f E N T (I ) Wh e n the ha n d clo ses, the visua l p atte rn in fo ldi n g a nd
u n fol d ing the fin gc l-s is a s p i ra l i ll~ move men t. The obse rva tio n of th is movem e n t, as well
as th e ord er of closin g a nd o pe n in g, will e nable th e art ist 10 in ven t po sitions o f the h and
th at a re n at u ral a n d accep tabl e . Fin ger p ositio ns an d le ngths of p h ala n ge s lIlay be easily
rela te d in d rawin gs re qui ring d ee p fo resho rt e n in g o f fin ger fo rms. (2) The position of th e
t hu m b, with resp ect to th e o the r fin gers, lies in a upped-over relati onshi p to th e h orizon-
ta l direc tion of th e othe rs. Thus, if the fo u r fin ge rs were p ian o keys on a keybo a rd. th e
th um b wo uld a p pea r to have slip p ed o ff a n d lie a ngled o n its side. The tip ped line of th e
thumb is ge n e rally at a fo rty-five-d egree an gle . In a d ra win g p ro ble m . the p al m lin e sh o uld
he esta blish ed fi rst . T h e thu m b Illay th e n h e added in its a ngle relationsh ip to th e palm .
T he lingers th at foll ow will present no di fficulty. (3) T h e patte rn o f th e knu ckles fro m a
top view 01" th e h an d sh ows a curvi linear mo vem ent: a series o f ellip tical curves m oving
across palm knu ckles and fin ge r kn u ckles, to a HT)' tigh t e llipse cu rve Oil th e finge rtip s.
No tice h ow th e sp read o f fin gers opens the ellipse patte rn to a flatte r pa ra bo lic a rc.

TH E TIP P ED POSIT IO N
O F T HE THU MB .
(II \ I' I I / { \ DETA.I L '; O f" A."A T O .\ I l"

I' O( :,\T S T O RE), H :MBER I N IlRA\\' Il':G (a) To o rient th e eye in d rawin g the fore-
sho rten ed ha nd, the pal m may he seen as a thick, arched wedge of coconut, with the fin-
gers p ushed inro th e thick end like ro ds. Loo king in to one of the finger rods. note h ow the
knuckl es see n o n e nd give th e ap peara nce of a c hain of beads, one ove rlap ping the o ther.
(h) Place your hand befo re you o n a table, with the finge rs slightly spread ,
to uc h ing the surface. Viewin g from the hack of th e h a n d , o bs e rve h ow th e th u mb lies
ac ros s th e sa mc position in d epth with the little finge r, w ith o u t m oving th e pa rts, lift the
hand a n d look u nde r. The middle fin gers angl e clo wn away fro m th e eye. The th u m b a nd
little lin ger a re now virt ua llv erect, a n d of equal !f'llf.ffh.Turn th e h and and stu dy th e po si-
tion, palm up, To draw a view o f th e b ack o f th e hand , with a n unde r palm surface. th e
th u m b a n d lill ie fin ger m u st [irst be rela ted as equal ill length and p osit ion in space. The
ot hers descend fro m these , slo p ing into th e d e pth o f space.
.,...- ---
f/1\1'/IUI Il I,TA. I L'i O F .-\S..-I."I'O. \I \ ·

(c) To p lace th e h an d corrcctlv on the arm, th e h a n d will b e see n to thru st

awaJ fro m th e h o dy. whi le the arm moves unou nl the body. This te n de ncy of thrust is
equivalent to t he stance o f feet pointing away fro m the body lin e. It is simi la r to the
posit io n of toes in animals. Th is id ea is cspcciallv important in dee p foreshort eni ng of
the ha nd and a nn.
(d) In relating ha n d a nd a rm toget her. observe h ow th e in sid e conto u r o r th e
in dex finger passes th ro ugh th e pa lm to th e insidr rtmlollro f the fo rea rm. Th e dew loo k-
in g o n to p of the palm is easy e nough to un d e rstand. H oweve-r; try looking in to th e h and
fro m th e fi nge rtips. To draw this view may be tro ublesome. Rela ting hand and a n n is sim-
pli fied if th e ( o n lour check is used .
(e) An ot h e r check lin e is the littl e fin ger co n to u r lin ing u p wit h th e outer co n-
to u r o r tlu: arm . He re . the u lna r head ill the wr ist is d irectly in line with th e little linger
knu c kle of the pal m . They are equal in line a n d h ei gh t. Th us, th ick ness o f pa lm a n d arm
and pla ccmcut o f the lop bo ne s arc accoun te d fo r in diff icult views.
(f) To place th e th um h in the pa hu . n o tice h ow th e in dex finger an d th um b

li m - co me toget her high up in th e wrist , wh ere th e arm j o in s th e p alm . This an gle rcla-
tio uship shoul d be used whe n eve r th e th um b p rese n ts a place m ent pro b lem in d rawing .
(~ ) Fin g-e rs arc webbed IH'Iow th e knuck les or the p alm , OIl th e u n d e rsu rface or
th e hand. Top su r face form will th us overrid e th e lower webbe d base.
.

f
 TH E LEG

T il E U P P E R l.E<: ;"I AS S ES The upper leg presellls a roun dl y formed ta pe red cylin-
der, so mew hat flat 0 11 th e inn e r leg area, bu t marked ly broad at the u-ochanu-r a n d co m-
p ressed towa rd the kn ee. T he u p pe r leg . fron t view. co nsists of five major m uscle masses
and two m in o r masses. T h e leg . for clarification . o rigin ates high in the pelvi c g ird le at th e
iliac c res t. Thus. the front uppf' r le g masses a re : glute us medius. filling the space bet wee n
the iliac crest a nd the trochauu-r: the powerful side mass below th e tro ch um cr, vastus
cxtcrn us , send ing its tendo n to th e kneecap: rectu s fe mo ris. th e long middle CO IUIll II

de scending vert ically from th e a nteri o r pelvis acr oss the pat ella to th e tib ia : th e vastus
nuc rn us . starti ng' o n th e m id d le in sid e area o r th e leg a n d u n'uing lo we 1". to form a co m-
mon tendon with rectus femoris a n d vastus cxtcrnus: a nd the ad ducto r and pectineus
grou p, high ins id e the leg , 1ll0Ylng into th e pelvis at th e gro in line. The two smalle r mass-
es, tensor fascia an d sa rt o rius, both o rigin ating o n th e high an terior p oint of the pe-lvis.
d ivide right a n d left. Te nsor swings o utside 10 a n att achm en t juvt below the tr oc h a n ter,
wh ile sa rto ri us , th e lo n gest muscle ill the body, win ds down th e inside leg cha n n el besid e
rec tu s a nd vastus inte rn us, a rou n d th e kn ee (0 the insid e uppe r tib ia.

1. REC TUS A B D OM I N I $
2. E XT E RNU S OB LIO U E
3. G LU TEUS M ED IU S
, REC TU S FEM OR I S
5. T EN SO R FAS CIA E LATAE
6 . VA ST U S EX TERNUS
GLU TEUS MAX IM U S
8 PATE L LA
9 GA ST R O CN EM IUS
1 0 SO L E US
11 T I B I A LI S AN TER IOR
12 PERO NEUS LO N GU S
1 3 LAT E RA L MA L L EO LU S
14 MED IA L MA L L EOL US
Gi----~
15 SO LEUS
1 6 GA ST RO CN EMI U S
17. SAR TO RIUS
1 8 MED IAL CO N D YL E-F E M UR
19 MEDI AL CONDY L E- TIB I A
20 TIBIAL TU B E R O SIT Y
21 I LI AC C REST
2 2 . I LI O P SOA S
23 . P ECTINEU S
24. A D DU CTOR LO NG US
25 VA STUS IN T E RNU $
26 L ATER AL CO N D YLE -FE M UR
27 L AT ER AL C ON DYLE - T IB IA
T HE OUTE R L EG M AS SE S
P RESE NT MA R K E DLY
CO MP R ESS ED
OR TA PER ED FO RMS
fl/\I'IIU\ ll E T AI L <; OF A":.-t'IDM\·
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»<;
4 . --

1. SACROSPI NALI S
"~,;' -~-7----
2 EXTER N US OB LI OUE
3 GL UT EUS MED IU S
4 SACRUM
5 GL UTEUS MAXI MUS
6 B ICEPS FBIOR I S
7. RECTUS FEMOR IS
8 . VASTUS EX TERNU S
9 FIBULA H EA D ':'\
0i--~---
10 . GAST ROC N EMIU S
1 1. TE N DO N ACH IL L ES
17 . EX TE N SOR DIG lfOR UM BREV IS
13. L ATE R AL MA LLEOLUS
9 )-~~----~-.1
" PERONE US LO NG U S
Hi. SOLE US
16 . TI B IA LI S ANT FR IOR
17 LAT E RA L CO NDYLE -TIBI A
18 TIB IA L TUB EROSI TY
19 PAT E LLA
20 LA TERAL CON DY LE- FE MU R
21 M En i A L MA LL EOL US
22 CALC A NEU M @f-- - ---tI ,
ea SE RR ATUS AN TERI OR
24 LATI S SIM US DO RS I
25 ILI AC C REST
2 0 GREAT TROCH A NTER
27 . T ENSOR FASCIA E L ATAE
28. ADD U CTO R LON G US

" SARTOR IUS

30. GRAC ILIS
3 ' . SE M IMEMBRA NOSUS
32. SE M ITEND I NOSUS
1. GL UTE US M ED IUS
33 . VAST US IN f ER N US
2. SAC RUM
34 . TI BI A " I - ----'-
~
3. GREAT TR O CHA NTE R <::»
~
4. TE NSO R FASC I AE L ATAE ~ ;-----
5. G LU TEUS M A X IMUS
6. VAS TUS EXT ER N US
7. BI CEPS F E MO RIS
8. SE MIT ENDINO SU S
9. SEMI M EM B RAN OSU S
10. GRA CILIS
11. POPLI TEAL FOSSA
12. FIBULA H EA D 17 )----------::"'=~
13. GASTROCNE M IUS
14. SOL E U S
15 . TE N DO N ACH ILL ES
16. PERONEUS LON G US
17, LATER AL MALLEOLUS
18. CA LCAN EU M
19. B U RSA

I q jl]
 In rea r vie w, the leg co nsists of five large m asses: the two pel vic m asses, glu teus
medius and m a ximus, d escri b ed ea rlie r as th e b uuerflv fo rm s lo cked in th e hip and 100\'e r
sp ine; the middle com p le x o f h a mstri ng m usc les, th e o ut er b iceps fe moris, m oving fro m
und e r the bu ttock d own to th e fib u la h ead of th e o utside lowe r leg , an d the in n e r h am-
string g ro u p . se m ite nd in os us , sc m irne m b ra uosus , a n d graci lis, d escend in g to th e insid e
tib ia bel ow th e knee; then vast us in te r-nus. appeari ng sligh tly at the lowe r insid e leg b eh in d
the hams trin g ten d ons; a nd fina lly, vasue, cxte ru us. n o w scc n partiall y at th e bro ad o u ter
co n to u r o f the ba ck leg.
T H E H I G H -L OW
B UTT OCK LIN E OF
T H E SUPPO RTI N G
L EG A N D THE
RELAXED LEG.

