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Electro-Hydraulic Transient Regimes in Isolated Pumps Working as Turbines

with Self-Excited Induction Generators

Article  in  Energies · September 2020

DOI: 10.3390/en13174521

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 energies
Article
Electro-Hydraulic Transient Regimes in Isolated
Pumps Working as Turbines with Self-Excited
Induction Generators
Filipe C. Madeira 1 , João F. P. Fernandes 2, * , Modesto Pérez-Sánchez 3 ,
P. Amparo López-Jiménez 3 , Helena M. Ramos 4 and P. J. Costa Branco 2
1 Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal;
filipe.c.madeira@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
2 IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal;
pbranco@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
3 Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering Department, Universitat Politècnica de València,
46022 Valencia, Spain; mopesan1@upv.es (M.P.-S.); palopez@upv.es (P.A.L.-J.)
4 Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources Department, CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; helena.ramos@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
* Correspondence: joao.f.p.fernandes@tecnico.ulisboa.pt




Received: 15 July 2020; Accepted: 27 August 2020; Published: 1 September 2020


Abstract: The use of pumps working as turbines (PATs) is a sustainable technical measure that
contributes to the improvement of energy efficiency in water systems. However, its performance
analysis in off-grid recovery systems is a complex task that must consider both hydraulic (PAT)
and electrical machines (typically a self-excited induction generator-SEIG). Aside from several
kinds of research that analyze the PAT-SEIG behavior under steady-state constant hydraulic
and electrical conditions, this research focuses on the analysis of PAT-SEIG transient regimes,
by analyzing their variation when a sudden change occurs in the hydraulic or electrical components.
Analytical models were developed to represent the operation of SEIG, PAT, and the PAT-SEIG coupled
system. Hydraulic and electromechanical experimental tests validated these models. An excellent fit
was obtained when analytical and experimental values were compared. With these models, the impact
on the operation of the PAT-SEIG system was examined when sudden change occurred in the excitation
capacitances, resistive loads, or recovered head. With a sudden increase of resistive load, the hydraulic
power and SEIG stator current remain almost constant. However, there is an increase of SEIG reactive
power, decreasing the PAT-SEIG efficiency. Also, with a sudden increase of SEIG capacitors or PAT
hydraulic head, the SEIG stator current increases once and not again, while PAT-SEIG efficiency
decreases, but the induction generator can be overloaded. The development of this research is key to
the advancement of future models which can analyze the coupling of micro-hydropower solutions.

Keywords: pump working as turbine (PAT); self-excited induction generator (SEIG); transient behavior

1. Introduction
Micro-hydro power generation has a high potential to be used in many water sector applications
where there is an excess of energy [1]. The sustainability improvement is focused on taking advantage
of the hydraulic energy of water systems (i.e., pressurized or free surface) and transforming it into
electric energy. This transformation needs the two main elements: a turbine and an electric generator.
Both elements operate together, and therefore the analysis of the recovery system must be developed
jointly for the water managers to maximize the efficiency improvement in their water systems [2].
One challenge regarding micro-hydro turbines is the cost of the turbine, which increases the initial

Energies 2020, 13, 4521; doi:10.3390/en13174521 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22

Energies 2020, 13, 4521 2 of 23

jointly for the water managers to maximize the efficiency improvement in their water systems [2].
One challenge regarding micro-hydro turbines is the cost of the turbine, which increases the initial
investment,
investment, makingmakingititalmostalmost impracticable
impracticable in small
in small communities
communities or off-grid
or off-grid locations locations
[3]. One[3]. One
solution
solution
is the useisofthe use ofworking
pumps pumps as working
turbines as(PATs)
turbines (PATs)
since since
they can theyincan
work work in
reversed reversed
mode, mode, way
in a similar in a
similar way as a turbine [4]. PAT is a hydraulic machine, and it requires
as a turbine [4]. PAT is a hydraulic machine, and it requires an electrical machine to operate. Typically, an electrical machine to
operate. Typically, commercial pumps use induction machines
commercial pumps use induction machines to convert electric power into mechanical power, and this to convert electric power into
mechanical
machine is one power, andmost
of the this machine is oneavailable
cost-effective of the most cost-effective
solutions availableInduction
in the market. solutions in the market.
machines can
Induction machines can also work in generator
also work in generator mode, connected to the grid or off-grid. mode, connected to the grid or off-grid.
In this work,
In this work,the theuseuseofof
PAT PAT in rural
in rural areasareas
wherewhere grid connection
grid connection may not may not be possible
be possible due to
due to physical
physical or legal constraints will be analyzed. To work in off-grid
or legal constraints will be analyzed. To work in off-grid mode, the induction generator requires an mode, the induction generator
requires an external
external source sourcepower.
of reactive of reactive power. The
The reactive powerreactive
source power
can besource can coupled
a battery be a batteryto thecoupled
machine to
the
by anmachine
inverter byoranainverter or a set ofconnected
set of capacitors capacitorsdirectly
connected to thedirectly
machine.to theThemachine. The latterissolution
latter solution called a
is called a self-excited induction generator (SEIG). PAT and SEIG are
self-excited induction generator (SEIG). PAT and SEIG are coupled mechanically by a shaft operating coupled mechanically by a shaft
operating as PAT+SEIG system (Figure 1). The analysis of this symbiosis
as PAT+SEIG system (Figure 1). The analysis of this symbiosis is crucial since the global efficiency is crucial since the global
of
efficiency
the recovery of system
the recovery systemdepends
(PAT+SEIG) (PAT+SEIG) on eachdepends
one ofon each
their one of their
efficiencies (i.e.,efficiencies
fluid mechanical(i.e., fluid
and
mechanical
electrical). Whenand electrical). When these
these efficiencies efficiencies
are analyzed, are analyzed,
the maximum the maximum
efficiency is locatedefficiency
on different is located
points.
on different
Therefore, thepoints.
maximum Therefore,
efficiencytheinmaximum
the PAT cannotefficiency in the PAT
be coincident withcannot be coincident
the maximum efficiencywith of the
the
maximum efficiency of the SEIG [5]. Another important aspect of these
SEIG [5]. Another important aspect of these hydraulic-electromechanical systems is the investigation of hydraulic-electromechanical
systems
transientisbehaviors
the investigation
due to suddenof transient
changes. behaviors
The study due to sudden
of these types changes.
of influencesThe in study of these
the system is types
of the
of influences
utmost importancein theduesystem is of
to their the utmost
effects on control importance
stability. Fordueexample,
to their in effects
[6], a on
statecontrol
feedbackstability. For
predictive
example, in [6], a state feedback predictive control was applied to a hydro-turbine
control was applied to a hydro-turbine governing system to increase the control performance in the case governing system
to
of increase the control performance
external disturbances. Also, the effectin theof acase of external
sudden drop in disturbances.
the prime mover Also, the effect
speed of a(without
of a SEIG sudden
drop in the
the PAT) was prime mover
analyzed speed
in [7]. of a effects,
These SEIG (without
of sudden thechanges,
PAT) was may analyzed
have an in [7]. These
additional effects, of
influence in
sudden changes, may have an
PAT-SEIG systems during off-grid operation.additional influence in PAT-SEIG systems during off-grid operation.

Figure 1. PAT+SEIG scheme. Hydraulic and electrical circuit.

