Introduction:

, Slopes either occur naturally or are engineered by humans

, An understanding of geology, hydrology, and soil properties
is central to applying slope stability principles properly.
Analyses must be based upon a model that accurately
represents site sub surface conditions, ground ane
and applied loads. —
Time of Analysis
Safe and economic design of excavations, embankments,
earth dams, landfills, and spoil heaps .
Slope Stability = = == = = Introduction
Slope stability problem is greatest problem faced by the open pit
mining industry. The scale of slope stability problem is divided in to
two types:

Gross stability problem:

It refer to large volumes of materials which come down the slopes
due to large rotational type of shear failure and it involves deeply
weathered rock and soil. —f—
ee

Local stability problem:

This problem which refers to much smaller volume of material and
these type of failure effect one or two benches at atime due to shear
plane jointing, slope erosion due to surface drainage.
Slope Stability = = = Introduction
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Aim of slope stability:

To understand the development and form of natural and man

made slopes and the processes responsible for different
features.
To assess the stability of slopes under short-term (often during
construction) and long-term conditions.
To assess the possibility of slope failure evoniod S
existing engineered slopes.
To analyze slope stability and to understand failure mechanisms
and the influence of environmental factors.
To enable the redesign of failed slopes and the planning and
design of preventive and remedial measures, where necessary.
To study the effect of seismic loadings on slopes and
embankments.
Aim of slope stability:

Safe, properly designed, scientifically engineered

slope.

Profitability of open cast mines.

Design engineer/ scientist

Ex i ning: —
a

os Slope failure
oo Loss of production,
“ extra stripping costs to remove failed
material,
oo DGMS may close the mine
 Important Functions of Slope Stability
¢ Reduction of stripping ratio

¢ Reduction of incurred costs due to

Economics ——
deferred stripping

* Possible increase in ore reserve

Design
¢ Better awareness of condition of
slopes

* Design of support systems if

Safety —— required and economically justified

¢ Water control-surface and

underground
Important Functions of Slope Stability

¢ Design

¢ Excavation

¢ Prediction of failure

fo
 Slope Failure Terminology

TEMSICM CRACKS

EW ECHELON
CRACKS =
Waa INCI PiEMT
FAILURE
/ SURFACE
14 f
BuULGEO TOE SPOIL PILE

PIT BOTTOm
 Uk i Gibal
MAIN SCAKP
CROURO
SURFACE

FAILURE SURF ALE

MINOR SCAKP

Start Video Participants

 TYPES OF ROCK SLOPE FAILURES

Failure in Earth and Rock mass

Plane Failure
-Wedge Failure
-Circular Failure
-Toppling Failure
-Rock fall

Embankments
Failure in Earth, rock fill and spoil dumps and

Circular
-Non-circular semi-infinite slope
-Multiple block plane wedge
-Log spiral (bearing capacity of foundations)
-Flow slides and Mud flow
-Cracking
rGulling
-Erosion
Slide or Slump
Fig. Failure mechanisms for the sliding failure mode (After Brown,1994):
a) single block with single plane; b) single block with stepped planes; c)
multiple blocks with multiple planes; d) single wedge with two intersecting
planes; e) single wedge with multiple intersecting planes; f) multiple
wedges with multiple intersecting planes; and g) single block with circular
slip path
Plane Failure
Simple plane failure is the easiest form of rock slope failure to analyze. It occurs
when a discontinuity striking approximately parallel to the slope face and
dipping at a lower angle intersects the slope face, enabling the material above
the discontinuity to slide.
felesce tor faces
— tice of ait
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for slldlag

teh ip te
 Plane Failure

Geometrical Conditions for sliding on single Plane

failure: nS
* The plane on which sliding occurs must strke
parallel or nearly parallel (#20°) to the slope face
* The failure plane must “daylight” in the slope.
This means its dip must be smaller than the dip
of the slope face
* The dip of the failure plane must be greater than
angle of internal friction
* Release surfaces which provide negligible
resistance to sliding must be present in the
rockmass to define the lateral boundaries of the
slide. Alternatively, failure can occur on a failure
plane passing through the convex “nose” of a
slope. 3 eeeeee
 Plane Failure