, I
 TH E GRE AT
TROC H A NTE R
PRO TRUS IO N A LWAY S
LI ES IN T H E S ID E
PL AN E O F TH E LE G_
 I @
0
C0
@ 1. GLU TE US MEDI U S
2 . GR EAT TROC HANT ER
3 . T E NS OR FAS CIAE l ATAE

" VA STU S EXT E RNU5

5 . B IC E PS FE MO RIS
6 . POPLITEA L FO SSA
7. PA T E L L A
8 . G ASTROCNEM I US
9. TE N DON AC H I LL ES
' 0 . B U RSA
, 1. CALCANEU M
' 2. SOLEUS
' 3 . LA TERAL MA LLE OL U S
14 . EX TENSO R D I GIT O RUM BREV IS
15 . PERONE U S LONGUS
1 6 . E X TER N U $ OBLIQUE

- ----T- - - @ 17. ILIAC C RES T

18. SACR UM
5 }--~--~-
19. G LU T E US MAXI MU S
2 0 . S EM I MEMB R A N OSU S
21 SEM IT EN DI NO SU S
2 2 . G RA CI LI S
23 F I B U L A H EAD

-~-0

- -8

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1. L AT ER A L CONDY LE - FEM UR 12. VAS TUS EXT E RNU S 23 TEN SO R FASC IAE L ATAE
2 . TENO ON-VAST US EXT ER N US 1 3 . G AS TROC N E MI US 2 4 PER ON E US LO NG US
3. TE N DO N - RE CT U S F E MORI S 1 4 . LA T ERA L CON DYL E- TIB I A 25 G LUT E US MED IU S
4. VASTU S INTERNUS 1 5 PAT EL L A R FAT 26 TIBI A LI S AN TE RI OR
5 , PATE L L A 16. M EDI A L CO N DYLE - T IBIA 27. G REAT T ROC H A NT E R
6 FIB ULA HEAD 17. A DDUC TOR LONGU S 23 B IC EP S F EMO RI S
7. M E D IA L CO NDY LE - FE MUR 18 . GR AC ILI S 29 . GL UT EUS M A X IM US
S. MED IA L A N D L ATE RA L COND YLES- TIB IA 19. SOLEUS 30 EX TE N SOR DI G ITO RUM
9. TI B I A L TUB EROSI TY 2 0 M EDI AL MA L L EO LU S 3 1. LA T ERA L M AL L EOLU S
10 . SAR TOR IUS E XTERN US OB LIO UE 32 EX TE NSOR DI G ITO RUM B REV I S
1 1. REC TU S F E MOR I S
"
22 B I CE PS F E MOR I S
 TilE I.O W ER I. H~ ' I:\ S S l'~ S The ta pe red m ass o f th e lo we r k g: ge ne ra lly h as a club-
like a p p ea ra nce, bu lged a n d wide a t th e calf a n d qu ickly compressed towa rd th e a n kle .
T h e fro n tal a rea is rat h e !" flat com p ared to the g rea t bulge or th e rea r a rea .
T h e lowe r leg , Irout view, co ns ists of six long muscle for ms: in sid e th e tibia, or
sh in bo n e, th e so le us m uscle a p pea rs h ricflv a n d m oves d ownward behind the inner a n kle
bone in to the he el ; to the ha ck o f the so leus, the in n e r gas trocne m ius . or ca lf m uscle ,
bu lges fro m th e mid-leg a n d p asses u pward to the femur condyle be h in d th e kn ee ; th e
lo n g ce n tra l muscle , tib ialis a n te rio r, sta rts at the hi gh ou te r co n dyle of th e tib ia a nd drops
to wa rd the an kle to th e in step of th e foot; at th e sid e edge o r tibialis, p eron e u s m oves d own
th e leg and pas ses behind th e outer a n kle hone ill to th e base of th e foot; however; be tween

TH E LOW ER L EG
CURV ES D EC IS IV ELY
INWARD ON TH E
TI B IA B ON E LI NE"
(F-I \1'11 N. \ IHTAll.S 01-' A X "\ 'j 'O .\ 1\

tibi alis an d pe ro n e us, a slo t opens on th e mi d d le leg, an d the la rge exte nsor g ro up wide ns
to se n d its ten d ons ove r th e arc h of the foot to th e toes; now so le us reap pears sligh tly out-
side peron eus; las t, the o ute r gas troc nem ius thrusts o u t fro m the mid-leg and ris es high
behind the k n e e to th e o u te r co nd yle of the fem ur.
In re ar view th e lo wer le g pre sen ts five m asse s, th re e la rge an d two smaller ones.
The large masses arc the two great heads of th e call" m uscles. di vided cen tra lly a n d locked
into the co ndyles of the fem u r hase; they d escend to th e m idpoint of th e lowe r le g, whe re
th ey join th eir co m m on ten d o n, the ach ille s, a mass by itself th at dro ps to the bursa o f th e
cnlca uc-utn , or hee l bone. The two smalle r 11l<lSSeS a re th e sole us m uscle , inli er a nd o uter,
eme rgin g [rom th e sides of the calf muscle s and p assin g in sid e th e ten don to the heel.

l-

i I
I

-
3 /
OL" ."\.\II(; .-\x .-\ "nn , , "

A special note must he mad e of th e hollow area behind the kne e, th e popliteal
fossa , whe re th e hamstring tendons wide n to permi t th e calf tendons to attac h to th e
femu r. This fossa is so m ewha t d ep ressed even when covered by m uscle and m emb ranous
tissue . The quadrila teral ho llow permit" the le g to bend in d ee p squatting positio ns.
( 'ILt/'lI.U \ D ETAII.S O F ASA r-ovn-

IN T H E STA NC E OF
T H E F E ET, T HE FOO T
LI N E PO I NTS OUTWAR D
F RO M T HE L EG LIN E.
 orx..\.", c: .-\ X. \ H J," ~·

Til E K:\ t:E .-\ S Il A NKLt: (a) T h e bone fonn .uion of the knee consists of seYCI1

p rom inences: six symmetric al p ro tru sions a nd OI W onset pro trusio n. T h e la rg e p romi-
u c uces o f the fe m u r base a n d th e tihia h e ad fo rm the la rg-e bo x o f th e knee with their
condyles set out at th e to u r co r n ers. In th e ce n te r o f th e g- roup o f fou r, th e pa te lla , o r
kn eecap , th rus ts fo rwa rd , Belo w the bo x. in th e tib ia. a sma lle r projection rises. th e tihial
tubcrositv, Th us. a system of six ho ne form s appears, in a double triangular pattern . one
un d er the ot her, To the lower outside posi tion of the tibia. the seve n th pt'ojc-ctio rt, the
fib ula h ead. develops in line with th e tibi al tul x-ro sitv
(b) T h e ankle is a locked str uctu re o r the lo we r tibia a n d fib ula an d p rescilts the
appea rance or a la rge wre n ch . The a nkle is till' powe rful gripp ing h ead tha t h o ld s the foot
sec ure. The g reat b ony p ro jections are the inner ma lleo lus of th e tib ia and the o u ter
ma lleo lus of the fibula . T he inne r ankl e lit.'s highe-r than the o ut e r, thus presenting
a fiftee n-degree d ro p from th e in sid e bone to the outside bom-. The rela ti o nship
" ("(1('1" c ha nges.

\,

l:w o l
THE ANK LE AS
A WRENCH GR IPS
AND LOC KS THE
ARCH OF lHE FOO T,
lHlJ'I/U\ DF TAlI,S O F ASATOMY

M E A S URL\l E :\ T S T h e upper leg , fro m tro chanter to knee cap, is two h eads in
length. T he lower leg, from kneecap to foot, is also two h eads in length . The heigh t of the
foot fro m the insi d e a n kle bone is one-fourth of a h ead in length. Thus, in all, the en tire
leg is fo ur a n d o ne-q ua rte r h eads long. The insid e con to ur of the u pper leg mass d ivides
at th e mi d poin t where the ad d u ctor m ee ts the sarto rius and vas tus in te rnus. The in side
co ntour of the lower leg also divides at th e m id-p o sitio n , se parat ing the calf bulge fro m the
sule us muscle. T he buttock e nters the fem ur in th e rear upper leg o ne-half a h ead b elow
the tro ch anter a n d coccyx line.
 !'O I :'\"TS TO RE:\tE:'\ IRER 1:-: DR :\\\" I X G (a) The visual sha pe of the e n tire fro nt vie w
o f th e le g lo oks lik e a n el ongat e d . ta pered B. T h e fla t lin e o f th e B lie s o n th e insid e leg as
a cont rol lin e fo r th e co n to u rs o r fo rm s th a t to uc h it. They p ush to wa rd it a n d re ced e , ye t
a lmost never override th e lin e , even in dee p, fo resh ortened views o f the fron t o r ha ck leg .
T h e o uter B id e n tifies th e ta pered co m p n -ssio n v to the knee a n d a n kle o n th e conto ur lin e .
(h) T he visual shape of th e leg see n ill sid e vie w is a n elongated S lin e . T h e u p per
cu rve id e n tifie s th e rec tus , or th igh bulge . to th e Fron t. while th e lo we r curve id entifies the
pouch o f the calf m uscle to th e rear. In d rawin g th e leg in sid e vie-w, layin g ill th e visua l S
first will p rod uce a q uick. natural resu lt.
(e) The m a jo r bo ne of the lo we r leg is the tib ia . It co nd itio ns th e di recti o n o f th e
e n tire- lo we r m ass , In Fron t view, it a lways appea rs to c urve inward to th e bod y line fro m th e
kn ee to th e a n kle . To stra ig h te n th is lin e wo uld m a ke th e leg lo o k like a pi e ce o f pipe ,
u nn a tural and gro tesq ue.
(d ) Study a ll th e m uscle m a sse s o f th e o u tside leg co nto u r with re s pect lO th e
masse s of th e in side le g co n tou r. T h e o ut sid e m usse s are hi g h e r across a co r re sp o nd ing
g ro up o f th e ins ide con to ur; Th e lin e of rel a tionship d rops fro m th e h ig h o ut sid e fo rm s to
th e lowe r in side fo rm s alo ng the e n tire le ng th of th e leg. O bse rve the po sition of the ca lf
m asses o uts id e a nd ins ide. See th e po siti ons o f vastus exter n us a n d iutcrnn s. T h ey fol lo w
t he paltern of a n gled descent. as do all th e othe rs, T hi s pa ll l' l'lI co nriuuc s un til th e a nkle
is re ached, a n d lu-re th e a ngle re la tionshi p is reversed o n the ho n e s. Th e dra win g m us t
sh ow these in tc rrc la tious hlps no matte r how we ll the a na to m y is d efined.
(e) A g reat how, like tha i of all a rcher, a p pears as a visua l patt ern of rnovcrnc m down
th e enti re fron t o f th e k g. It ca ll be se en to sta n at th e h ip fron t. m o ve a long th e sa rt o ria l
chan nel. swing a rou nd th e ins ide o f the kn e e , a nd cline o n the tib ia ch a n n el to the an kle .
T hi s lin e "ill he lp form th e majo r in sid e con to u r of th e leg, am i will a id in m uscl e place m e nt.

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TH E BOW LIN E T H E TR OC H ANTE R- AN K L E
OF T HE L EG, TH E SARTOR IUS- V ERTIC AL RE LAT I ON SH IP
T IB IA C HAN NE L. IN TH E DE E P SQ UATT ING
POSIT IO N OF TH E LEG
r /1.\/ ' t t.u \ Df:T.HLS O F .4-'vA H),'Il'

(f) Wh e n the leg bends to a d eep sq uatt ing po sition , the tr oc han ter and o u ter
an klebo ne lie o ne u nder th e o ther. T he h eel is p ressed aga inst th e bu tto ck, and the base-
lin e o f th e foot ca n he seen to cu rve o n to th e cu rve of th e butto ck line . In deep views of
th e leg in this position , th ese checkpoints will esta blish co rrec t placemen t of the len gth s of
th e leg. Now, o bserve ca re fully: As the leg o pens , fir st sligh tly, the n wider, th e eq ua l len gth s
o f upper a nd lowe r leg fo rm a se ries of isosceles triangles-tha t is, equal-sided
triangles-wh en the trochan ter a nd an klebones are co nnected with a lin e. T his device will
establish correctly the le ngths of the leg in any pos ition in drawing. The d evice ca n be
used for the arm as well.