Figure 1. PAT+SEIG scheme. Hydraulic and electrical circuit.
The modeling of water systems, as well as the PATs regulation, were considered in many research
The modeling
publications. of water
Carravetta systems,
et al. as well
[8] defined as the PATs
the different regulation,
regulation typeswere
(i.e., considered in many
hydraulic, electrical,
research publications. Carravetta
and hydraulic-electrical modes). Theseet al.regulation
[8] defined the different
modes regulation
were compared types (i.e.,
in different waterhydraulic,
systems
electrical, and hydraulic-electrical modes). These regulation modes were compared in different
showing the variability of energy recovery according to the chosen strategy [9]. Different research water
systems
works alsoshowing theonvariability
focused of energy
PAT operation recovery according
and efficiency. to the
The analysis of chosen strategy [9].
the tip clearance on Different
pressure
fluctuation intensity in PATs [10], cavitation performance and forces [11], or analysis of leakages [12],
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 3 of 23
research works also focused on PAT operation and efficiency. The analysis of the tip clearance on
pressure fluctuation intensity in PATs [10], cavitation performance and forces [11], or analysis of
are also important
leakages [12], arefactors to be considered.
also important factors toAll
be these analyses
considered. Allare crucial
these to improve
analyses the management
are crucial to improve
ofthe
themanagement
PATs. Accordingly, different
of the PATs. optimization
Accordingly, strategies
different were considered
optimization strategiestowere
locate the recovery
considered to
locate the
systems recovery
in water systems[13]
systems. in water systems.the
summarized [13]different
summarized the different
optimization optimization
procedures procedures
to maximize the
to maximize
recovered energythein recovered energyOther
the water sector. in the water sector.
researches Other researches
also considered also considered
the maximization the
of recovered
maximization
energy in waterof recovered
systems [14],energy
but few in water systems
considered the[14], but few for
singularity considered the singularity
PATs operating for PATs
in off-grid mode.
operating in off-grid mode. In this operation mode, the electrical efficiency acquires
In this operation mode, the electrical efficiency acquires a greater significance, and the maximization of a greater
significance,
the and therequires
recovered energy maximization of the
a detailed recovered
analysis energy
due to requires acomplexity.
the associated detailed analysis due to the
associated complexity.
Hence, this research focuses on analyzing the binomial hydraulic-electromechanical interaction
systemHence, this research
of Figure 1. It isfocuses
composedon analyzing
of a pumpthe binomial
workinghydraulic-electromechanical
as a turbine (PAT) and aninteractioninduction
system of
machine Figure 1.
working asIta is composed induction
self-excited of a pumpgenerator
working as(SEIG),
a turbine (PAT)
which and an induction
is connected machine
to the PAT via a
working as a self-excited induction generator (SEIG), which is connected to the
mechanical shaft. Inputs for the PAT+SEIG system are a differential pressure for the PAT imposed PAT via a mechanical
byshaft. Inputs for the PAT+SEIG
upstream-downstream tanks,system are a differential
the electrical load, andpressure for the PAT
the excitation imposed
capacitor bankbyofupstream-
the SEIG.
downstream tanks, the electrical load, and the excitation capacitor bank
A hydraulic-electromechanical model was developed to simulate the behavior of the PAT and SEIGof the SEIG. A hydraulic-
electromechanical model was developed to simulate the behavior of the PAT and SEIG systems. The
systems. The developed model was tuned with experimental data. The final model was validated,
developed model was tuned with experimental data. The final model was validated, and it showed
and it showed sufficiently accurate results for the overall system dynamics.
sufficiently accurate results for the overall system dynamics.
These analyses are representative of the system, and they allow operators to know the interaction
These analyses are representative of the system, and they allow operators to know the
between water and electrical machine through their different components of each part. This analysis is
interaction between water and electrical machine through their different components of each part.
an important step forward to analyze the behavior of PAT+SEIG systems, which could be associated in
This analysis is an important step forward to analyze the behavior of PAT+SEIG systems, which could
serial or parallel in water pipe systems.
be associated in serial or parallel in water pipe systems.
2. Self-Excited Induction Generator Model
2. Self-Excited Induction Generator Model
The self-excited induction generator (SEIG) was modeled using a dq0 transformation [15] to
The self-excited induction generator (SEIG) was modeled using a dq0 transformation [15] to
capture the transient behavior of its electrical and magnetic quantities. Also, the change of the
capture the transient behavior of its electrical and magnetic quantities. Also, the change of the
machine’s magnetizing inductance, LM , due to its non-linear B(H) characteristic was considered, as it
machine’s magnetizing inductance, 𝐿 , due to its non-linear B(H) characteristic was considered, as it
highly influences the choice of the correct capacitance to self-excite the machine for a specific operating
highly influences the choice of the correct capacitance to self-excite the machine for a specific
point [5] (different speeds and loads). The evolution of the magnetizing inductance as a function of the
operating point [5] (different speeds and loads). The evolution of the magnetizing inductance as a
magnetization
function of theflux used here was
magnetization fluxdetermined experimentally
used here was in [5], for the induction
determined experimentally machine
in [5], for the used
induction
inmachine
the experimental
used in theresults. The SEIG
experimental model
results. Thewas developed
SEIG model was indeveloped
Simulink, inand it can beand
Simulink, observed
it can bein
Figure 2.
observed in Figure 2.

Figure2.2. SEIG
Figure SEIG model
model block
block diagram.
diagram.

Thedqdqinduction
The inductionmachine
machinemodel
modelwaswas developed
developed using
using aa stationary
stationaryreference
referenceframe,
frame,aligned
alignedwith
with
phase A of the stator windings. Being all machine phases symmetric, the homopolar
phase A of the stator windings. Being all machine phases symmetric, the homopolar term will be null. term will be null.
The
dqdq stator and rotor equationsareare shown in (1) to (4). In and
(1) and
(2) u(2) 𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑖 and 𝑖 are the d
The stator and rotor equations shown in (1) to (4). In (1) ds , uqs , ids and iqs are the d and q
andstator
axes q axes stator voltages
voltages and currents,
and currents, respectively,
respectively, being its being
units Vitsand
units
A. V Ψdand
s
andA.Ψ𝛹qs are
and the𝛹d and
are the d
q axes
and q axes stator linkage fluxes and 𝑅 is the stator phase resistance. In (3) and
stator linkage fluxes and R is the stator phase resistance. In (3) and (4), i , i , Ψ and Ψ are the d (4), 𝑖 , 𝑖 , 𝛹 and
s dr qr dr qr
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 4 of 23

and q axes rotor currents and linkage fluxes, respectively, Rr is the rotor phase resistance (referred to
the stator), and ωr is the rotor angular speed in rad/s [15].

dΨds
uds = Rs ids + (1)
dt
dΨqs
uqs = Rs iqs + (2)
dt
dΨdr
0 = Rr idr + − ωr Ψqr (3)
dt
dΨqr
0 = Rr iqr + + ω r Ψ dr (4)
dt
The relation between the stator and rotor linkage fluxes and the corresponding currents are
presented in (5)–(8).
Ψds = Ls ids + LM idr (5)

Ψqs = Ls iqs + LM iqr (6)

Ψdr = Lr idr + LM ids (7)

Ψqr = Lr iqr + LM iqs (8)

The electromagnetic torque, Tem , developed by the induction machine can be computed by (9),
where npp is the pair poles.
3  
Tem = npp Ψds iqs − Ψqs ids (9)
2
After the computation of the torque, the machine’s stator voltage and currents are converted into
the three-phase quantities, a, b, and c, so that they can be compared with experimental values.

2.1. Magnetizing Inductance

As shown in [5], the SEIG model accuracy drastically increases when considering the variation of
the magnetizing inductance, LM , with the magnitude of the magnetization flux, φM . More specifically,
for different resistive loads (RL = 120, 200 and 600 Ω), the deviation between experimental and numerical
induction generator model decreased by about 37%, to an average deviation of 10.7%. The evolution
of LM with the magnetization flux was obtained experimentally in [5] and was approximated by
the polynomial Equation in (10). This equation shows the experimentally calculated magnetizing
inductance as a function of φm for the range of frequencies 20–60 Hz.
The effect of the magnetic flux in LM was included in the dq SEIG model through Equations (5)–(8).
In each time instant, the model calculates the magnetic flux of the SEIG and chooses the correct value
of LM . As the magnetic flux depends on the stator and rotor’s currents, the calculation of LM must be
an iterative process in each time step. Fernandes et al. [5] defined the magnetizing inductance by the
following equation:

LM (φM ) = 0.2192(φM )3 − 0.8093(φM )2 + 0.5531φM + 0.53 (10)

The magnetization flux can be computed using (11), where φdm and φqm are the d and q axes
magnetization fluxes, which can be obtained using (12) and (13).
q
φm = φd m 2 + φqm 2 (11)

φd m = Ψds − Ls ids (12)

φqm = Ψqs − Ls iqs (13)

 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22

Energies 2020, 13, 4521 5 of 23

𝜙 =𝛹 − 𝐿𝑖 (13)