Geometrical Conditions for sliding on single Plane

failure:
* The plane on which sliding occurs must strike
parallel or nearly parallel (#20°) to the slope face
* The failure plane must “daylight” in the slope.
This means its dip must be smaller than the dip
of the slope face >
* The dip of the failure plane must be greater than
angle of internal friction
* Release surfaces which provide negligible
resistance to sliding must be present in the
rockmass to define the lateral boundaries of the
slide. Alternatively, failure can occur on a failure
plane passing through the convex “nose” of a
slope. ® ee ee @
Wedge failure
Wedge failure can occur in rock masses with two or more sets of
discontinuities whose lines of intersection are approximately
perpendicular to the strike of the slope and dip toward the plane of the
slope.
Rope Cres
 Circular Failure

> Circular failures are generally occur in weak rock or soil slopes.
> Failures of this type do not necessarily occur along a purely circular
arc, some form of curved failure surface is normally apparent.
> Circular shear failures are influenced by the size and mechanical
properties of the particles in the soil or rock mass.

Face TO" Oeer SEATED

Fig: Circular Failure types

Toppling Failure
Toppling failures occur when columns of rock, formed by steeply
dipping discontinuities in the rock structure and it involves overturning
or rotation of rock layers
~~ |
 Rock Fall
In rock falls, a mass of any size is detached from a steep slope or cliff,
along a surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place, and
descends mostly through the air by free fall, leaping ep or ne
hoc ano Debi F am

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mage Remse A TS. !

PEE.
Cracking

» It is due to differential settlement of

the mine waste and suction level,
exceeding the tensile strength, is
reached.
>» Due to further drying, or in
subsequent dry periods, cracks can
grow until finally, the complete
thickness of the sealing layer is
penetrated
- The gulling was observed in many dumps and it is quite
dominant erosion mechanism.
- Gullies involve incision to depths often well in excess of a metre,
and remove large quantities of soil
 Slide or Slump

» Shallow failures involving slumping of saturated or partially saturated

dump materials. Concentrated surface flows discharging over the
dump crest.
» Slides, either in rock or soil, will have rotational or translational
movement
>» The sliding of material along a curved surface called a rotational slide
or slump.
>» Acommon cause of slG@mying i¢ ervsivn
at the base of a slope
a]
Long term impacts of river
Weathering
Slope Stability = —_ Factor affecting
slope stability
FACTORS AFFECTING SLOPE STABILITY
r Geological discontinuities of Rock Mass
- Geotechnical Properties of slope
- Groundwater and Rainfall (Force Due To Seepage of Water )
Geometry of slope (Gravitational Force )
State of stress
Erosion of the Surface of the Slopes due To Flowing Water
Seismic effect (Forces Due To Earthquakes )
Dynamic Forces due to Blasting and HEMM Movement

Slope modification, Under cutting

Temperature and Spontaneous Heating
Presence of UG galleries
Geological discontinuities of Rock Mass
Joints ‘f
Bedding Joints Intact rock
Joint spacing }
r

Joint direction and dipping Sircle joint sot ~~

Faults

Fig: idealized diagram

showing transition from
intact rock to jointed rock . a./
A “= s
a.

mass with increasing sample = JInted rock’

mass oY i
size ® @ ® a @ e@
~ “9S
SS‘ .
 Factors Affecting Slope Stability
Geological Structure:
The main geological structure which affect the stability of the slopes in
the open pit mines are:
” amount and direction of dip
» intra-formational shear zones
> joints and discontinuities e :
* Reduce shear strength ae .
* Change permeability \
* Actas sub surface drain
* Plains of failure
» faults
* weathering and alternation along the faults
* act as ground water conduits
* provides a probable plane of failure
Geotechnical Properties of slope
Shear strength of rock mass
Cohesion (C)
Angle of Internal friction (@)
Density ;
Permeability
Moisture Content
Particle size distribution
Angle of Repose
“Angle of repose” is the angle of steepest slope at which
material will remain stable when loosely piled;
 Soil Strength: Angle of Internal Friction '