T H E I SOSC EL ES
T RIA N G U L ATI ON OF TH E
L EGS IN MOVE M ENT

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1 E XTERN US OB LIOUE
, I LIA C CR ES T
1 4 L ATE RA L MA LL EO LU S
1 5 . E XTE N SO R DI G ITO RU M B R EV I S
3 G LUT E U S M E DI U S
, GL U TE US MAXI MlJS
te ME D I A L MAL LEOL US
17 E XTE N SO R D IGITOR UM
5 G REAT T R OCH ANT E R 1 8 . T I B IA LI S A NTER IOR
6 . RE CT U S F E MO RIS 19 . TIB IA L TUB E ROS ITY
7. TENSOR FA SC IAE L ATAE 2 0 . i LI OTI B IA L BAND
8 VA STU S E XTE RN U S v1 r AT EL L A
9 FIB UL A HE A D 22 VAS TUS I N TE RN U S
1 8 GA STRO CN EM IUS ?:-J 8 1e EPS F EM O RIS
11 SOLE U S 24 BU R SA
12 PER ON EU S LO N GU S an. CA LCANE U M
13 TEN D O N AC H! L LE S
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EX TERN US OBLIQU E 14 EX T EN SOR D IGI TORU M BREVI S

2 . ILIAC CREST 15 B U RSA
3. G LU TE US ME DI US 16. CALCANE UM
4. SACR UM 17. PO PLI TEAL FOS SA
5 . G L UTE US MA X I M U S t a. S E M IT ENDINOSUS
6. VA $ T U$ E XTE RN U S 19 . SE M IME MBR A N O S U S
7. BIC EP S F E MO RIS 20. GR AC I LI S
B. FIB U L A HEAD 21 . ADDUC TOR LONGUS
9 GA ST ROCNE MI US 22. PAT E LLA
10 . SOL EUS 23. VASTUS I NTE RN US
11 . P E RON EUS LONGUS 2 4 . ME DIA L CONDYL E- FE M U R
1 2 TE N D ON ACH I LL ES 2 5 . TIBI A LI S ANTE RIOR
13 . LA T ERAL MAL LEO LUS 26 . M E D IA L MAL LEOLUS
 THE FOOT

T HE " lASSES OF T ilE rOOT There are three major masses in the foot: the h eel plat-
form; the a rch; an d the front platform . the sole. whic h is divided in h alf to fo rm the fro n t
an d m id d le soles of the foot. T he 11(.'('1 and middle so le provide a pedesta l base for the col-
um n of th e figu re, while the: a rc h acts as a spring device to absorb pressu re shock 10 the body.
The fron t so le of the roe s a cts as a grippi ng and pus h ing d evice in walking a nd run n ing.
T he to p of th e foot is qu ill' hard and bony. wit h the arch d istin ctly extruded fro m
the hase. The outer fo r m 0 11 th e so le o f th e foot con tacts th e grou n d su rface a lo ng th e
e nt ire le ngth fro m h eel 10 roes. T h e inner foo t touch es th e surface mainl y at th e toe
a n d h eel , wit h th e in step a rc h o ff the gro u n d. Thu s. with th e fe et to ge th e r, a n ell ip tica l
p ediment is fo rmed , wit h a 110110\\' ce n ter a rea to su p p o rt the bo d y co lu m n.
The sole o f th e fo ot . pad d ed and cus h io n ed, co nsists o f {( HI I' ge ne ra lize d m asses:
th e calc aneum , o r h eel ; th e o ut er rid ge of pad de d mus cle . th e abdu cto rs. from heel to the
littl e toe ; th e large, cu sh io ned m ass o f lumh rical s a n d sh o rt fle xors grou pe d be hi nd th e
fo u r to es; a nd the large, padde d bulge behind th e hall u x , o r big to e. T h e in ste p is h igh
and cushioned, and under its surfa ce, the lo n g abd uctor gro up spans the length of the
fo ot from th e h ig toe to th e h eel.
 ( II \/'/ J N \ D J-:T .H/..<; OF :\ X:\ / Cl ,\1 \'

CARV ING TH E ARCH AN D

IN STE P ES TABLISHES
THE V ERTI CA L AND HORIZONTA L
P LA NES OF TH E FOO T

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111' .'\' ,-\.\11(: .-\ S .-\ T O ,\I \ '

The locked a rc h ill th e wre nc h o f th e a n kle consists of the ta rsa l hones. Th e maj or
hone h e re is the ta lus. a sad d le of bone protruding fro m the wre nc h . wh ich sta rt'; th e arch
over wh ich th e ramp of ex te n so r ten don s d escend to the toes.
A small muscle m ass lo ca ted o n th e o u te r side o f the arc h. j ust in fro nt of th e a n kle -
h O Il C , m ay be obse rved , This is the sma ll ex te nsor muscle gro u p. virtuall y the o n ly muscle
mass visible 01 1 the to p of (he foot.

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TEN D ON AC H ILLES
2 . PER O N E U S BR E VIS
3 P ERO N EUS LON G U S
4. F IB U L A BON E
5 . TR A NSVERSE LlGAMENT
6 BURS A
7. LAT E RA L MA LL EO LU S
8. CA LCAN EUM
9 EXT E NSOR D I GIT O R UM B REVIS
10 . A B DU CTO R D IGI TI QU I NT I
11 . TEN DON - P ERON EUS TERTIU S
1? f iF TH METATARSA L
13. ABDUCTOR DIG IT I O UIN T I
14 . SOL E PAD
1 5 . TO E PADS
1 6 . PERONEUS TE RTI U S
17 . TA LUS TA R SAL BON E
1 8. CRUC IATE LI GAM E NT
19 TE N D ON - TI B IA LI S A NT E RI OR
20. TEN D ON S - E XT EN SO R D I G IT O R U M
21 . TENDONS - EXT E NSO R D I GI TOR U M BREV IS
22. INTEROSS EUS
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1. TI B IA B ON E 14. FL EXOR H A L LU CI S LO NG US

2. TR AN SVE RSE LI G AM E NT 15. SOL EUS

3 . TA LU S TAR SA L BON E 16. TENDON ACHi l L ES

4. N AVI C U L A R TA RSA L BON E 17. ME D IA L MAL L EOLU S

5. EXTE N SOR H AL LU C I S BR EV IS 18 . B U RSA

6. TEN DO N- TIB IAL I S A NT ER IO R 19 LAC IN IATE LI G A M EN T

7. C U N EIF ORM TA RSA L BON E (I) 20. CALC AN EU M

8. I NTEROSSEUS 2 1. AB DUCT OR H ALLU CIS

9 . TE ND ON S- EXT EN SO R QI G ITO RUM 22. SO LE PAD

10. P ROXI MAL PH A L AN X (I ) 23. INT EROSSEU S

11. ME D IA N PH ALAN X (II) 2 4. FIRST METATA RSAL

12 T E R M I N AL P H A L A N X (I I I) 25. TOE PA D
13 FL E XO R DIG lTOR UM LONG US
 ~H:ASU R t: M EN TS T h e le ng th o f th e fo ot is th e le ng th o f th e [ormrm, In a n o the r
con text, it is o ne a n d o n e-third he ads in leng th . T h e wid th of th e fo o t, fro m th e big toe to
the litt le to e , is h alf a h ead .
Th e length of the foot divides into four eq ua l sections: (a) the h eel , from back to
fron t; (b) th e instep; (c) th e ball of th e big toe; (d ) th e big toe (bo th p h alanges),
Th e a n kle join s th e foo t a t a ve rt ica l po in t oyer th e fro n t o f th e h eel. It s h eigh t
a t the in ne r a n kle bo ne is eq ua l to t he lengt h o f th e h eel , o r one-fourth th e le ngt h o f th e
fo o l. T he smalle st to e , Oil th e ou tside of thc foo t, eu ds a t th e lin e d rawn acro ss the beg in -
ning of the big toe.
(/I \1'1 I ~ \ DE T .HL'> OF A.\;..\ T o ur

THE H EE L POSIT I ON
B EG INS ON A
LI NE D IREC TLY B ELOW
THE ANK LEBONE

.-
 POI XT S T O R E :'\ I E ~ I R E R I :\' Il R AW I N( ; (a) The stu ncr uf the ji'i't a lmost inva ria bly
points off the ce n ter body line. As the legs th rus t in ward to the center, the foot reverses th e
d ir ection a nd points o u twa rd . ' ''ith the heels toge ther, th e toes point om to form a fi fty-
degre e a ngle; a t the extreme po sition , th ey may fo rm a nine ty-degre e a ngle.
(b) In drawing the fool. remem ber to ranw the arch and the ill .~ti'/) inun cdi atc lv. This
will lo ca te majo r fo rms of th e foo t for la te r refinemen t.
(c) T h e top of th e foot fo rms a lo n g ski slo p e fr om a rc h to toes. Plan .' th is lin e first
to defi n e th e rhyth m m o vem ent o f th e to p su r face .
(d) To d efi ne the b o t to m surface eas ily, lay ill a sim p le [ootprint first. Refin e m ent
a n d d evelo p me nt o f fo rms will fol low qu ick ly.
(e) The h eel bone h as a b road kno b above it . This is th e b ursa , wh ic h crea tes th e

du al form o f the h eel Co n to u r.

(0 T h e sm all toes o f th e foo t have a di ffere nt rh ythm move me nt from the b ig toe .
The big toe te nds to swing lip ill all upth rust movem e nt, wh ile th e smalle r to es tend to press
and grip th e gro u nd su rface. No te th e middle sectio ns of the sm all to t's. The dropped ,
almos t vertical plan e h ere cont rasts sha rp ly with the up ward move me nt of' th e h ig toe .
(g) The fo ot is m uch like a ha n d ; it is m od ifie d to give su pp o rt to the body, as th e
h and is modified to act as a to o l. T he ba sic forms, howeve r, are q u ite sim ila r. a n d th e iden -
tities of o ne sh o uld h elp the u n d ersta n d in g o f th e o ther.
(1I\1'lJ~\ I H :TAI I ....· OF A X A H H t l '

THE STANCE OF
FEET , FRONT
AND REAR VIEWS
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TH E UPWARD
THRUST OF TH E
B IG TOE. AND
THE DROP PED
M ID D LE SECTI ONS
OF TH E SMALL TO ES.