2.2. Capacitor and Electrical Load Models

2.2. Capacitor and Electrical Load Models
The
Energies SEIG
2020, 13, xrequired
FOR PEER a set of capacitors (i.e., one per phase) to self-excite. The capacitors
REVIEW are
5 of 22
The SEIG
responsible required the
for providing a set of capacitors
required reactive(i.e.,
power oneforper
thephase)
inductionto self-excite.
machine to The
createcapacitors
the rotating are
responsible
magnetic forHowever,
field. providingtothe required
start reactive power
the self-excitation for the induction machine to create the rotating
𝜙 = 𝛹 process, − 𝐿 𝑖 the capacitors require a voltage to provide (13)to
magnetic field. However, to start the self-excitation
reactive power. This means that, with the induction machine process, the capacitors
rotating, no machine require
voltagea isvoltage
induced
provide
until reactive
provided withpower. This
reactive means
power, andthat, with thepower
no reactive induction machine
is produced rotating,
without no machine
applying voltage
a voltage to theis
capacitors. Therefore, to start the excitation process, it is required an initial voltage. This initial voltagea
induced
2.2. until
Capacitor provided
and with
Electrical Loadreactive
Models power, and no reactive power is produced without applying
voltage
can be to theincapacitors.
stored Therefore,
the capacitors, with to initial
an start the excitation
charge, process,byit the
is required an initialinduced
voltage.
The SEIG required a set of capacitors (i.e., one orperprovided
phase) to remnant
self-excite. Thevoltage
capacitors are
This
at theinitial
inductionvoltage can be stored
machine’s stator in the capacitors,
terminals due to with an initial in
asymmetries charge, or provided
its magnetic by the remnant
circuit.
responsible for providing the required reactive power for the induction machine to createThe residue
the rotating
voltage induced by
voltage at the
the induction
induction generator
machine’sinstator terminalswasdue to asymmetries the in its magnetic
magneticinducedfield. However, to start the self-excitation our systemprocess, enough
the to start
capacitors require self-excitation
a voltage to
circuit.
process. The residue
This remnant voltage
inducedinduced
voltage by the
was induction
measured generator in
experimentally our system was
for different enough
speeds to start the
(Figure
provide reactive power. This means that, with the induction machine rotating, no machine voltage3). is
self-excitation
This shows the process. This remnant
phase-to-neutral rms induced
value of the voltage
remnant was measured
induced voltageexperimentally
as a function for
of its different
angular
induced until provided with reactive power, and no reactive power is produced without applying a
speeds (Figure 3). Thisremnant
shows voltage
the phase-to-neutral rms from
value(14).
of the remnant induced voltage as a
voltageNto
speed, r . Each phase
the capacitors. Therefore, to can startbethe
calculated
excitation process, it is required an initial voltage.
function of its angular speed, 𝑁 . Each phase remnant voltage can be calculated from (14).
This initial voltage can be stored in the capacitors, with an initial charge, or provided by the remnant
uremrms = 0.00086Nr R2 = 0.999) (14)
𝑢 =
voltage induced at the induction machine’s stator terminals 0.00086𝑁 (𝑅 = 0.999)
due to asymmetries in its magnetic (14)
circuit. The residue voltage induced by the induction generator in our system was enough to start the
self-excitation process. 1
This remnant induced voltage was measured experimentally for different
speeds (Figure 3). This shows the phase-to-neutral rms value of the remnant induced voltage as a
function of its angular speed, 𝑁 . Each phase remnant voltage can be calculated from (14).

0.5 𝑢 = 0.00086𝑁 (𝑅 = 0.999) (14)

1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Nr (rpm)
0.5
Figure 3. Induced
Figure 3. Induced remnant
remnant voltage
voltage of
of the
the induction
induction machine
machinefor
fordifferent
differentrotational
rotationalspeeds.
speeds.

Figure
Figure4 4shows
shows thethe
capacitor and and
capacitor load load with the
with induction machinemachine
the induction in parallel. in The set ofThe
parallel. equations
set of
that expresses its 0
behavior is given by (15). The capacitor bank receives the stator current of the
equations that expresses 0 its behavior
200 is 400
given by (15).600 The capacitor800 bank
1000receives the stator current
1200
induction machine and the current of the
of the induction machine and the current of theNresistive resistive load. It calculates the stator
(rpm) load. It calculates the stator voltage, which voltage, which is
r
required for the induction machine and resistive blocks.
is required for the induction machine and resistive blocks. In (15), In (15), u and
sa,b,c 𝑢 i are the stator voltage
and 𝑖 , , are the stator
sa,b,c
, ,
and currentFigure
of 3. Induced
each remnant
machine’s voltage
phase, i ofare
thethe
induction
load machine
current of for
eachdifferent
load rotational
phase, andspeeds.
uremphase, are and
the
voltage and current of each machine’s R a,b,cphase, 𝑖 are the load current of each load a,b,c
, ,
induced remnant voltages in (14).
𝑢 Figure
, ,
are4the induced
shows the remnant
capacitorvoltages
and load in (14).
with the induction machine in parallel. The set of
R
equations that expresses its behavior
usa,b,c = C1 byiC(15).
= uCa,b,cis given a,b,c
dtThe capacitor
+ urem a,b,c
bank receives the stator current
of the induction machine and the current of1the R resistive
 load.It calculates the stator voltage, which
= − isa,b,c + iRa,b,c dt + urema,b,c (15)
is required for the induction machine andCresistive
R 
blocks. In
Usa,b,c
 (15), 𝑢 , , and 𝑖 , , are the stator
voltage and current of each machine’s phase, = − C1 𝑖 i,sa,b,c,
+ the
are R load dt + current
urema,b,c of each load phase, and
𝑢 , ,
are the induced remnant voltages in (14).

Figure 4. Connection between induction machine, capacitors and resistive load.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Connection
Connection between
between induction machine, capacitors
induction machine, capacitors and
and resistive
resistive load.
load.
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 6 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

3. Pump as a Turbine (PAT) 1

𝑢 Model
=𝑢 , ,
=
𝑖 , , 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑢
, , , ,
𝐶
1 also developed to couple with the SEIG model. The PAT
The pump as a turbine (PAT) model was
= − 𝑖 , , + 𝑖 , , 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑢 , ,
(15)
𝐶
model was based on the experimental curves obtained in [2,5], which were obtained for different
1 𝑢 , ,
= − the𝑖 relation
speeds and hydraulic power. In these works, , ,
+ between 𝑑𝑡 +head
𝑢 and
, ,
flow were acquired for
𝐶 𝑅
different turbine speeds. The PAT characteristic curve can be defined by (16), according to [4,8,16],
where H is the recovered head in meters water column (m w.c.), Q is the flow in l/s and A, B, and C are
3. Pump as a Turbine (PAT) Model
non-dimensional coefficients, which depend on the machine characteristics.
The pump as a turbine (PAT) model was also developed to couple with the SEIG model. The
PAT model was based on the experimental curves 2 which were obtained for different
H (m w.c. ) = Aobtained
+ BQ +inCQ
[2,5], (16)
speeds and hydraulic power. In these works, the relation between head and flow were acquired for
different
In turbine
this case, the speeds. The PATwas
used machine characteristic
Etanormcurve canKSB.
32-125 be defined by (16), according
The calibrated to [4,8,16],
characteristic curve is
where H is the recovered
defined by Equation (17) [5]: head in meters water column (m w.c.), Q is the flow in l/s and A, B, and C
are non-dimensional coefficients, which depend on the machine characteristics.
H (m w.c. 𝑐. ) =
𝐻 )𝑚=𝑤.3.66 −𝐴 + 𝐵𝑄 +
694.45Q 314560Q2
+ 𝐶𝑄 (16) (17)
In this case, the used machine was Etanorm 32-125 KSB. The calibrated characteristic curve is
To obtain the new characteristic curves when the rotational speed changes, the affinity laws can be
defined by Equation (17) [5]:
used, according to (18) [17], where α is the ratio between rotational speed Nr and the nominal rotational
𝐻 N
speed (Nre f ). In this research, the 𝑚 𝑤. =𝑐. )1050
= 3.66 − 694.45Q + 314560Q
rpm. (17)
re f
To obtain the new characteristic curves when the rotational speed changes, the affinity laws can
2
be used, according to (18) [17], whereH=𝛼 isα the
A +ratio + CQ2 rotational speed 𝑁 and the nominal (18)
αBQbetween
rotational speed (𝑁 ). In this research, the 𝑁 = 1050 rpm.
Therefore, the used head curve to develop the hydraulic model was defined by (19), where α
𝐻 = 𝛼 𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵𝑄 + 𝐶𝑄 (18)
can be any value from 0.4 to 1.2. This range was defined considering the possibility of using the
similarity Therefore,
laws [16]. the
Outused head
of this curvethe
range, to analytical
develop themodel
hydraulic
basedmodel was defined
on similarity by which
laws, (19), where 𝛼 the
defines
can be any value from 0.4 to 1.2. This range was defined considering the possibility of using the
operational curve, may incur high deviations.
similarity laws [16]. Out of this range, the analytical model based on similarity laws, which defines
the operational curve, may incur high2 deviations. 2
H = α 3.66 − α694.45Q + 314560Q (19)
𝐻 = 𝛼 3.66 − 𝛼694.45𝑄 + 314560𝑄 (19)
The PAT efficiency, ηPAT , was also estimated using experimental results obtained in [2]. Figure 5
The PAT efficiency, 𝜂 , was also estimated using experimental results obtained in [2]. Figure
shows the efficiency
5 shows surface
the efficiency using
surface a linear
using a linearinterpolation
interpolation of theexperimental
of the experimental points
points for different
for different
operational points and rotational speeds.
operational points and rotational speeds.

Figure
Figure 5.5.PAT
PATefficiency
efficiency experimental
experimental curve.
curve.