tang'=p=FN

SSO

': Angle of plank when block slides ': Angle of repose of sand hep

L —— ——~ ——__—— LL
»
—
———_— ——_—— ———_———
‘

LL a
 Factors Affecting Slope Stability
Cohesion : It is the characteristic property of a rock or soil that
measures how well it resists being deformed or broken by forces
such as gravity. In soils/rocks true cohesion is caused by
electrostatic forces in stiff over consolidated clays, cementing by
Fe203, CaCO3, NaCl, etc and root cohesion.
ly
However the apparent cohesion is caused by negative capillary
pressure and pore pressure response during undrained loading.
Slopes having rocks/soils with less cohesion tend to be less stable

Angle of Internal Friction: Angle of internal friction is the angle

(©), measured between the normal force (N) and resultant force (R),
that is attained when failure just occurs in response to a shearing
stress (S).

Its tangent (S/N) is the coefficient of sliding friction. It is a measure of

the ability of a unit of rock or soil to withstand a shear stress. This is
affected by particle roundness and particle size.
Lower roundness or larger median particle size results in larger
friction angle. It is also &ffectéd DyqUartz content.
 Factors Affecting Slope Stability
Lithology
The rock materials forming a pit slope determines the rock mass
strength modified by discontinuities, faulting, folding, old workings and
weathering.
Low rock mass strength is characterized by circular raveling and rock
fall instability like the formation of slope in massive sandstone restrict
stability.
Pit slopes having alluvium or weathered rocks at the surface have low
shearing strength and the strength gets further reduced if water
seepage takes place through them. These types of slopes must be
flatter.
Ground Water
it causes the following:
alters the cohesion and frictional parameters and
reduce the normal effective stress
Ground water causes increased up thrust and driving water forces and
has adverse effect on the stability of the slopes. Physical and chemical
effect of pure water pressure in joints filling material can thus alter the
cohesion and friction of the discontinuity surface.
Physical and the chemical effect of the water pressure in the pores of
the rock cause a decrease in the compressive strength particularly
where confining stress has Seen reduced. °
Groundwater and Rainfall Water in Crack
Ground water occupying the fractures within 2 rock mass can
signin reduce the sabity of a rock soe. Water press
acting win a disoontnuty reduoes the efectne roma’ stess
acting on the plane, thus reducing the shear stengh along tet
wore menses lane. Waler pressures within discontinuithattiesrun roughly
parallel to a slope face also increase the driving forces acting on

> Presence of water — Flow of water - Not a big

problem.
>» Water flow checked — water storage- hydro.
L-- — ° preSsdre® ° ° °
Groundwater and Rainfall : Waterin pores

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Slope Geometry:

» The basic geometrical slope design parameters are height, overall slope
angle and area of failure surface.
» With increase in height the slope stability decreases.
>» The overall angle increases the possible extent of the development of the
any failure to the rear of the crests increases and it should be considered
so that the ground deformation at the mine peripheral area can be
avoided.
» Generally overall slope angle of 45° is considered to be safe by
Directorate General of Mines Safety (OGMS).
» Steeper and higher the height of slope less is the stability.

TS \ Fig: Typical Pit

Pal —a slope Geometry
 Factors Affecting Slope Stability
Mining Method and Equipment

Generally there are four methods of advance in open cast mines. They are:
» gstrike cut- advancing down the dip
» strike cut- advancing up the dip
» dip cut- along the strike
> open pit working
* The use of dip cuts with advance on the strike reduces the length and
time that a face is exposed during excavation. Dip cuts with advance
oblique to strike may often used to reduce the strata
* Dip cut generally offer the most stable method of working but suffer
from restricted production potential.
* Open pit method are used in steeply dipping seams, due to the
increased slope height are more prone to large slab/buckling modes of
failure.
* Mining equipment which piles on the benches of the open pit mine
gives rise to the increase in surcharge which in turn increases the
force which tends to pull the slope face downward and thus instability
occurs. Cases of ci?cuiar*faifuré inf spoil Gufnps are more pronounced.
 Seismic effect
» Seismic waves passing through rock adds stress which could cause
fracturing.
» Friction is reduced in unconsolidated masses as they are jarred apart.
» Liquefaction may be induced.
» One of the major hazards of earthquakes is the threat of landslides.
» This is particularly so because the most unstable parts of the earth are
at the plate boundaries and it is also here that young fold mountain
belts are formed and there are high relief and steep slopes
» Most open pit operators are familiar back break form blast, but most
people only consider the visible breakage behind the row of holes of the
blast
Dynamic Forces