.
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 • THE FIGURE IN
DEPTH OF SPACE
N INE PR I NC I P LES O F
FOR ES HO RT EN IN G
" 111 1 "'I llB~ER\- .nI{)'''' 011 the figu r e in fo re short en ing , it m us t he n o te d a t
the o u tse t th at th e p ri n cip le s se t d o wn h e re a re n o t m ean t to he see n as r igid formnl ario ns.
no r arc the)' m ea n t to be u se d in a n in flexi b le m an n e r. They a rc to b e in te r p rete d as
b ro adl y as possible with in th e co ntext o f a given style o r co nve n tio n of d rawing. Th ey may
be e n la rged U pOIl . m odified . o r d isca rd ed as th e a rt ist d esires. Their reason fo r in clusion
h e re is a nalytica l a nd descript ive o n ly. The y a rc a id s to ward d evel o p .i n q a n understandin g
o f fo rm a n d to reinforce th e artist 's comman d o f the d epth of space in the p ictu re .
Art ists throughout history have sought \\'ay~ to ma ke the flat working surface
intrude a n d extrude , adva n ce and re cede. The illusionistic princip les of light ann shade to
p roduce fonn , lin ea r visual perspec tive. a nd figure foreshortening have been great discover-
ics toward the so lut ions of de p th on the two-d imensio nal su rface. The human apparatus o f
vi sio n . the cye, ca n not see depth. The th ird d im ension is a pe rception factor of ex perie nce
j udgm en t. d evel ope d th rough physica l CO Il ta ct a n d b od y movement in th e obj ective wo rld of
re ali ty. If we co u ld see d e pth as a th re e-d im e ns io na l re al ity, it would be possib le to view the
to p , bo tt om, side, an d back of a n objec t simultaneously. as a ha n d e xp e rie nces d epth whe n it
h olds a b all in its g ras p_ If th e eye co uld do this. n o pho tograp h , ord in ary o r ste re osco p ic, no
d rawing , h owever well m odeled, co u ld m ake us be lieve th e ex iste nce of fla t sur face ( )fm-
as the hand does no t beli eve it whe n it rea ch es o ut to to uc h p hotogra p h ic fo r m . Th us, in
d ra win g the figure, the artist who desires a translation of a dept h id ea, whether he leans to
th e trad itio na l or modern, from da Vin ci to Picasso . should equip himself with tried a nd fun-
dame ntal dis ciplines of depth illusion before he seeks to exaggerate, d isto rt . or inve n t new
pe rceptio n s of the real. T h e n ine pri n cipl es are offered in this ligh t: to e n hance clarity of
o bservation in the artistic p erce pt io n of d epth toward m a king va lid judgmcue, of form .
J)' ·,' ; .-I. .\ll (; .-is .-\ ·' (J ,\ ' r

PRINCIPLE 1

O \' E R I. A P PI :\ C S HA P ES TO A C H IE\' E lU~ C F. S S IO X :\ 1\' 1) A D "A N C E :\IE NT or

F O R i\ 1 Fo rms will a ppea r to adva n ce o r reced e in spac e rega rd less of size o r sh ape if th e
con tou r of on e fo rm is cle a rly inte rcepted o r overlapped hy an o the r. Experie nc e a n d a co m-
m o nse n se unde rstand in g o f n ea r an d far re lat ions h ips will prod uce th e illu sio n of spatial
p ositio n . However; o bse rve th at wh en conto urs o f forms arc ta nge nt, i.e ., wh en their o ut-
lines are not ove rla p ped b u t rne re lv co n tin ue th e co n to ur line . th e result will be a con fusi o n
of th e d e p th of sp ace . Xc ith e r fo rm . th e Iro m o r rear, will a p p ea r to adva nce or reced e .
(H\/'//I< \ / -," ISF /'I</ -,"C1I' U ';'" OF FO R F .' >'HOR T F. \ ' l -" G

PRINCIPLE 2

CYLl :\ DRIC:\L FOR :\IS B 1-:CO", I1-: C I R CU L A R 1:\ F O RESHORT E N I NG In the fore-
shorten ing of" ge nerall y cylind rical b od y fo rms, th e widt h of a for m will remai n Oil/sla nt
as its length shortens in dep th. T he refore , as a leg o r a n n is seen O Il end o r ill deep space,
the e ffec-t p roduced is a circu la r sh a p e aro und t h e wid th o f the fo r m as t h e cylinder
le ngth di sapp e a rs.
122 6 }
(1/ \I 'III~ ' -I

PRINCIPLE 3

P O SITIO N I N G- TH l': J OI NT S A T DET ER MI N ED LE NGTII S B EF O RE FI LLI N G I N

T H E F OR_M S BE T WE E N TH E l\l To achieve ex tr e me views of d epth in b o d y fo r m s su ch as

le gs a n d ar m s movin g d ire ctl y in or o ut of th e fl at s urfa ce , th e po sition s of th e join ts- h ip,
kn ee , an kle , sh o ulder, el b ow, wris t-sh o u ld be se t down first a t th e re qu ired length s. T he
forms m ay th e n b e fille d in b etwe en th e j o ints with o u t di sto rtin g th e view or stretch ing o ut
the given form b eyo n d its n ormal a p p ea ra nce in th e d rawing .

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PRINCIPLE 4

SII .\ RI' C O'\ I I' RES S I O;-'; OF TA l'E R E ll FOR ~ t s TO " C H IE n ·: ll E E P F O R l-;S II O RT-

E:--: IN {~ \\11e n forms a rc seen 011 end in d eep space. th e ('h all ge in contour from o n e fo rm
to a n o th e r will h e sudden a nd abrup t. T h e effect produced will he a hallo oning ont of large
form a nd q u ick ta pe rin g or \H'dgi nR towa rd small fo rm . T he o utline, moving with a sha rp
co m p ress io n o f fo rm ove r the sh o rt e n e d le ngth . will p ro du ce the illu sio n o f g rea t d e p th .

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 PR INCIPLE 5

US IXG A RB ITRAR Y "A LU ES OX RECE D I:\"G PLA ~£S Fo rm s that a re shaded

tend to produce a recession in depth of p lane. \\llen forms move away from the eye , shade
or value on the re ce di n g a rea will hei ghte n t he effect o f d ep th . On roundcd
su rfaces , barreling o r turn in g the stro ke e n ha nc es th e a rt ist's abi lity 10 project the sp he ri-
cal co m p ressio n of tape red forms.

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I
 PRIN CIPLE 6

US ING PER S PECT IV E E L LI PS ES rx FO R E S H O RT E X I N G . 'nT H A JO IST AS A

PI V O T To m a in tain a proportionate length of a membe r, whatever its position in d epth , a

perspect ive circle o r el lipse may be set up using the j o in t ~L~ a pivot. o r ce nte r of movemen t,
Thus, in an arm , fro m wh ichever vi ewing position th e ellipse is see n, th e m easure men ts may
be take n from th e sh ou lde r- the pivot- to th e m id way po in t, th e elbow, a n d the nce to th e
ou ter rim of th e circle , the h a n d posi tion. In thi s se nse th e a rm le ng th is a radius of a circle,
howeve r the circle may ap pear to be seen in a depth of space. The arm len gth , when placed
at all)' position o f a radi us in the perspective circle , i.e. , the len gth fro m sho ulde r to hand ,
wi ll ac hieve a va riety o r po siti on s. The se ries as a whole will p roduce a windmilling effe ct.
This princ iple may be ap plied to a leg, thoug h with lim ited results.

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 PRINCIPLE 7

I' IH)J EC TDi (; 'rm: s t m: \ ' I EW O F T il E I' H a lia : 1'0 "C H I E\' i'; TUE FORi':-

S I IOR'J' E;\; I,:n F H ; URE \"h e n th e proble m or visualizin g th e fi g u re in dee p spac e ca nnot

he re so lved. a side view. o r easily un d e rstood p rofi le o f h ead or hody. sho uld he drawn in
fir st. T ip p in g the fig u re fo rward o r ba ckward will p roduce a view from above o r brhnr.
respccnvelv Once th e side view ke y d ra win g' h as been deve lope d . pn~l'et i on line s draw n
horizo ntall y ou t to a drawin g a lo ngside th e first will gin' th e key po sit io n s o f importan t
pa n s o f th e hody ill {'sad'." the sa me p ositi ons i ll th e d e pth of space . Filling in fo rm d e ta ils
a fte rward ' rill present no proble m on ce the prupm-uouan- posit ions a re foun d .

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PRINCIPLE 8

T R AC K I:\G PER SP E C TIYE T O H O LD CO R R ECT PR O P O RT IO ="S 1:\ DE EP \'I to:W S

OF T HE F IGURE Wh en the figu re has been sketched in as a visual comprehensive, body

forms may th en be blocke d in simple su rfaces using a system of pa rallel pe rspective lin es
to ho ld the po sitions o f plan es co rrectly. If the fig u re is seen from a he igh t, wh ether sta nd-
in g or moving, th e place m ent o f the feet as th ey walk or a rms as they move may be rel ated
to the grou nd plan e without difficulty wh en the perspective system is applied to track thc
members as seen in de pth . An entire gro u nd plane with o bj ec ts may be added fro m thc
o rigi nal perspective o f the figu re . Th us, the figure d rawn in first will lend it" pe rspect ive to
an e n tire pi cto rial d evelopment in co rrect rel ationsh ip throughou t.
1)\' S .\ .\ll (; ,\.' ·. \ -'-0.\1 \ ·

PRINCIPLE 9

I :'\T ERL \ C I ~( ; -rm: JOI ;.!T TO 'rr t i : i\ I )\',\ :'\ C I :\ ( ~ :-' IL\ I B F I~ \\' h e n p art s o f th e
b odv be nd (li nge rs , a rms. le gs), two fo rms arc p rese n ted 1I100' i ll g in oppos ite directions:
the (uh!({!n iJl/.f mem ber and th e H'O'dillf!: me m b e r. The j o int in be tween-an elbow. knee.
o r knu ckle-c-m ust he placed o r d rawn in terlaced upon the ({dl'(1I1 ri ng mem be r. Viohuiou
o f th e p remise usual ly resu lts in a comple te conf usion of movement. a n d the di recti o n o f
the member will appear to mow' i ll reve rse.

l ~q o l
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1 STER NO M ASTOID
:2 TR A P EZ IU S 14 )--- -1
3 DELTOID
4 EXTE NSOR CARPI U LNAR IS
5 EX TE N SOR DIGlTOR UM ---'2~
6. EXT E NSOR CARPI R A DI A LI S B REV IS
7. FL E XO R CARPI UL NAR IS
8 . EX TE NSOR CAR PI RADIALIS LON GUS
9 . BRACH IORADIALIS
10 . TRI C EP S ~.----,~ "
1 1. GL UTEU S MED IUS
12 . GLUTE US MA XIM US 2 9. G L UTEUS ME DI US
13 . GR EAT TROC HA NTER 30. EXTER N US OB LI O U E
14 . TE N SOR FASCIA E LATAE
3 1. SACR OS PINA L IS
15 . B IC E PS FE MO RI S 32. LATISS IM US DO RSI
<3 '! §
16 . VA STU S EXTERN US
3 3 TER ES MA J OR
17. FI BUL A H EA D 3 4 . PALMARI S LON G U S
18 . PERONE US LON GUS 35 . FLEXOR CA R PI U L NAR I S
19 SO L EU S
36 EXTENSO R CARPI U LN A RI S
2 0 . LATERA L MA LLEO LUS 37. A NCONE US t;9' §
2 1. EXTENSOR D IG ITORUM B RE V IS 3. OL EC RANO N
22 . CALCA NEUM
39 . BRACHIA LIS
23. TEN DON ACH ILLES 4 0 . B ICEPS
24. GAS TROCNE M IUS st T RICEPS
25 . SE M IMEMBRANOS US
26, SE M ITE ND INOSUS
4 2 . D ELTO ID
43. T ER ES M IN OR
@-+ ,...r~
27 . BICEPS F E MORI S
28. G L UTEU S MAX IM U S
44 IN FRASP INATUS
45 TRA PEZ IU S
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1. P ECTORALI S MAJ OR
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3. BI CEPS
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4. BRAC H IA LI $
5. BRA CH I QR AD IALI S
- +-- -{ 26
6 . EX T E NSOR CA RP I RA DI A LI S LO NGUS
7. EXT E N SOR CARPI R A DI A LI S BR EV I S n G L U TEUS MAX I MUS
e. ABDU CTOR P O LlIC IS LONGU S za. GAS T ROC NE MI U S
9 . E XTENS O R POL l1CIS B REVI S '4. SOLEUS
1 0 I N TERO SS EUS '5 PERO NE US LON GU S
11 ABD UCTOR PO L LI CI S BR EV IS ' 6 . TIB IALIS ANTERIOR 37. PECTI N E US