The PAT was was

The PAT modeled through
modeled through two
twomain
mainrelations: itsefficiency
relations: its efficiency mapping
mapping is ais a function
function of PATof PAT
rotational speed and head curve (see Figure 5), and the Equation (19) to compute the flow as a as
rotational speed and head curve (see Figure 5), and the Equation (19) to compute the flow a
function
function of the PAT head and its rotational speed. Considering the differential pressure
of the PAT head and its rotational speed. Considering the differential pressure (dPrh ) imposed by the (dP rh)

differential pressure tanks to the PAT terminals (PS1-PS2 in Figure 1), the PAT head can be computed
using (20), where ρ is the water density (1000 kg/m3 ) and g is the standard acceleration due to gravity
(9.81 m/s).
dPrh
H= (20)
ρg
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 22

imposed by the differential pressure tanks to the PAT terminals (PS1-PS2 in Figure 1), the PAT head
can be computed using (20), where 𝜌 is the water density (1000 kg/m3) and 𝑔 is the standard
Energies 2020, 13, 4521
acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s). 7 of 23

𝑑𝑃
𝐻= (20)
𝜌𝑔
Based on the head and SEIG-PAT speed, ωr , (resulting from the interaction between the PAT, SEIG,
capacitors andon
Based electrical
the headload), the hydraulic
and SEIG-PAT 𝜔 , (resulting
speed,and mechanical torque,
from Th and Tbetween
the interaction mec can be
thecomputed
PAT,
SEIG, capacitors and electrical
using (21) and (22), respectively. load), the hydraulic and mechanical torque, 𝑇 and 𝑇 can be
computed using (21) and (22), respectively.
P = ρgHQ, T = P /ωr (21)
h h h
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄, 𝑇 = 𝑃 /𝜔 (21)
Pmec = Ph ηPAT , Tmec = Pmec /ωr (22)

Figure 6 shows the block diagram 𝑃 =of𝑃 the

𝜂 PAT, 𝑇
model.= 𝑃At /𝜔this point, it should be noted(22) that the
PAT model does6 not
Figure include
shows the modeling
the block diagram ofofthethePATwater pipeAtsystem
model. and it
this point, the existing
should flow control
be noted that the tank,
as shown in Figure
PAT model does1.notTherefore,
include thethemodeling
transientofhydraulic
the water dynamics
pipe system related
and thetoexisting
the waterflowcirculation
control in
tank, as shown
the conveyance in Figure
circuit and its1.effects
Therefore,
on thethePATtransient hydraulic since
were neglected, dynamics
this related
analysistowasthe developed
water
circulation
in [17,18]. in the conveyance circuit and its effects on the PAT were neglected, since this analysis was
developed in [17,18].

Tmec =Thη PAT

Figure PATmodel.
Figure 6. PAT model.

Finally, the the

Finally, connection
connection between
betweenthe
theSEIG
SEIG and PATsystems
and PAT systemsareare represented
represented through
through the dynamic
the dynamic
mechanical
mechanical Equations
Equations (23) (23)
and and
(24),(24),
where Tlosses𝑇 correspond
where correspond
onlyonly
to thetoexperimental
the experimental values
values obtained
obtained for the friction and windage losses in SEIG. The overall diagram of the PAT-SEIG
for the friction and windage losses in SEIG. The overall diagram of the PAT-SEIG system is shown system is in
shown in Figure 7. The model inputs are the PAT head (H) and the values of the balanced
Figure 7. The model inputs are the PAT head (H) and the values of the balanced resistive three-phase resistive
three-phase load and the capacitor bank.
load and the capacitor bank.
𝑑𝜔
𝐽
dωr= 𝑇 − 𝑇 − 𝑇 (23)
𝑑𝑡
JPAT+SEIG = Tmec − Tem − Tlosses (23)
dt
𝑇 = 1.05 × 10 𝑁 (24)
Tlosses = 1.05 × 10−5 Nr (24)
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

Tmec =Thη PAT

 dt

Figure7.7. SEIG-PAT
Figure SEIG-PAT model.
model.

4. PAT-SEIG Model Validation

To validate the developed model, experimental setups were built. The error analysis between
simulated and experimental data was done using different error indexes. In this research, to evaluate
the fitness of the proposed model, four indicators were proposed:
• I1. Nash–Sutcliffe index (NSI). This index is a fit indicator, which is used in temporal series. NSI
value oscillates between −∞ and 1. When values are below 0, the fit is considered poor. When
the values are above 0, the model is considered good. Table 1 shows the used ranges to define
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 8 of 23

4. PAT-SEIG Model Validation

To validate the developed model, experimental setups were built. The error analysis between
simulated and experimental data was done using different error indexes. In this research, to evaluate
the fitness of the proposed model, four indicators were proposed:

• I1. Nash–Sutcliffe index (NSI). This index is a fit indicator, which is used in temporal series.
NSI value oscillates between −∞ and 1. When values are below 0, the fit is considered poor.
When the values are above 0, the model is considered good. Table 1 shows the used ranges to
define the fit according to NSI values. NSI is defined by (25) where Ei is the experimental value in
each interval, Ei is the average of the observed values and Si is the simulated value in each interval.

[Ei − Si ]2
PN
NSI = 1 − P i=1h i2 (25)
N
i=1 Ei − Ei

• I2. Root Relative squared error (RRSE). It measures the error of the model by normalizing the
variable. Perfect fits are defined when the RRSE value is zero. The efficiency of the simulation is
better when the RRSE value is low. This index is defined by (26).
v
u
− Si ]2
t PN
u
i=1 [Ei
RRSE = PN h i2 (26)
i=1 Ei − Ei

• I3. Mean relative deviation (MRD). The index defines the significance of the error concerning
variable value (27). The fit is good when MRD has values close to 0.
x
X |Oi − Pi |/Pi
MRD = (27)
x
1

• I4. Bias (BIAS). This index compares the tendency of the simulated values, determining if the
simulated values are lower or higher than experimental data (28). The model overestimates if
BIAS is negative. When BIAS is positive, the variable is underestimated by the model. The optimal
value is zero when BIAS is analyzed.
PN
i=1 [Oi − Pi ]
BIAS = PN (28)
i=1 [Oi ]

Table 1. Classification of best fit, according to [19,20].

Goodness Fit NSI RRSE BIAS

Very Good NSI > 0.6 0.00 ≤ RRSE ≤ 0.50 BIAS < ±0.10
Good 0.40 < NSI ≤ 0.60 0.50 < RRSE ≤ 0.60 ±0.10 ≤ BIAS < ±0.15
Satisfactory 0.20 < NSI ≤ 0.40 0.60 < RRSE ≤ 0.70 ±0.15 ≤ BIAS < ±0.25
Unsatisfactory NSI < 0.20 RRSE > 0.70 BIAS > ±0.25

Table 1 shows the range values defining the goodness of the model when NSI, RRSE and BIAS are
considered. These indexes were classified in very good, good, satisfactory, and unsatisfactory. The main
indexes to measure the goodness of the model are the NSI, RRSE, and BIAS, according to [19,20].
The MRD value does not have a defined range for each classification. However, it provides additional
information about the relative deviation between experimental and simulation results.
 Table 1. Classification of best fit, according to [19,20].

Goodness Fit NSI RRSE BIAS

Very Good NSI > 0.6 0.00 ≤ RRSE ≤ 0.50 BIAS ±0.10
Good 0.40 < NSI ≤ 0.60 0.50 < RRSE ≤ 0.60 ±0.10 BIAS ±0.15
Energies 2020, Satisfactory
13, 4521 0.20 < NSI ≤ 0.40 0.60 < RRSE ≤ 0.70 ±0.15 BIAS ±0.25 9 of 23
Unsatisfactory NSI < 0.20 RRSE > 0.70 BIAS ±0.25