* Blasting has a significant influence upon stability of slopes.

« Uncontrolled blasting-

~ over breaks, overhangs and extension of tension cracks.

~ Qpening & loss

of cohesion between weak planes.

~ shattering
of slope mass and
rallowi
gntkt Your microphone is muted ts
U Due to effect of blasting and vibration, shear stresses are
momentarily increased and as result dynamic acceleration of material
and thus increases the stability problem in the slope face. It causes
the ground motion and fracturing of rocks.
Slope Modification -
Modification of a slope either by humans or by natural causes can result in
changing the slope angie so that ft is no longer at the angle of repose. A mass-
wasting event can then restore the ecpe to its angle of repose.

Restred stable slope

Modified Slope Slide. slump.

/
/ Original Slope
* aA
7
;*
*
Undercutting - streams eroding their banks or surf action along a coast can
undercut a slope making it unstable.

Slide, slump,
or flow deposits

Undercut cliff
or steam bank

\) \
What do you do with a burning Coal face?
mel a
Dynamite was used to
loosen the Coal for
collection by a
powerful electric
Shovels.

But heat from the

explosion & an
exposed Coal seam
can sometimes be a
bad combination.

Fire erupts from the

Coal face!
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i
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r i
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t
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Fig. Plot of slope displacement versus time for prediction of failur

A. Plot of fastest moving point in the slope.
B. Plot of slavest moving point in the slope.
C. Prediction of slope failere date basad on existing data (extrapolation).
D. Predicted and actual date of failure.
 DGMS Guidelines for Benches or slopes design
Manual or Conventional Opencast Mines
In alluvial soil, morum, gravel, clay, debris or other similar ground —

> the sides shall be sloped al an angle of safety not exceeding 45 degrees from the
horizontal or such other angle as permitted by Regional Inspector of mines
» the sides shall be kept benched and the height of any bench shall not exceed 1.5
m and the breadth thereof shall not be less than the height:

>» In coal, the sides shall either be kept sloped at an angle of safety not exceeding
45 degree from the horizontal, or the sides shall be kept benched and the height
of any bench shall not exceed 3m and the width thereof shall not be less than the
height.
>» In an excavation in any hard and compact ground or in prospecting trenches or
pits, the sides shall be adequately benched, sloped or secured so as to prevent
danger from fall of sides. However the height of the bench shall not exceed 6 m.
>» No person shall undercut any face or side or cause or permit such undercutting as
to cause any overhanging.
 Parameters affecting the
Overburden Dump stability
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DGMS Guidelines for Formation of Spoil Banks and Dumps

(1) While removing overburden, the top soil shall be stacked al a separate place, so
that, the same is used to cover the reclaimed area.

(2) The slope of a spoil bank shall be determined by the natural angle of repose of
the material being deposited, but shall in no case exceed 37.5 degrees from the
horizontal. The spoil bank shall not be retained by artificial means at an angle in
excess of natural angle of repose or 37.5 degrees whichever is less.

(3) Loose overburden and other such maternal from opencast workings or other
rejects from washeries or from other source shall be dumped in such a manner
that there is no possibility of dumped material sliding.

(4) Any spoil bank exceeding 30m in height shall be benched so that no bench
exceeds 30m in height and the overall slope shall not exceed 1 vertical to 1.5
horizontal.

(5) The toe of a spoil-bank shall not be extended to any point within 45m of a mine
opening, railway or other public works, public road or building or other
permanent structure not belang’ng jo tbe owner.