I' F LEX O R CAR PI R A DI ALIS

13 . PAL MA RI S LO N GU S
n LAT E RA L MA L LEO L US
>B. M EDIA L MA L LEO LQ US
1 4 . P RONATO R TE RE S ' 9 SOL EUS
15 . TR IC EPS 30. GA STROCN EM IU S
16 RECTU S AB DQMI N IS 31. G R AC ILIS
17. E XTE RNU S OB LI a U E n SA RTOR IUS
18 GLU T EUS ME DI US 3 3 VASTUS IN TE RN US
1 9. RECT U S FE MOR IS 34 PATEL LA
38 U MBILI CU S
39 . SE RRA TU S A NT ER IO R
4 0 L ATI S SI MU S DOR S I
4 1. TERE S M AJ O R
4 ' . EX TE NSO R D IG ITORU M
43 . AN CONEU S
4 4. OMOHY OID
45. L EVATOR SC A PU LAE

' 0 . TE N SO R FA SCIAE L ATAE 3 5 . TI B IA L TU BE RO S ITY 4 6 . TR A P EZ IU S

, 1. VA5 TU S EX TE RN U S 36. ADD UC TOR LON GUS 47. STERNO MAS TOID
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32
30

1 DE LTOID
2 PECTO RALI S MAJ OR
3 . B ICE PS
4 . B RA CH IA LIS
5 B RA CH I O RA D IA LIS
6 . TRIC EPS
7 EX TE NSO R CARP I RA DIA LIS LO NG US
8 . EX TE N SO R CARP I RA DIALIS BR EV I S
9 EX TE NSO R DI G ITORU M
10 . EXTE NSOR CA RP I U L N A R I S
1 1. F L EX OR CA RPI U LN A RI S
12 . EX TER N US OBLIQ U E
13 . GL UTE US ME D IUS
14 . GL UT EUS MAX IM US
1 5 GR EA T TROCHA NTE R 0)
1 6 T EN SOR FASC IA E LATAE
17. VAST US EXTERN US (0
1 8 . REC TUS F EM ORI S
19 GAS TR OC N E MI US
0)

"
2 0. SOL EU S
21 . PERON EUS LO NGUS
22. T IB IA LI S A NTE RIO R
8 5
6
23. PAT E L LA
7
2 4 VA ST US INTE RN U S
0) 'S
25 SO LE US
25 PERONE US LO NG US 9
r t. B U RSA O F CA LC A NE UM
2 8 EXTE NSOR OI GIT OR UM B RE V I S
29 B I CEPS FE MORIS
30 . T R A P EZ I US
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3 2 D ELTOI D
3 3 . B RACH IORA D1A LIS
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3 4 . EX TE N SOR CA RP I RA D IALI S LON G US
35 . EX T E NSOR CARP I RAD IA LIS B REV IS
3 6 A BD UCTO R POL LI CI S LO NGUS
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37. EX TE NSOR P OL LI CI S BR EV IS
38. I NT E ROS SE U S 0)
39 EXTENSOR CA RP I U LN A RI S

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41 E XTE NSOR CAR PI R AD IA LIS BR EV IS
42. EXTE NSO R CA RPI RA D IA LIS LO NG US
43 BR AC H I OR A D IA LI S
4 4 . B R ACH IA LI S
45 BI CEPS
4 6 T RI CEP S
4 7. DELT OID

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49 I N FR A SP I N ATUS
5 0 TERES M I NOR
5 1. TER E S MAJOR
-J----~@ 5 2 LAT I SS IMU S D ORSI
5 3 T RICEPS
~ -'L-----@ 54 . BR AC H IALIS
55. EX TER N U S OBL IQU E
5 6. SA C ROS PI N ALIS
57 . GLU T EU S M ED IU S
58. SACRUM
- -4- - - - - - - - - -{ 52
59 G L UTE US M AX IMU $
60 . VA$ TU$ EX TE R N U S
@ 6 1. BICEPS FE MO RI S
@ 62. S EM ITEN DINOSUS
63. S EM IM EM B RAN OSU S
64 . G RAC ILI S
@ 6 5. ADDUC TOR LO N GUS
@ 66 G A STR OCNEM IU S
6 7. T EN D O N A C H ILLES

_ _ ~_ _ ~,,
------i@ 68 SOLEUS
6 9 P ERON EU S LO N G U S
70 . L ATE R A L M ALL EOLU S
71 . EX TENS O R D IGI TOR UM B R E VIS
--4~-___1 59
72. CA LCAN E U M
73 . PAT E L LA
74 SARTOR IUS
7 5 SOLEU S

-~---~----~~ 7 6 . T IB IA LI S A NT ER IO R
77. G A STR OC N E M IUS
7 8 . M E DIA L MA LL EO LU S

,
lJl ·,'\ ·A. .\ lIC _"'SA. TO .\l l "

1. EX TEN SO R CAR P I U L N A RI S 3 3. BRACH IA LI S

2. EXTEN SOR POL LICIS B REV IS 3' OL EC RANON
3. AB DUC TO R POLLICIS LONG U S 35 BRAC H IO R ADI A LI S
4. EXT EN SOR CA RPI RADI A LI S B REVI S 36. EX TE N SOR CARP I RA D IA LI S LO NG US
5. EX TEN SOR DIGITORU M 37. EXT ENS OR CAR PI RA DI A LI S BREVIS
6 D ELTO ID 3 e. EX TE N SO R DI GITO RU M
7. B I C E PS 39. F L EX OR CA RP I UL N A RI S
e. EX TE N SOR CA R PI RA D IALI S LONGUS 40 T ER ES MAJOR
9 L AT ER A L FEM ORA L CON DY L E 41 STERN OM A STOI D
10 . PATElL A 42 PEC TOR A LI S MA J OR
11 . FIB U LA H EAD 43 LATI SS IM US DORS I
12. MEDIA L F E MORA L COND Y L E 44 . SE RRA TUS AN TERIO R

13 . T IB IA L TUBE ROSIT Y 4 5. FL EXOR CA R PI U L NAR I S

14 . SAR TOR IUS '6 A N CON EU S
15 . G AS TROCN E MI US 47. REC TUS A BDOM IN I S
16 . AD DUC TOR LONG US 48 OL EC RANON
17. G RA C ILI S 4 9 REC TUS FE MO R IS
18 . R ECTUS FE MORI S 50 EX T ER N US OB LIO U E
19 VAS TU S EXT E RN U S 5 1. VA ST US E XTE RNU S
20 . VAS T US IN TE RN US 5 2 T EN SO R FA SCI A E lATA E
21 . GAS TROC NE M IU S 53 . GASTR OC N E M IUS
22. L ATE RA L FE MO RA L CO ND Y L E 5 4 GLUTE US M E DI US
23. ME D IA L FEM ORA L CONDY L E 55. SOLEUS
24. PAT EL LA 56. TI BI ALI S A NT ER I OR
2 5. L ATE RA L T IB IA L CO NDYL E 57. GREAT TR OC HAN TER
26 ME D IA L TIB IA L CONDYLE 5 e. G LUTE U S MA X IM US
n TRA PEZIU S 59 . SOL EUS
2. O MOH YO ID 60. EXTE N SOR DIG ITO RU M LONGUS
2 9 D ELTOID 61. M EDI A L MA LLE O L US
30. TR I C EP S- LON G H EAD 62. L ATE RAL MA LL EOLUS
31 . T RICE P S-LATER AL HEA D 6 3. EXT E N SOR DI 6ITO RU M B RE VI S
3 2. B IC E PS
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B I B LI 0 G RA r H Y
(Ed itor's n o te : All bo ok so u rces listed h ere a re cited from th e original 19:')8 ed itio n of
lJ.l1 /fllll ir A, 11fIJOUl.\" wn b a few editorial corrections. Subseq ue n t ed itions a n d p ri n tings of

these tit les may still be available. Fo r further guidance, consu lt yo u r lo cal public library
system or the Lib rary of Congrcss.)

Arn bcim . Rudo lph . 11r l an d Fislla! P n u '/I l i o/l . Berkeley a nd Lo s Angel es : U nive rsi ty of
Califo rn ia Pr ess, 195 4 .
Ba rr: Alfred I-J . .J I: . ed. J.\lm tn:~ (if Modern A rt. New Yo rk : Yluseum o f Mode rn Art , 1954.
- -- . lFhat l s Xlodern Painting ? New Yo rk : Muse u m o fv lodcrn An , 1943 .
Heck, w illia m S. l\lodl'rn Science a nd the Sal u re of Li fe . Xcw Yo rk: H a rco u rt Bra ce, 195i .
Boas. Fr a nz . Primitive Art. Xcw York: Doye l', 1955.
Boeck, \ Yilh d n l, a nd J aime Sa ba rrcs. Pablo Picasso. A t'W Yo rk: Harry X . Ab rams, 195.:1 .
Bra sh ,.J. C., a n d E. B.J a m ieson . CU11n ingham's Textbook oi A//atomy. London ;
Oxford U nivers ity Pr ess, Ul4:1.
Brid g ma n , Geo rge B. T he H uma n Machine. Pelham, I\'.'t: : Brid gman Pu bl ish ers, 1939.
C he ney, She ldo n. T he Stm J of .\lof!e1"1/ Art. ~ ew York: Vikin g . 1951 .
Clark. Ken net h . Th e Xude. New Yo rk : Pa n th eo n , 1956.
Couch. H e rbe rt Xcwcll. and Russel ~l. Cccr. Class ical Ci v iliza tion. Xe w Yo rk:
Pre n tice-H all, 19-!O.
Fra n kel. Ch a rles. Thr Case f or ,\lodn u ,\Ian . New York: Ha rp e r a nd Brothers, 19S O.
Frc ma n tle , An ile, c t al., e els. 'I'll" Great Ag('s (~l 1\ ('s ' ('r n Philo.';ojlhJ. Bo ston :
Hough ton-Mifflin . 195i .
Go ldsc hc ide r, Ludwig. .i.\ lirlu'lallgl'lo /h awing\. Lo u d o n: Ph aid c u . 1951.
H a ll, A. R. Th e Srirlltifir Rrnolution. J jOO- /800. Bo sto n: Beaco n Pr ess, 19:"}().
l Ia n o n . Rich a rd (~. Fig ure Drawing. Lo n d o n : Chap man a nd H all , 1949 .
H a use r..Arnold. TIU' Soria I Ili,{tm J of Art. Xcw Yo rk : Kno p f. 1952
Hcklc r, An to n. (; ,-eeh and Roma n Portraits. Londo n : " 'illi a m Hei n e m a n n . 191 2.
I lo g-be n , Lan cc lo t. Fnn n Cmw Pain ting to Comic Sir i/I. Xcw York: Ch a n ticlee r Press, ]949.
I Iowcllc, Willia m . n at k of lIist(1)1. New York : Donbledav, 1957.
H oyle , Fred. TIU' Nat ure (~l thr Universe. Ne w York; Harper a nd Brothe rs, 1950.
" .as uer, Ed ward , a n clja mes X cwma n . J.\ lathnJlatics and tit" Imagination. :"Jew Yo rk:
Simon a n d Sc huster, 19·HJ.
Massac hu se tts In stitu te of Tcchnologv Conuninee for the Study of th e Visual . .\ rLs,
195 2-5--1 . A rt Education f or Scientist and Engineer. Ca m b ridge. Mass.:
Co mm ittee Report. 1 9 ~) i .
HUll !()I.N \/'/1 \