4.1. Self-Excited Induction Generator: d–q Model Validation

4.1. Self-Excited Induction Generator: d–q Model Validation
Experimental tests were done to validate the d–q SEIG model under steady-state and transient
Experimental tests were done to validate the d–q SEIG model under steady-state and transient
conditions. For this, an experimental setup was developed in the Electrical Machines laboratory at
conditions. For this, an experimental setup was developed in the Electrical Machines laboratory at
Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), consisting of the SEIG driven by a DC motor, to impose the SEIG
Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), consisting of the SEIG driven by a DC motor, to impose the SEIG
external torque, and a resistive electric load.
external torque, and a resistive electric load.
Figure 8 shows the “wye” squirrel-cage induction machine used as SEIG. Its rated values are
Figure 8 shows the “wye” squirrel-cage induction machine used as SEIG. Its rated values are
listed in Table 2. The rated power and efficiency are PN = 0.55 kW and ηN = 68%, being its nominal
listed in Table 2. The rated power and efficiency are 𝑃 = 0.55 kW and 𝜂 = 68%, being its nominal
slip, sN , equal to 9%. Figure 9 shows the experimental setup. It is composed by two components.
slip, 𝑠 , equal to 9%. Figure 9 shows the experimental setup. It is composed by two components. An
An electromechanical
electromechanical component
component associated
associated withwith
a DCa DC motor
motor coupled
coupled mechanically
mechanically to the
to the SEIGSEIG to
to act
actan
as as external
an external torque
torque sourcesource to the
to the generator
generator (Figure
(Figure 9a) 9a)
andand an electric
an electric circuit
circuit component
component mademadeby
by the variable capacitor and resistor banks, being both connected in parallel to the
the variable capacitor and resistor banks, being both connected in parallel to the stator coils of thestator coils of
the induction
induction generator
generator (Figure
(Figure 9b).9b). A general
A general overview
overview of the
of the twotwo experimental
experimental setup
setup components
components is
is shown in Figure 9c. It shows the electric grid connected to an auto-transformer,
shown in Figure 9c. It shows the electric grid connected to an auto-transformer, which feeds which feeds the
the
armature of
armature the DC
of the DC separated-excitation
separated-excitation motor
motor by
by aa diode
diode bridge
bridge rectifier.
rectifier. The
The DC
DC machine
machine is is rigidly
rigidly
connected to
connected to the
the induction
induction generator
generator that
that feeds
feeds aa capacitor
capacitor and
and variable
variable resistive
resistive bank.
bank.

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEERFigure

REVIEW 8. Squirrel-cage
Squirrel-cage induction machine used as SEIG. 10 of 22

Table 2. Nameplate data of the squirrel-cage induction machine used as SEIG.

Frequency 50 Hz
Voltage 400 V
Current 1.6 A
Output Power 0.55 kW
Power factor 0.73
Speed 910 rpm

Figure9.9.Experimental
Figure Experimental setup to test
setup to the
testSEIG,
the isolated from thefrom
SEIG, isolated PAT: (a)
theDC motor
PAT: (a)coupled mechanically
DC motor coupled
to the SEIG, (b)tovariable
mechanically capacitor
the SEIG, and resistor
(b) variable banks
capacitor andboth connected
resistor banksinboth
parallel to the stator
connected coils of
in parallel to the
the
induction
stator coilsgenerator, (c) scheme
of the induction of two experimental
generator, (c) scheme of setup components.setup components.
two experimental

The first series of tests were done to validate the transient dynamics of the induction generator
during its initial self-excitation. Without the capacitor bank and resistive load, the generator is
accelerated to a constant reference speed. During this operating condition and without the capacitor
bank connected, the generator stator voltage is the remnant one, as indicated in Figure 3, for a speed
of 𝑁 = 830 rpm, 𝑢 = 0.71 V . Next, the capacitor bank is connected to begin the self-
excitation process. Figure 10 shows the experimental (blue line) and simulated (red line) stator
voltage results of the SEIG excitation process using two different capacitor bank values: (a) C = 50 μF
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 10 of 23

Table 2. Nameplate data of the squirrel-cage induction machine used as SEIG.

Frequency 50 Hz
Voltage 400 V
Figure 9. Experimental setup to test the SEIG, isolated1.6
Current A the PAT: (a) DC motor coupled
from
Output Power 0.55 kW
mechanically to the SEIG, (b) variable capacitor and resistor banks both connected in parallel to the
Power factor 0.73
stator coils of the induction generator, (c) scheme of two experimental
Speed 910 rpm setup components.

The first series of tests were done to validate the transient dynamics of the induction generator
during Theitsfirst series
initial of tests were done
self-excitation. Withoutto validate the transient
the capacitor bank and dynamics of the
resistive induction
load, generator
the generator is
during its initial self-excitation. Without the capacitor bank and resistive
accelerated to a constant reference speed. During this operating condition and without the capacitor load, the generator is
accelerated
bank connected,to a constant reference
the generator stator speed.
voltageDuring
is thethis operating
remnant one, condition
as indicated andinwithout
Figure 3,the forcapacitor
a speed
bank connected,
of 𝑁 = 830 rpm, 𝑢 the generator = 0.71 V . Next, the capacitor bank is connected to beginforthe
stator voltage is the remnant one, as indicated in Figure 3, a speed
self-
of N r = 830 rpm, u remrms = 0.71 V. Next, the capacitor bank is connected
excitation process. Figure 10 shows the experimental (blue line) and simulated (red line) stator to begin the self-excitation
process.results
voltage Figureof 10the
shows
SEIGthe experimental
excitation (blue
process usingline) and
two simulated
different (red line)
capacitor bankstator voltage
values: (a) Cresults
= 50 μFof
the SEIG excitation process using two different capacitor bank values:
and (b) C = 80 μF. Simulation results were obtained using the SEIG model developed in Section 2 (a) C = 50 µF and (b) C = 80 µF.
Simulation
(Figure 2). Toresults were the
replicate obtained using the
laboratorial SEIG model
conditions, the developed
SEIG model inwas
Section 2 (Figure
simulated 2). an
with To replicate
external
mechanical load applied to its axis (provided from a DC motor, as seen in Figure 9). This wasapplied
the laboratorial conditions, the SEIG model was simulated with an external mechanical load achieved to
its axis (provided from a DC motor, as seen in Figure 9). This was
using a similar model to the one shown in Figure 7, where the PAT was replaced by a DC motor achieved using a similar model to
the one showncharacteristic
torque-speed in Figure 7, where ( 𝑇 =the 𝑘∅PAT
𝑈 was− 𝑘∅replaced
𝜔 )/𝑅 , by witha DC motor
𝑘∅ and 𝑅 torque-speed
equal to 1.05characteristic
and 1.6 Ω,
(T dc = k
respectively).∅ ( U − k ω ) /R ,
∅ r capacitors
dcWithout a with k to R equal to 1.05 and 1.6 Ω,
∅ exciteathe induction generator, the DC motorWithout
and respectively). torque was capacitors
adjusted to
excite
to meetthe theinduction generator,
initial speed the DC𝑁motor
conditions, torque
, of each was adjusted
experimental to meet
test. After the initial speed
reaching steadyconditions,
state, the
N
capacitors values are added to starting the self-excitation process of the generator. Figureto
r , of each experimental test. After reaching steady state, the capacitors values are added 10starting
shows
the stator
the self-excitation
voltage process of theof
in one phase generator.
the SEIGFigure
during10theshows the stator
excitation voltage
process for in
twoonedifferent
phase ofcapacitor
the SEIG
during C
values: the= excitation
50 μF in Figureprocess 10aforand
twoC different
= 80 μF in capacitor values: C = 50 µF in Figure 10a and C = 80 µF
Figure 10b.
in Figure 10b.

200 200 Experimental

Experimental
Simulation Simulation
100 100

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (ms) Time (ms)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. SEIG
SEIGstator
statorvoltage
voltageduring
duringthetheexcitation
excitationprocess
processwith:
with:(a)(a) = μF
C =C50 andand
50 µF C =C80=μF.
(b) (b) In
80 µF.
blue, thethe
In blue, experimental results.
experimental In red,
results. thethe
In red, simulation ones.
simulation ones.

After the establishment of the SEIG stator voltage, power losses occur inside the machine. These are
composed mainly by the stator windings and rotor bars losses, P J , plus the magnetic core losses, Pcore .
The windings and rotor bars losses are due to the current injection from the capacitors to the SEIG,
being the rotor bars losses caused by the induced rotor currents derived from the electromotive forces
produced by the rotating magnetic field which is originated from the currents injected by the capacitor
bank. Magnetic core losses are due to the rotating magnetic field created inside the SEIG. Therefore,
from the mechanical point of view, the SEIG will demand a higher mechanical torque related to these
losses, and thus, after the excitation, the SEIG speed decreases. The initial speed of the SEIG was
830 rpm (before excitation), and the final ones were 750 and 597 rpm (after excitation), respectively.
These error values were analyzed for these figures (Figure 10a,b) according to NSI, RRSE, MRD,
and BIAS. These error indexes were described in Section 4 of this research. If stator voltage is analyzed
when the capacitance was 50 µF, a very good fit was reached, according to Table 1. In this case, NSI,
RRSE and BIAS were 0.955, 0.212 and 0.07, respectively. When the stator voltage was analyzed for
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 11 of 23

a capacitance of 80 µF, the best fit was also very good, with NSI 0.93, RRSE 0.264, and BIAS 0.0357.
Therefore, the developed model to simulate the self-excitation process can be considered correct.
The deviations between experimental and simulation results are less than 0.044 (4.4% in absolute) for
the final steady-state values (Table 3).