Mccr, Frcdcrik van d el'. A tlas of ll'estern Civilization. English ve rsion by T. A. Birrell.
Amsterdam: Elsevie r, 19;)6.
Myers, Bern a rd S. Art and Civ ilization. New Yo rk: Mcf lraw- H ill , 19:>7.
N ati o na l Geogra phic Society. EvclJday l, ~fe in Ancient Ti mes. \ Vash in glon , D .C.:
Natio nal Geogra phic, 1953.
- - - . Indians of the Americas. \ Vashi n gt on , D.C.: Na tio nal Geograp h ic, 1955.
Raynal . Ma u rice . History oIAlod ern Pa i nting. Ge neva: Skira, 1949 .
- - -. Moder n Paint ing. Ge neva: Ski ra , 1956.
Read , H e rbert. T he Ph iloso!Jhy of Modern A rt. ?"e,\' York: Meridian Books, 1955.
Rcwald ,J oh n. Th e H ist01J ofhnpressionism. New York: Muse-um of Mode rn Art , 1946.
Rob iu so u .jam es II . Th e AIi nd in the Alaking New York an d London:
H a rp er a nd Brothers , 192 1.
Sac h s, I' au l]. M odern Prin ts & Dra wi ngs. Xcw Yo r k: Kn o p f, 1954 .
Sa unders, J. B. de C. :\1., a n d Charles D. (),~Ia ll e y. lltustrationsfro m the
\Vorks of A ndreas vesat ius ojBrussels. Clevelan d: \ro rld P ublishing Co mpany, 1950 .
Schi d er, Fritz. A n A tla s (~rA ll a to mJ fo rA rtists. New York: Dove r, 1947.
Segy, Lud islas . African S culp tu re :-;/Jeaks. Xcw York: A. A.\Vyn , 1952.
Sh a h n , Be n . T he ShaIN ofContent. Cam bridge, Ma ss.: Harvard Un iversity Pre ss, 19:") 7.
She rringto n , Si r Charles. Alan 0 11 Hi s Nature. Ga rden Ci ty, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1933.
Sin ge r, Charles. t t» Evolu tion (1 A natnmv. "New Yo rk : Kn opf, J 92 5.
Taylor, Fra ncis H e ll ry. I'~rtJ Centuries o./Art. New Yor k: Ha rpe r and Brothe rs, 1934 .
Tylor, Ed ward Bu rn e tt . Pri mitiue e UIIll/T. New Yo rk: Bren ta uo 's, 1924.
Va n derp o el , J ohn H . T he H Ull/an Figure. Chicago: Inl a nd Prin ter Co m pany, 1 91 ~) .

Ve ntu ri, Lione llo . It ali a n Pain ting. Ge neva: Skira, 19:")0.
Visse r, H . F. E. A siatic Art. Xew York a n d Amsterdam: Seve n ArL') Book So ciety, 1952.
' Vaddin g ton , C. II. The Scient ific A ltitude. Lo n d o n: Pel ica n , 194ft
We be r, Alfred. H istOlJ f?I Phi loso!J!ly. Tra n slated by Frank Thillv With "Ph iloso p hy Since
I HfiO" b y Ralph Ba rton Pe r r y. Xcw 'Yo rk and Ch icago: Charle s Scri bner's So ns , 1925.
Wells, H . G. Th e Ou tli ne of H istory. Xcw York: Macmillan. 192 1.
\ Vcltfish , Ge ne. Tlu Origins of A rl. In di an apol is: Bobbs-Me rrill. 1953 .
Whi teh ead , Alfred No rth. Science and the Xlodem H'orld. Lowe ll Lec tu res, 1925 .
New York: Macmilla n , 194 7.
\ Volf ll in , H ein ri ch . Pri nciples of Art 1Iistorr New Yor k: Do ve r, 1932.
 IN DI'X
.\ hd o lll illa l m a ss , I :~~ Hrarhvrlu-phalir h ead I~Vt'. lOX. IO~ )
.\ hd llf lo r di g il i q uinn umsch-. 15:' . Itill. Braqru-. ( ~I'.. rg:t"S, tit)
W i . Il ~J . 179 . ~ H Ik o tl:tl' .\ p;l· a n . -IS-;,U
.\ IMl un Ol halhu-is m ucch-. 21."1 B r o w ridg-e. su, S~ I. 102
.\ IMl n("l<>r minimi 1ll 11 ~ ' l t ·. Iti-l buccinato r m u-eh-, !IX. 102. 103
.-\IMIII1'II,r p(,l1id s uruwh- Bu rsa . 19 1. 19·1. IHi , 20S, 2119. 2 1-1. 2 1) .
brevi 1:,'1, Hil;I. 1m . 179 . 24 :\ 21K2H
10Ilg u 15. I-Hi. 1[",2 , 15 -1. 1.')5. 1:'11). I.",X, B uuo ck-... i :t 1 2~1 . I :~,'"J , 1 :~6. 1-15 . 19 2 . 20:\
1I):t Il i(i. IIi,,",. 179 . 2n . 244 . ~·t7
Achilles u-ndou . 190, 19 1. I!H-, E li , 20 H, 2 0\1. Calcaneum hom', I!JO, I ~ll , 19e1 , 1!li, 20H.
21·1, 2 ];-1, 21~ , ~F, 2 0 \), 2 10. 2 1 1, 2 1.'), 2 e12 , 2 + 1
.\ n o l11 io l1. nel. 1:\:1, I,lii, 1:11. 1:'1;'). IW ( :ar p a l bon e
.-\ d am ·s uppk- (Ia r:-m; ), II ~ , 119 , 120 , 122 ham a te. 1!i~ '
Adductor longu.. IlIIlSd (', IXi . 190. Hn. :!O~ I. vemilunar. 11i-1
'1t:t 2 e1:•. 2 1i trape zium . ltiH
.\ <1<111("10 1' IM,lI i r-i.. musch-, 1:,'1. 156 . Il ~'. Ilk';' tri q ue-trum . 169
ll i9 , I i !l ( :a H ' art, :10. ·I I- Iti

At! a nd alar ca nnagc. ~ H ( :I' n ' brr <,!Iw l ic ligu rl' rmur-pt, t~i . tii
Ama n-ur ill a n, :F" :\i , :\9 Cervi cal verte brae. I IX
.\ 11 ,11" 111:- -ewu th. 12 1. I:H . 1:\....
rt:je n io ll o f, 10. -\0- ·11 Characteri zariou. 1(1:-1- 1,
S('il' lili fic n-voluriou and. 1:', 20 ChlT kholH·. SO, I'H 102
Vesalian, 9- 10, I·k 11",-17, '12, 10, ·11 Chiaroscuro. 2 1. :,1'\
Aur-nuc-us umsrlr-. 1:\:., I·Hi. Ei i , [;')X , C h in, SO, 102. I ~O , 122
242.2·1:\ , 2·17 Clavich- hom- u s, 119, l :t~. II I, L~,2 . I;Jti.
.-\ n l.lt·, 'I;,. 200 . 211i 1:'1 7, 162 . 1l1:~
Arch o f [not, 2 10 , 212 Con :'); hOIH'. 7:1, it 1:1!i. 1:,9
Ann, J:">tJ-61 Collarbone. i ·!. I IX. 12 -1. I H
hand relation . I H:\ W also Clavi cle ho ne
ImH·f. I:'I'1 Co pernicus. ;'..;ich o l;h . I i
uu-a-uremems. 7-1 , 11")9 ( :o rrr<":J•rio. j 7
1lI0 H ' IlW tH , I -I ii , 1112 Cra n ialma-«. , i , i H, ,~,
mus c-k-s. !:') I-,·,x Cro\\·...-fc e t. 10 -1
proporrions, i -I Crvp tc-sthctir fi p;lllt , concept. Ii;), Iii
lI ppn, 151, \;')9 Cubis m. 2,') . 2!1, :H, li2
Art ( :ylind r ir a l ll ' f'(·sIH'l'It']l il lj.'; , 2 2:",
di slocation o f srie-ru-r- a nd. 29 -!F,. :~! '·· I I
d ua lism of scicucc- and, 1':)-2ti. ell l raumier, l lou ore. 1, 1
rl' d .' li llilin ll 11f, :\i -:\X 0 .. 1/IllI/(lII i (wpm-;'\Inln lm (\ 'I'S;llitls ). I,
ret urn 10 \ '('S;lli;11I auauunv, -10-11 Delt oid ruusc h-. I :\:t 1:\1. I :n . I -II). 1,'",2. 1;,4 . 15 ?l.
s~'Ilt· I1-.-is l i(' p rin cipk- in . :\S-:~9 156. I:)i . r ""}9. IG:t 2 1~ . 2 ·1 ~1. 244 , ~r,. ~el i
.'W.,. fll~(1 Figu H' in art: M odem an Dt'mu n 's. H-t
D( ·~·;1I1 t';. , R l ' n c , 21

R id, muscles . I :H ..:Fr, I:\x l uapluau m a rc h. 1 ~-1. 12 6

1\'1(0 11 . Francis. Ii . 21 . 2;, D i!;.l_slri c m usrle-. I I!I
Baroque a rt . ~W-~l. ;)X-;l~ l Dolichore-phalic 1 1I ';I(I I ~Vt· , lOX, W!l
Ik q.,.'m ll , H e-nri, 2:, I Hi n T, Alurc-c-lu. m . ill
ni n '!'s fe-moris m uwlc, 1\10, 19 1, 1 ~ )2 , I ~H , 19:\
20x , 20\l. 2-12. 2"' , 245 Ea r. HO, 100· 10 1
Bin 'llS m u...cl e. 1:1:\. I :FI, 1·ll i , 151. EIIMI\\', );)2 , E·)~ I . l!ill-ti2
1:-,2 , 1:1--1 , 1:'):). nIl, I:"li , F,9, lI i:l. 2-12. 2·1:\ . ,"J('" II I.w Olerranon
2 e1--1. 2 e1:>. 2 ·17 1-:1 <:r e ("(', 70
Bo cr-ion i, L'm berto ll;> Epi condvk- medial. n~ , I:).')