Table 3. Experimental and model steady-state values after the excitation process.

Experimental Model MRD

N (rpm) 750 758 +0.010 (1.0%)
C = 50 µF fs (Hz) 35.2 35.0 −0.006 (0.6%)
Us (Vrms) 144 145 +0.007 (0.7%)
N (rpm) 597 603 +0.010 (1.0%)
C = 80 µF fs (Hz) 27.6 27.2 −0.015 (1.5%)
Us (Vrms) 113 108 −0.044 (4.4%)

Once the validation of the self-excitation dynamic process was developed, the SEIG response to a
change of electrical load needs to be analyzed. The same DC motor-SEIG model was used, now to
simulate the behavior of the SEIG after a connecting of resistive load. The simulation was done in
two steps: first, the SEIG was excited without electrical load and, after reaching a steady-state condition,
the resistive load is connected. Figures 11 and 12 show the experimental and simulation results of the
SEIG: (a) stator voltage, (b) stator current, (c) active power, (d) reactive power, and (e) magnetizing
flux; after connecting an RL of 600 Ω and 300 Ω, respectively. These resistive loads mimic an electric
demand to the SEIG from a consumer. Since in the experimental setup, a DC motor provides the SEIG
mechanical torque, its speed decreases with the increase of electric load. Notice that this is similar
behavior to the PAT. When decreasing the resistive load, the electric current increases and, if the stator
2
voltage remains (or has a very small change), the requested active power Pa = 3 URsL would increase.
However, Figure 11 shows that this is not true. When the requested active power increases, the speed of
the DC motor decreases and thus also the SEIG electrical frequency and stator voltage. Decreasing the
stator voltage will also decrease the stator current, Figure 11a,b, decreasing the active power, Figure 11c,
and increasing the machine’s speed. Also, a reduction of electrical frequency will influence the reactive
power, as shown in Figure 11d, provided by the capacitor to the SEIG, thus changing the SEIG operation
point, per Figure 11e. In conclusion, this process will be iterative until a new steady state is obtained.
The SEIG starts without electric load, with a capacitor bank of C = 35 µF, and the current at its rated
value, I = 1.6 Arms. After the inclusion of the resistive load, RL = 600 Ω, the rms stator voltage and
current drop, from 183 Vrms to 141 Vrms and from 1.6 Arms to 1.05 Arms, Figure 11a,b, respectively.
This is due to the reduction of speed, N, and electrical frequency, fs , resulting into new active and
reactive powers, shown in Figure 11c,d, and a new magnetizing flux inside the machine, E/ f , shown in
Figure 11e. As shown in Table 4, MRDs between the simulation and experimental results are less
than 0.088 (8.8%). The highest deviation of 0.088 occurs for low magnetization points of the SEIG,
E/ f = 2.2. This is related to the magnetizing inductance, LM , obtained experimentally. For lower
values of magnetic flux, the stator leakage cannot be neglected and, thus, the associated error to the
determination of LM increases.
three indicators (NSI [0.687], RRSE [0.386] and BIAS [0.0105]). Excellent values were reached when active
and reactive power were analyzed. The NSI, RRSE, and BIAS were 0.964, 0.189 and 0.055, respectively, for
the active power. In contrast, the values were 0.933 (NSI), 0.258 (RRSE) and 0.0281 (BIAS) for the reactive
power. Finally, when the magnetizing flux was studied, the values of NSI, RRSE, and BIAS were 0.784,
0.138, and −0.0317, respectively. Therefore, a very good fit was reached in this model when the SEIG
Energies 2020, 13, 4521
was
12 of 23
compared, connecting a resistive load equal to 600 Ω.

3
300 Experimental Experimental
Simulation 2 Simulation
200
1
100
0 0

-100 -1

-200 -2

-300 -3
0 0.5 1
0 0.5 1 Time (ms)
Time (ms)
(a) (b)

200 1000
Experimental Experimental
Simulation Simulation
800
Active Power (W)

150
600
100
400

50 200

0
0 0 0.5 1
0 0.5 1 Time (ms)
Time (ms)

(c) (d)

1.5
Experimental
1 Simulaiton

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (ms)

(e)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. SEIG
SEIG stator
stator voltage
voltage when
when connecting
connecting aa resistive load of
resistive load 𝑅L == 600
of R 600 ΩΩ with
with the
the SEIG
SEIG excited
excited
with
with aa capacitor
capacitorbank
bankhaving
havingC=C 35
= 35
µF:μF: (a) stator
(a) stator voltage,
voltage, (b) stator
(b) stator current,
current, (c) power,
(c) active active power, (d)
(d) reactive
Energies 2020,and
reactive
power 13, x(e)
powerFOR PEER
and (e)REVIEW
magnetizing
magnetizing flux. flux. 13 of 22

Experimental
Simulation
200

-200

0.5 1 1.5
Time (s)
Figure
Figure 12. SEIG
SEIG stator
stator voltage 𝑅L == 300
voltage when connecting a resistive load of R Ω with
300 Ω with the
the SEIG
SEIG excited
excited
with a capacitor bank having C ==35
35 μF.
µF.

Table 4. Comparison between steady-state experimental and model’s results after the application of
resistive loads.

Experimental Model MRD

Energies 2020, 13, 4521 13 of 23

Table 4. Comparison between steady-state experimental and model’s results after the application of
resistive loads.

Experimental Model MRD

Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
+0.004 +0.001
N (rpm) 839 834 842 835
(+0.4%) (+0.1%)
−0.000 −0.018
fs (Hz) 41.0 40.0 40.9 39.3
(−0.0%) (−1.8%)

RL = 600 Ω −0.044 −0.006

Us (Vrms) 183 141 191 141.9
(−4.4%) (−0.6%)
−0.023 +0.023
Is (Arms) 1.6 1.05 1.53 1.12
(−2.3%) (+2.3%)
−0.005 +0.003
E/ f (VHz−1 ) 4.46 3.53 4.67 3.61
(−0.5%) (+0.3%)
+0.001 +0.010
N (rpm) 848 843 849 851
(0.1%) (+1.0%)
+0.007 −0.007
fs (Hz) 41.2 40.3 41.5 40.0
(+0.7%) (−0.7%)

RL = 300 Ω +0.002 +0.058

Us (Vrms) 181 90 184.6 84.8
(+0.2%) (+5.8%)
+0.013 +0.088
Is (Arms) 1.6 0.8 1.62 0.87
(+1.3%) (+8.8%)
+0.020 +0.009
E/ f (VHz−1 ) 4.4 2.2 4.49 2.22
(+2.0%) (+0.9%)

These errors were estimated to measure the goodness of fit. When the errors were calculated
to the stator voltage (Figure 11a), the values of NSI, RRSE and BIAS were 0.629, 0.609 and −0.0434,
respectively, reaching very good values for NSI and BIAS, and good for RRSE. Similar values were got
when the stator current was analyzed between experimental and simulated values. Very goodness
fit was reached for three indicators (NSI [0.687], RRSE [0.386] and BIAS [0.0105]). Excellent values
were reached when active and reactive power were analyzed. The NSI, RRSE, and BIAS were 0.964,
0.189 and 0.055, respectively, for the active power. In contrast, the values were 0.933 (NSI), 0.258 (RRSE)
and 0.0281 (BIAS) for the reactive power. Finally, when the magnetizing flux was studied, the values
of NSI, RRSE, and BIAS were 0.784, 0.138, and −0.0317, respectively. Therefore, a very good fit was
reached in this model when the SEIG was compared, connecting a resistive load equal to 600 Ω.

4.2. PAT Model Validation

A second set of experimental tests was performed to validate the PAT model represented by the
PAT model in Figure 6. Figure 13a,b shows a scheme of the hydraulic circuit used with the PAT installed.
The hydraulic circuit is composed of a pressure tank to constant guaranty pressure applied to the
radial PAT and an Etanorm 32-125 KSB 4.8 PAT. This machine (PAT1) had a nominal rotational speed
of 1020 rpm and a rated flow of 4.2 L/s, a flow control tank to eliminate possible turbulences in the
hydraulic circuit, and a recirculating pump to close the hydraulic circuit. The specific speed was 51 rpm
(m, kW), and the best efficiency point (BEP) was defined in the operation point 3.36 L/s and 4 m w.c.
Figure 14 shows the experimental setup assembled at the laboratory (IST). Figure 14a highlights the PAT
(1), the induction generator (2), the recirculating pump (3), the control flow tanks (4-5), and the pressure
transducer (6). In Figure 14b, one highlights the measurement and the oscilloscope (7), the resistive
load bank (8), the capacitor bank (9), the pressure tank (10), and the flowmeter (11).
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
Energies
Energies 2020,
2020, 13,13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4521 1414ofof2322

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Experimental hydraulic circuit: (a) circuit schematic and (b) PAT used (Etanorm 32-125
Figure
KSB 4.8).
Figure 13.Experimental
13. Experimental hydraulic
hydraulic circuit:
circuit: (a) circuit
(a) circuit schematic
schematic and (b)and
PAT(b) PAT
used used (Etanorm
(Etanorm 32-125 KSB32-125
4.8).
KSB 4.8).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 14.
14.Experimental
Experimentalhydraulic circuit
hydraulic developed
circuit for validation
developed of the PAT
for validation model:
of the PATinmodel:
(a) the PAT-SEIG,
in (a) the
Figure
control 14.
flow Experimental
tanks and hydraulic circuit
recirculating pump developed
and, in for
(b)validation
the of
pressure the PAT
tank model:
and
PAT-SEIG, control flow tanks and recirculating pump and, in (b) the pressure tank and the in (a) the
thePAT-SEIG,
resistive load and
resistive
control
capacitors.
load flow tanks
and capacitors. and recirculating pump and, in (b) the pressure tank and the resistive load and
capacitors.
A setset of
of experimental
experimental tests were done to to validate
validate the the PAT
PATmodel model in insteady-state
steady-state and and transient
transient
A setSimulation
conditions. of experimental
Simulation resultstests
results werewere
were done to using
now obtained
now obtained validate
using the thethe PAT model
PAT-SEIG
PAT-SEIG modelinin
model insteady-state
Figure
Figure7. and transient
7. Models’ inputs
conditions.
are the
the PAT Simulation
PAT head
head andand the results
thevalues were
valuesofofthe now obtained
theresistive
resistive using
load
load and the
and PAT-SEIG
capacitors.
capacitors. model
All All in Figure
simulations
simulations 7. Models’
start start
with witha inputs
non- a
are theSEIG
non-excited
excited PATSEIG
tohead
obtainand
to thePAT
obtain
the values of the
thesteady-state
PAT resistive
steady-state
for a set load
for aandsetcapacitors.
of initial of All simulations
initial conditions.
conditions. After reachingAfterstart with a the
thereaching
steady-state non-
excited SEIG
steady-state
hydraulic to obtain
hydraulic
conditions, thethe PAT steady-state
conditions,
capacitors the added
are fortoathe
capacitors set
areof added
SEIG initial conditions.
to the
to start with itsAfter
SEIG reaching
to start
excitation with the
its steady-state
process, excitation
with and
hydraulic
process,
without with conditions,
and without
a resistive the capacitors
a resistive
load. Following theare
load. added
newFollowing to the
steady-state SEIG to
theconditions start
new steady-state with its excitation
conditionssystem
of the PAT-SEIG process, withand
of the PAT-SEIG
(with and
without
system
without a resistive
(with andload),
resistive load.
without Following
resistive
a sudden changethe
load),new steady-state
of aresistive
sudden change
load conditions
is toofthe
of resistive
applied theload
PAT-SEIG
SEIG, isand
appliedsystem
the to the
new (with
SEIG,
transient and
without
and the resistive
new load),
transient
behavior can be analyzed. a sudden
behavior canchange
be of
analyzed.resistive load is applied to the SEIG, and the new transient
behavior
Startingcanwithout
be analyzed.
without thecapacitor
the capacitorbank bankand andatatno-load,
no-load,a adifferential
differentialhead head ofof 5.82
5.82 mm w.c.
w.c. was
was applied
applied to
to
thethe
PAT’sStarting
PAT’s without
terminals,
terminals, the capacitor
regulating
regulating the the bank
air air and
vessel vesselat no-load,
(Figure(Figure a differential
14b
14b element element
10) to10)head toof 5.82a m
guarantee
guarantee w.c. was
a uniform
uniform headapplied
headto
value.
the PAT’s
value.
After After
the terminals, regulating
the establishment
establishment of the PAT the
of theairPAT
vessel
steady-state (Figure
steady-state 14bconditions,
conditions, element 10)the
the excitation to guarantee
capacitor abank
excitation uniform
capacitor head
bankvalue.
was showing wasa
Afterofthe
showing
value aestablishment
17.4value of 17.4 of
μF connected µF the
to thePAT
connected steady-state
no-load toSEIG
the to conditions,
no-load
start itsSEIG the
to excitation
excitation start capacitor
its excitation
process, as shown bank
process,wasas
in Figure showing
shown
15a,b. Ita
value
in Figure
shows of 17.4
the15a,b. μFItconnected
evolution shows
of the theto the no-load
evolution
no-load SEIG ofSEIG tovoltage
the no-load
stator start SEIG
itsand
excitation
stator process,
voltage
the electric as shown
and
frequency in Figure
the (experimental
electric 15a,b.
frequency andIt
shows the until
(experimental
simulation) evolution
and of the no-load
thesimulation)
magnetic until SEIG
saturation stator
theofmagnetic voltage
the induction saturation and the
generator electric
of the frequency
induction
limited (experimental
generator
it, stabilizing aroundlimited250andit,
V
simulation)
stabilizing
and 55 Hz. To until
around
verify the
themagnetic
250 and 55 saturation
Vaffection Hz.
of the Toelectricof the
verify theinduction
load affection generator
of the electric
in the excitation limited
process, theit,in
load stabilizing
the excitation
previous around
starting 250 V
process,
process
and
the
was 55 Hz. To
previous
repeated. verify
starting
In the affection
process
this case, of theload
was repeated.
an electrical electric load
In this
equal in the
tocase,
300 anexcitation
Ω electrical
was process,
load equal
connected. The the to 300 Ωbank
previous
capacitor starting
was process
connected.
value was
wascapacitor
The
varied repeated.
from C =bankIn this
17.4 μFcase,
value to C an
was electrical
varied
= 34.7 μF to load
from
guaranty = 17.4
Cequal toµF
the 300toΩCwas
excitation = 34.7connected.
of the The generator.
to guaranty
µFinduction capacitor bank
the excitation value
The results was
of theof
varied
induction
this from
experimental C = 17.4
generator. μF
testTheareto C = 34.7
results
shown of μF
in this
Figureto guaranty
experimental
15c,d. When thetest
excitation
are shown
these of the
figures in
are induction
Figure
observed, generator.
15c,d. When
the The
timethese resultstheof
figures
to excite
this
are
SEIG experimental
observed,
increasesthe when testitto
time are shown
excite
starts thein
with Figure
SEIG
an 15c,d.
increases
electrical load When
when these
it starts
and presents figures
with areelectrical
an observed,
an oscillatory the and
load
transient. time to excitethe
presents
Therefore, the
an
SEIG
best increases
oscillatory
methodology when
transient. itstart
starts
is toTherefore, with
first thean best electrical
methodology
excitation load and
without is presents
to startload
electrical an oscillatory
first the excitation
and to connecttransient.
withoutTherefore,
electrical
the electrical loadthe
best methodology is to start first the excitation without electrical load and to connect the electrical load
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 15 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

only
load after theconnect
and to SEIG voltage is stabilized.
the electrical If a comparison
load only is developed,
after the SEIG voltage isthe analyticalIfapproximation
stabilized. a comparison is is
really good. the
developed, It isanalytical
confirmedapproximation
when the errors are considered
is really good. It is(Table 5). These
confirmed when show
the aerrors
very are
good fit for all
considered
analyzed
(Table 5).errors
These applied
show to all variables.
a very good fitTherefore, the model
for all analyzed correctly
errors reproduced
applied the behavior
to all variables. of the
Therefore,
PAT-SEIG model.
the model correctly reproduced the behavior of the PAT-SEIG model.

500 100
Experimental Experimental
Simulation Simulation
80
250
60
0
40

-250 20

0
-500 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)

120
Experimental
100 Simulation

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (s)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. PAT-SEIG stator voltage
PAT-SEIG stator voltage and
and frequency
frequency during
duringexcitation
excitationwith:
with: CC == 17.4 μF, R𝑅L =
17.4 µF, =∞∞ΩΩ and
and
𝐻
H ==5.82
5.82mmw.c:
w.c:(a)
(a)stator
statorvoltage
voltageand
and(b)(b)
electric frequency;
electric and
frequency; andwith C =C34.7
with 𝑅 =RL300
μF,µF,
= 34.7 Ω and
= 300 𝐻=
Ω and
7.5 m w.c.: (c) stator voltage and (d) electric frequency.
H = 7.5 m w.c.: (c) stator voltage and (d) electric frequency.

Table 5.
Table Error analysis
5. Error analysis for
for the
the compared
compared variables.
variables.