" ra d li;!lis mu-cle. I ~FI , 1·lIl, 151. 1.".2. 1:.·1. Exprcssioui-nr. 2,'"}. ~>! I. :{-I. 62. 6 i
I:>;). E'lll, E', i , 1m , 2 4 2. 2 -1 :\, 2 -1-1, 2 n , 2e1i EXIt"lh OJ" ca rpi ra d ialis musr h-
Braclunrarhalic mu-ck-, 1$:1, I-Iti 15 2, ):';4. 11", .'i. brevi s. I:F), I ·lli , 1!l2. 1:, 4, Fi ll . 1tli , JjH,
F l fi, I:,i, 1110. Il )~t 2-12. 2-J:~, 2·1-1. 2 e15 . 2-17 It.:\ , lliH, ~4 2. 24 :\. 2+1 . 2-J:'i. 2 e1 ,
I \ /If \

1 0 n hTl I ~ ,
I:t'l. 1·lli. I!H . 15S. 156 , L17, ISS. Flexor d ig-iti quim i lu e-vi.. muccle-. llitl.
1m , lliX, 2-12, 2-1:\, 2-1-1, 2 -1~-, . 247 IW, li !1
Ex tensor carp i uln aris muscle, I~G. 1-16 . 1;-),1. Flexo r di girouuu m usck-
I;)" I ;)H, lti:l, l\ iG, 169, I'~l . 2-12. 2H . 2 -17 !oug-us. 2 1;)
Ex te-nsor diuirorum mus rk-, I:tl , 1-1(;, EI'-! , I :Jli. suhlimis, lIi r;, 1W , I i !l
1:-,7, I;IH, l li:\ , Hii , H;H, l ID . l~l :" 2 0~ , 2 [·1, Fle xo r hnllnc!s lon g-us llHlsr k, ;?!:')
21;',,2-12 , 2-1:\,2+1. 2-F), 2·17 Flexor })o llicis 1Illlstk
b revis , 190, HI-I, HI;), 20H, 209 , 2 H. 2-12 , hrt-vix, Ifili, I(i!l. 179
2+ 1, 2-1:; . 2·17 lo ng-us, 179
lo ng u s, 2-1 7 Fo ot, 2 10..2 1
Ext e n sor hallucis hrt,, -j.,muscle. 215 arch o f. 21t1, 2 12
Extensor po ll id s musrh- ma .ss!.'s of. 210
b revis . 1-16. 1~,2 . I ~, -I , 156. \63, 166. lIii, IIW<lSlln·1l1t'1I1S. 7S. 2 16
16K 2·1:1, 211. 2-17 p roporriuuv. 7~1
IOllhTlIS, 1:-1, I ·lli. 132 . lti7 . 179 stance l lf. 21S. 219
EX!t' IIS< l!- te n d ons, 16·1 Fo rehead . 102, 101
Exu-mus obliqm- musck-, i :t 1:-12. 1:-1:1. 1:1-1. Forechonentng. 22 :1---1 1
1 ~ , I ~ I ~ I ~ . I ~ ,I ~I H7 .I W I . 1 91 . cylinclr it·.d tonu-, in . 22;1
HEJ. 20H, 209 . 2-12. 2-13. 2-1-1 . 2-1~1 . 2-1 7 j oi nt ... in h·rlal"illJ.);, 2·10
E~C;" , H9..9 :1 jo in ts. pos itionin g". 227
ha Il, H~l O\t'l'lap p ing- sh;lpes in , 22--1
rrow's ..fe-et . 10-1 pe rs pe-ctive t-Flipsc-x ill , 2:1-1
lids . ~H. H9, 90 pt'l"spc t'li\t, in , 2:~,~
p o sitio n of. 90 sh ad ed forms ill, ;?:~O
suc-ket, HO. I'll. H~l sid e vie-w in, 2 :~l i
ta pe red forms, comp re-ssio n of. 22X. 2:\0
Fan~ Fre n ch .\ r alk l11Y. 2;-), :~ 2 . --1 0
ch'lnKtt'ri"lIi. 'll. lOS-I i Freud . Sigmund . 2;)
measuremen ts. r;O. H·I Fro ntalis urusch-. 10:\
m uscles o f, 102·:\
p lac e nu-ru of smalle-r for ms . K! Oastro cucmius IlIUSt:!l·. I H7. 190 . IHL 19 l, 1 ~6 .
wrin kles or, 10·1 196. 20M. 2U9 . 2-12. 2..l: t 2-H. 2H. 2·17
.\1>,. also ll cad: _\Jwrifir 1m /11m. C;l lIteus 1II;lxillllls mI N ·It-. 13::'). I-I~ . I·Hi.
r n ·t. .'in' Foo l I m .I H'. 190. IYI. 192, I!I-I, I ~Fo . 20~ .
Fe moral co nd yle . lUll, 19 7, 21111 2ll!l. 2·12, 2-tl. 2-14. 2-t:J, 2-17
late ra l. I H' . 190. IH.-,. 2-1 7 C \1I1t·US medius lllu sdt·. 1:15. 1--1;). 116 , 1;,;1,
m ed ia l, 187, HI;), 209 . 2-17 IIi:\. I ~ li. 1 ~ 7 . I ~IO, 19 1. 19 2, HH . HFI,
Fe-udalism. 53 . 5 -1 20~ . 21l!1. 2--12. 2--1:1. 2--1--1, 2--1:, . 2·li

Fib u la bo ne , 200 , 2 11 Oova. F I~I1J(- i st u , 2 1. 2;)

Fib u la h ead , 190 , uu. 192. 19 1. \93.200. 20S. (~ra (' i l i s m usck-. EIO, \ 91. 19 1. 19;;. 209, 2 -1:\,

2ml . 242. 2·)7 2-F', 2·li

Figure- in art, I I , ·1:l-liH C re at trochanter m uscle , 7S. I ·H;. FJ:J. I :J ~ I ,
baroque. SS-;J\! I ~)O , Hll , l! n . 19·1, I!F), 20H, 21 2, 2H , 2·l i
Bro n t e ,\ gc. ·I H..;)O C reek art . ;J\· :')2. W ..' O
( ;n'e k and Roman , ;" \";J2
Ind ustrial Agt" 60..t i l I la ms, ring-m m d t·.I!I:!
medieval. 5:1-5;, Hand. IG-!....~;)
m ode rn , :m, 62-ti7 <I t' 'i\"i l~- oL 172..7H
Xcoluhic. ·1li- 17 masSI's of. 16·!
Pak-olithic. ·1·H 6 measun-mcms. 7;). I rn
Rella is"'" 1f{', St~S 7 mOH'IlIt'Il! o f, IXlI

Fingernail . 170 pa lm o f. 1~)2 . 1ti2, !tH. 17:!. I RI

Fin~C;"r pads. 1!i6. l (iX. l i 9 po ..iriou of. I x!, Ix:l
Fingers. 16-1. rro, 172-7:1, 17;,,76. 180 proportions. 73
Flexor carpi radialis mu..dc, 135 , 132. 155 . Head
E'(i. l li:~ . IItfi, 1l}H. li9 . 2--1:1 crania l mas.., 7i. iH , i9
Fl ex or car p i ulna ris m uscle. l :F), 1--16 . 15-1 . facialm as ses XU, HI . H2
IS ~ . IS i , I ~ , l m , I ~ . I ~ . I ~ , l TI I .
2-12, 2-1-1 , 247
 mea..urements , Ti tran sve rse . 21-1 . 215
movem en t of. ~fi..XI( 122 Linea alb a muscle . 132 . 133
ru-ck relation shi p , J 22 Lip s, S.1
. . 9H-99
proportions. 77, 79 l. u be of e-ar, IH, 100
sh ape s, lOH-9 Lumbric almuscle, 166 , 16.'\, 179
.s id e plane of, Hi'! Lu n ate promin ence. 152. 1:')11, E'JH, 16i , IliH
SI'I' also Fact'
I Iccl. Srr Calcaneu m Malle olus. 200
Hum a n ism. 18,32.39, 56. 69 la teral . IS'i , 190, 19 1, 194 , 195 , 20 H, 209,
Humerus bone , 152, 160 2 1-1,,242. 2-13. 2-1,5 , 24 7
lI yo g:l ossm. m uscle, 119 m edial, IH7. 190 . 195 . sos, 209. 2 1.'> . 243,
2-1,5.241
Ilia c c re-st, 13-1 , 1-16 , 155 , 163 , IHo , 11'1 7, 190 , Masse te r muscl e. 102. 103. 104 , 13·1, 13;)
194 , 20H, 20 9 xt.uts se. Henri, (i3
Ilio p so as muscle. IH7 xtcasuremems. 72-75
Ilio tihial ban d , 20 H a rm , i "1. IS9
h n p n ·ssio n ism . 23 , :\2, ~l4 , 61, 62, 6 7 fac ial m asces , HO. lH
In d ustria l Age , ()()..6 1 figure , 69 , 72-75
In frasp in a tus muscle, 13-1. IS:>. 1-16, 154 , IS:> , foot, 73 , 2 16
163.2·12, 24:> h an d. 7'::1, 170
In teros se u s muscle, 1;12, 1.')-1 , 156, 163, l&t , h ead, 7'i
166 ,1 6 7, 168. 169 . 1 7~I , 2 14, 2 15. 2·tt 244 I.-g, 'i:J, 203
neck. 7-1,. 120
Ja w, so. .'\4, 102, 120, 122 torso, 7 !~, U ti
J awlin e , placement o f, H7 .\ It'di e\<ll an. ;'):~:) :)
J aw point , 80, 102, It O :-' It' IHa lis m u- ck-, 103
J oims in fo res hor te ni ng \ lesoc<.·p h a1ic head ~pc. IOH. 109
int erlacing- of. 2-10 .\ let;lIar~al bone, 2 1-1. 2 1.')

posi tionin g: of. 227 \I k h e b ng l'ln , 19,20,51. 10

\ !odenl a rt
Kandinskv, \\"assily. :H , 6-1 hy amateurs . :\5. :17. 39
Kin csrb rtic fiw ut' co n ce p t. 6-1, 6 7 figure ("OIH"(·p ts i ll, t'i2..6 i
Kn ee , 7'::1, 200 1I1OW' nle!ltS in. :H-:Fl
K m-erap. SI'I' Patella re jection ofanatomicalfigure. 30. 39-4 1
Knuckles. 16-1, 167, 173, IHO, IHI re jecuou o l"s.it·n ce, 3 1..:B
\ lotl th . 80 . .'\-1.!1H-99. 102
l a rvns (Ad a m 's ap p le ) , 118, 119, 120 , 122 .\Ion'nwnt
Lat issim us dursi muscle, 133. 13-1 , 13.'> , 1 3..~ , of ann. Hli. 16'!.
146, EI2, 15:>, 15 7, 163, I~) . 2-l2. nf bad. 13.'\
2-13,24;1,247 0 1" h and , lli2, I!-IO
Lq ,{, IHli-2 09 0 1" head , Hli-HH. In
a n kle , 200 of leg, 20 7
r-ouur ur of. 20 -1, o f ne ck, 122
klw e . 20 0 of to rso, 122. 146
lower It' g IlJ<lSSC S , 19f)-9 8 vlusclcs
measure me n ts. 75. 203 abductor (li~i ti q uinti. ISH, 166, 16 7, 169,
movem ent. 201 179 ,2 J.1
proportio ns , 75 a bd uct o r hallucis. 2 1;)
rear vie w, 19 2-94 , 19 7..9H ahd uct o r minimi . 16·1
u p pe r It' g I1)<l SS( ' S, ]Hfi abduc tor pullir-is
t.eger, Fer-nan d, ~\:l bre-vis. 1'::)2, I6f>, 1 6~l, 179, 24 3
Leibniz . Go tt fri ed Wilh el m , 23, 24 longu s, H6, 152, 15-1" 1:15, 156 , 1:"1,'\, \{ i!\ ,
Le v.nor sca p ula e muscle , 119. 13:\ , 2-1,3 lti6 , It).~ , J 19, 2H , 2-l,i
Ligaments add uc to r IO Il I-,TlI S. I H'i, 190 . 193. 209. 24 :\ .
annular, 16, . 1fl8 H :I, 24i
cHu:iate .2H adductor pollicis. 152, J.')1l. 166. 16H,
lacin iatt',21 5 1G9.1 79
I \ PI \

ancone us, 135 . 146 . 15 7, I SH, 2-12, 24:~. 247 hamstring, 19 2

bice-ps, 13:~ , 135. 146, J5 I , 152 , 154 , EJ:>, h >'oglossu s, 119
156 , 157, 159 , 16.1,242,243,244,24:> ,247 ilio psoas, IH7
b iceps femoris, 190 , 19 1, 192, 19·1, 195, in frasp in atu s, 13-1, 135, 116 . 15·1, 155, 163 ,
208 , 209, 242, 244 242 , 245
lu-ar-hialix, 13:' , l-lfi, 1:"i l , IS2 , 1:>4, I:J:I, inte rosse-us, FJ2 , F A , F>ll, 1 6 :~ , 164, 166 , 167,
1:')6 , 1:'7, 16.1,242,243,2'14 ,245,247 168 , 169 , 179 , 214, 2 15 , 244
brachioradialis , 135, 146 , 15 2. 15-1, 155, lat issim us do rsi, J:t{ , 134 , 135, lJR, 146, 152 ,
156 , 15 7, i eo, Hi3 , 242 , 24:{, 244, 245, 247 F17, Ii J:l, iuo, 242, 24:1, 245 , 247
buccinator, 98, 102, 103 levat or scapu lae, 119, 1:)3, 24:-\
deltoid, 1.1:3, n4, 1.1:'), 146 . 152, 151, 155, linea al ba, 132 , 133
1:>6, 157, 159 , 16:1,242,243,244,24:>,247 lum brkal, llJIJ, 168 , 179
digastric , 119 mass eter, 102 . 103, 104 . 1,)4, 135
extensor carpi radialis me n talis , 103
brevis, 135, 146, 152 , l[>4, 156 , 157, 158, omohyoid , 119 , I T5, 247
1m, 16R, 242 , 24:3, 244, 24:) o p p o n e n s d igiti quinn. 166 , 179
longus, 1.1:\ 146, 1:')2, 15-1, 153, I S6, 137 , o p p o n e n s p o llicis . IGG, 168, 169 , 179
158 , 16:~ , 16H, 2 12, 2H , 2'H , 245, 247 o rbi cu lar is, 89
extensor carpi ul nar-is , 135, 146, 154, \:-J/, oculi,103
158 , 163, 169,179 , 242 ,244,247 ori s, 98 , 103
extensor digir orum. 1.1:'), 146 , Ei4 , 156, pa lm aris
157 , 158 , l G3, 167, 168 , 169 , 195 , 208 , 2 14, brevis. 166 , 169, 179
21 5,242,243,244,245,247 longus. 134 , 152 , 1:15, 163 , 166, 168,
b re vi s, 190, 194, 195, 208 , 209, 2 H, 2·12, 179, 243
245 , 2-17 pectineus, 187,2-13
longus, 247 pc-rtoralis major, 1:'1.1, 152, 157, Ifi:). 243,
ext ensor hallucis brevis , 21:1 244 ,247
extensor pollicis peroneus
br evis , 1-16, 152 , 156 , 163, 166, 167, HiS. 2,17 breyis.211
longus , 146 , 152 , 167, 168 , 17!:! lon gus, 187 , 190 . 19 1, 19-1, 195, 196 ,
cxtcrnus oblique, 73 , 132, 133, 134, 135, 20S , 209, 242, 244 , 245
13G, 146 , 15:), 159, 163 , 187 , 190, 194, 19.1, ter tius, 2 1·\
208 , 20~) , 242 , 243 , 244 , 24 ~J pronator teres, 152, 155 . 16,), 2-l! )
flexor ca rp i radialis, 135 , 152 , 155, 1.:-)6, quadratus, 102 , JO :~
163, 166 , 16K. 179,243 rectu s ahdom inis, 132 , 133, 146 , 187 ,243,247
flexor car p i uln aris, 135 , 146 , 154 , ISS, rec tus fe mo r is, 146, 186, 187, 190 , 19!\ 208 ,
157, ISH, 163, 166 , 167, 169, 179 , 244, 247 243, 244 , 24 7
flexor d igit i quinti b revis, 166, 169, I 'i'~) sacrospi na lis, PH , 135 , 146, 190 ,242,245
flexo r digilo nllll sa rto rius, 146, 187 , I ~J(), I~):" 243 , 245, 247
lon gllS, 215 semimembranosus, 19 0, 191 , 192 , 194,209 ,
su blimis, 166 , 169, 179 242 , 24!}
fle xo r hallucis longus, 2 15 semitendinosus, J90 , J9I , 19 2, 194. 209 ,
flexo r p oll icis 242 , 245
brevis, 166, 16~l, 179 se rra tus , H 2
Iougus, 179 anterior, 1:)2 , I,B , 146 , 152, 15 7,
fr o ntalis, 103 190,2 43,247
gaSlrocne m ius, J87 , 190 , 19 1, 194 , HE>, 196, 208 , soleus, 187, 190, 191, 19 4, 19!}, 196, 197,208,
209 , 242 , 243, 244 , 245 , 24 7 209,215. 242 , 243,244, 245
gluteus m a ximus, 135, 145 , 146, 163, 187, splenius capi tis, 13:1
HJO, 191 , 192 , 194, 195, 20H, 209 , 242 . sternohyoid, 119
243 , 244 , 245 ste rn o m astoid , 11R, 119, 120 , 133, 134 , 13.''),
glutellS me dius, 13;-), IH, 146 , E):J, 163, 146,242,243,244 ,247
186, 187 , 19 0, 19 1, 192 , 194 , 195 , 208 , stylohyoid, 1 19
209 , 242, 243, 244 , 245 temporal, 102, 103
g rac ilis, 190, 19 1, 192 , 194, 1%,209, tensor fasciae latae , 146. un , 190, 191, 194 ,
243, 245, 247 195, 208 , 242, 243 , 244 , 247
grea l trochanter, 75, 146, 155, I S9 , 190 , teres ma jor, 134, 13.:J, 1:')2 , IS5, 137, 163,
191, 193 ,194,195,208,242,244 242 , 243, 245 , 247
nrx.-\ _\ lU : .--\X.-\ TO .\I \ ·

h ' rt 'S m in or. 13,1. 1:\:'" L·,:,. H i:~ . 242, 2H l'crti neu-, mus c!e-. IX7. ~-I ~
tib ia lis a n n-nor, IX7, mo, 195. 19 6 . 20 X. Pt'C1o ra li" m a jo r III11Sl.-k. 1 ~3 . I :)~ . I:,i , I G:~ ,
2U9. 214 . 21:,. 21-1. 2·t:J :!·t:t ~H , ~ .J7
trape-zius. us. 119 , 120 . 12--1 . I :t~ , I:H, 13:;. Pe ctora l mass. 1:\2
I:~, 146 . 1:,·1, I:'> " 163 . 2-1 2. 2.J :~. 2-1-1. Pr-r-rora le. 7:t 1:\2 . I:,9
2-1:'). 2·17 l' cjvi c basin . 1:\6
u-ian gularic, 102 , lin Pelvic girdle. I ~>!I , I,HI. IXt;
triceps. 14 ti. 151. I:J-l, 156 . 2 -12, 24 :\ l'elvic mass. 129. I :m . I :H . 1--1:,
lateral h ead , I:H , 13!). J.l6 . l:i :" L-,7.211 Pen-ira. 11'1'11 1' Rin·. llli
lo n g- he a d , I:\.J, 133. I·l-!I, I:"j , Ir" , 2-t1 I'lTOIlt' IIS 1llllSd t'
me d ial h ead , 1:1:l. 132, 15:) h l'e\'is. 21·1
um b ilicus, l :t~ long-us . IX7, I ~H ) , 191, E).J, 19:J, 1%, :!()H.
\~\St IlS exu-ruus. 1·1li. l XII, 11;7, 192 , 19·1, 20 9, ~ 14, 24 2. 24:\, 24-1, ~-l:i
19 5.204 . 20S, 209 . 2.J2, 2,1:\, 2·15, 2.J7 1(·nins.2 1,.
vu-aus ill lt' I1I11S, l Xi , 20 -l. 2 0 X. 2 UIJ. 2-17 Pr- pectivt-. in f{)rt·sh onl'!Iing. 2 :~X
Iyg-olllalic, 102. IO:~ I'(· pecuve ellipws, in forcs ho ru-niug. 2:\-l
Ph alan x . • i n. I 7 :~
:" a pol('un ic ( ' 1<1, 2 -1, so m edia n (II), 16i . 16.~. l i~' , 21:,
;o\;ll u ra lislll, 5 X p roximal (I ), W i , 14')X. l i 9 . 21:)
Nan·1. S t' t' Um bilic us te rmi nal (11I, . W 7, 16K 1'19. :! I':l
Ne-rk , I I H-2 3 Ph idi a c. l'I9
r-r-rvir-al vertebra e. 111'4 , 121 Pic-asso. Pa blo. l\:~

ma sses. ] IS, 120 Pisiform bom-. lIi' i, ]/19, 1'19

measurements. i -I, 120 I\ lllo r k, ./;u:ksl lll , ti·l
mov e-uu-n t 01',122 P" p litea l fossa . 1!1I. 19-1, 19S , ~O!l
IllIl_st·I('s. I IX-19 Pronator teres muvh-. 152, l :i~-l , ~ , I:\
pit of. l iS. 120 I' ro j>IJl'l il)IJ!'io. 72-, ;,
p ro portions i.J Pubic arch. 7:\. i ·1. 1:\6, 1:,9
:"t 'nlithi t' an. -l6....J.'i Pyth a go ra s. ll!l
;\11'><, ' . !l-t-9 i

1>;\11 of. 94 Quadratus muscle. 10:!. ll !:{

hriclA't" o f. KI, 102 . 10 I
hook o f. 9i Rad iu s bom-. I:JH. 1I111. Hi-I. 16 7
nos trils. IJ-l, 9 7 Rarionalism . 5S, (iO
\\' (' clg(' o f, SO. ! l;·l Realis m. 2 1, 2 ,1. 2;), 5.". ()O-h l
;'\Jost riJs. !H , !l 7 Rectus abdominis musr!e, 1~2. 1:\:\, [ .t( 'I,
IH7, 24:\, 24 7
(kd p ita l hulge , Ii Rer-tu-, fem oris muscle. l.J6. iso. I Hi , 190 .
O h-r-ranon . 13-1. I:n . 1-Ili, !I'd, Lj 5 . 156 . 1:i7. 1 ~ 1:j . :!OH. 2·1:\. 2.J-l. 2,17

F ,X. 160. 2·12. 217 Rem brandt . 2 1. :19

O mnhvoid 1I111sd (' . 119. 133. 2.J3. 2-li Rr-uai csanre art, Ix-:!o. 21. 3:!. 5fi-:,7 . li9
( }p pt IIWIlS di ~.-j t i quin n musch-, 16G. I ilJ Rih C<lg"t'. 111". 12,1. I 2tJ , 1 :~2 . 1-12
0PPOll("!I!'io po llici!'io IlII l.sd l·, 161'1. Hi..
'';' Ii i!), I i~) Roc oco art. 2~
Orbiculari ... IIlIISclt' . X9 Rod in . .-\ U~"l I S ' (, . ti l
oculi. lin Ro man an, :, I-:i2. ti!1
o ris. !IR 10 3 Romanricicm . 2,1, 2:i. 60
O \,n];lppillg shape-s. ill /i IIT Sh o r! t' lli llg:. ~ ~, I
San os pill<llis mus rk-, I:H , I :Ei. I ,H), mo.
l'alcolirhic a n , :~O , ,I,I- Il i 2-12,2 l:i
l'almar apone urosis, Ii Y Sac-rum . l.Jli. 190 , 19 1, 194 , 209, 24,1
Pa lm a ris rnusrh- Sarlorius mu scle . 1·lIi, l si . 190. I~l :, . 2-1:\.
brevis, l fitl. lli~l . I i 9 :!.J:i.2'"
1() llh~IS. n 4. 152. I:,;j , 16:-\. 166 . 16K 179, Sc ie illifil' revolution . I H
2.J2.2.J:\ Semimem b rano-us 1ll11.S(·k . 190 . 191 , 192 ,
I'a td la hOIlt", 18, . I ~ 'U, 19e1 . 19;,. ~I K) . 20S. 209 , I!I.J. ~09. 2-12. 2.J5
2.J:t ~H . 2 t j . ~-l-7 Se-mitendinos us m uscle. 190 . 191. HI:!. 194 .
Patellar Ell . IY:i