Stator
StatorVoltage
Voltage Frequency Stator
Frequency Stator Voltage Frequency
Voltage Frequency
Indexes
Indexes(Figure
(Figure 15a)
15a) (Figure15b)
(Figure 15b) (Figure
(Figure 15c)15c) (Figure
(Figure
15d)15d)
NSINSI 0.960
0.960 (VG)
(VG) 0.797
0.797(VG)
(VG) 0.802 (VG)
0.802 (VG) 0.8410.841
(VG)(VG)
RRSE
RRSE 0.200
0.200 (VG)
(VG) 0.451
0.451(VG)
(VG) 0.441 (VG)
0.441 (VG) 0.3990.399
(VG)(VG)
BIAS
BIAS 0.039
0.039(VG)
(VG) −0.071(VG)
−0.071 (VG) 0.095
0.095 (VG)(VG) −0.075 −0.075
(VG)(VG)
MRDMRD −0.0244
−0.0244(−2.44%)
(−2.44%) 0.062(6.2%)
0.062 (6.2%) 0.010
0.010 (1.0%) 0.0664
(1.0%) 0.0664 (6.64%)
(6.64%)
(VG.—Very
(VG.—Very Good;G.—Good;
Good; G.—Good; S.—Satisfactory;
S.—Satisfactory; P.—Poor).
P.—Poor).

the validation
Once the validationofofthe
theexcitation
excitationprocess
processwas
wasdeveloped,
developed, twotwo additional
additional tests
tests were
were performed
performed to
to verify the accuracy of the PAT-SEIG coupled models under transient conditions.
verify the accuracy of the PAT-SEIG coupled models under transient conditions. After exciting the SEIG,After exciting
athe SEIG,change
sudden a sudden change of
of electrical electrical
load load or
or capacitor capacitor
bank bank was
was applied to theapplied to the
PAT-SEIG PAT-SEIG
system. Figuresystem.
16a,b
Figure the
shows 16a,b shows
stator the and
voltage stator voltage
electric and electric
frequency frequency
transient behaviorstransient behaviors
before and after a before andofafter
reduction the
electric load. The PAT-SEIG system started with 𝑅 = 600 Ω, C = 17.4 μF and
a reduction of the electric load. The PAT-SEIG system started with RL = 600 Ω, C =
𝐻 = 7.5 m w.c. When the
17.4 µF and
H = 7.5 m w.c.ofWhen
establishment thesteady-state
the SEIG establishment was of the SEIG
around 170 Vsteady-state
of amplitudewas around
(120.2 Vrms),170 V of amplitude
the electric load was
decreased to 𝑅the
(120.2 Vrms), = electric
300 Ω atload
0.1s.was
Withdecreased to RL = 300the
a lower resistance, Ω at 0.1s.stator
SEIG Withvoltage
a lowerdrops,
resistance, the SEIG
performing an
oscillatory transient to the new steady-state regime around 130 V of amplitude (92 Vrms).
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22

Energies 2020, 13, 4521 16c,d, the load remained at 𝑅 = 300 Ω but an increase of the capacitor bank value was 16 of 23
In Figure
applied to the PAT-SEIG system at around 0.22 s. The PAT-SEIG started considering a C value of 17.4
μF, and it was increased to 34.7 μF. An overvoltage is seen in the SEIG stator voltage from 120 V to
stator voltage
around drops, performing
190 V, and a reductionan
of oscillatory transientoccurs
the electric frequency to thefrom
new58steady-state
Hz to 40 Hz. regime around 130 V
of amplitude (92 Vrms).
250 80
Experimental Experimental
Simulation Simulation
150
60
50
0 40
-50
20
-150 Change of Electrical Load
Change of Electrical Load
-250 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
60
200 Experimental Experimental
Simulation 55 Simulation

100 50

0 45

-100 40

35
-200 Change of Capacitor Change of Capacitor
30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 16. 16. PAT-SEIG
PAT-SEIG stator
stator voltageand
voltage and electric
electric frequency afterafter
frequency a sudden change:change:
a sudden (a) and (b) change
(a,b) change of
of electric load from 𝑅 = 600 Ω to 𝑅 = 300 Ω, with C = 17.4 μF and 𝐻 = 7.5 m w.c. and (c) and (d)
electric load from RL = 600 Ω to RL = 300 Ω, with C = 17.4 µF and H = 7.5 m w.c. and (c,d) change of
change of capacitor from C = 17.4 μF to C = 34.7 μF with 𝑅 = 300 Ω and 𝐻 = 7.5 m.w.c.
capacitor from C = 17.4 µF to C = 34.7 µF with RL = 300 Ω and H = 7.5 m.w.c.
In all tests, the simulation results follow the experimental ones. To measure the errors between them
In and
Figure 16c,d, the
to calibrate load remained
the model, the errors were = 300asΩwell
at RLdefined butasantheincrease
goodnessofofthe capacitor
fit. Table bank
6 shows value was
a very
appliedgood
to the PAT-SEIG
fit for all analyzedsystem at around
parameters. 0.22
The error was s. very
ThegoodPAT-SEIG started
in all analyses for considering a C value of
different parameters,
17.4 µF, except
and itforwastheincreased
stator voltage.
to For
34.7this
µF.parameter, the valuesiswere
An overvoltage seengood andSEIG
in the satisfactory
statorwhen the NSI
voltage and120 V to
from
around RRSE
190 V,were
anddetermined.
a reduction Theofobtained valuesfrequency
the electric showed thatoccursthe analytical
from 58 model
Hz tocould
40 be
Hz.used in other
hydraulic and electrical conditions, such as when these recovery systems operate in serial or parallel. MRD
In all tests, the simulation results follow the experimental ones. To measure the errors between
also showed satisfactory values since MRD values are under 0.1 (10%).
them and to calibrate the model, the errors were defined as well as the goodness of fit. Table 6 shows
a very good fit for all analyzed parameters.
Table The
6. Error indexes for error was very
the compared good in all analyses for different
variables.
parameters, except for the statorStator voltage.
VoltageFor this parameter,
Frequency the values
Stator Voltage Frequencywere good and satisfactory
Indexes
when the NSI and RRSE were determined. (Figure 16a) The obtained
(Figure 16b) values showed
(Figure 16c) that
(Figure 16d)the analytical model could
NSI 0.569 (G) 0.787 (VG) 0.761 (VG) 0.793 (VG)
be used in other hydraulicRRSE and electrical
0.648 (S)
conditions,
0.462 (VG)
such0.429
as (VG)
when these recovery systems operate in
0.455 (VG)
serial or parallel. MRD also showed
BIAS 0.063satisfactory
(VG) −0.041values
(VG) since MRD values
−0.034 (VG) −0.037 (VG)are under 0.1 (10%).
MRD 0.0360 0.0269 −0.054 0.281
(VG.—Very Good; G.—Good; S.—Satisfactory; P.—Poor).
Table 6. Error indexes for the compared variables.

Stator Voltage Frequency Stator Voltage Frequency

Indexes
(Figure 16a) (Figure 16b) (Figure 16c) (Figure 16d)
NSI 0.569 (G) 0.787 (VG) 0.761 (VG) 0.793 (VG)
RRSE 0.648 (S) 0.462 (VG) 0.429 (VG) 0.455 (VG)
BIAS 0.063 (VG) −0.041 (VG) −0.034 (VG) −0.037 (VG)
MRD 0.0360 0.0269 −0.054 0.281
(VG.—Very Good; G.—Good; S.—Satisfactory; P.—Poor).
5. Impact of Electric and Hydraulic Perturbations in the PAT-SEIG Stability
The PAT-SEIG system is a complex hydraulic-electromechanical non-linear system, which has a
high number of variables. These variables change over time rapidly, and this variation depends on
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 17 of 23
the hydraulic and electric constraints (i.e., flow, head, electric load and capacitor value). The transient
dynamics of the whole system results from the interaction behaviors of both PAT and SEIG
subsystems.
5. ImpactThis meansand
of Electric that a smallPerturbations
Hydraulic sudden change in theinPAT-SEIG
an electrical variable may influence the
Stability
hydraulicThe onePAT-SEIG
and vice-versa.
system isIna complex
this section, a sudden change of electrical
hydraulic-electromechanical orsystem,
non-linear hydraulic
whichparameters
has a
is analyzed to show
high number how thisThese
of variables. affects the system
variables operation
change over timeafter reaching
rapidly, a steady-state
and this condition.
variation depends on the The
testedhydraulic
scenarios and consider sudden variations
electric constraints (i.e., flow,of (1) the
head, value
electric loadofand
thecapacitor
capacitorvalue).
bank,The(2) transient
the resistive
load,dynamics
and (3) the hydraulic
of the pressure.
whole system results from the interaction behaviors of both PAT and SEIG subsystems.
This means that a small sudden
Due to the limitation of the Hydraulic change inlab an conditions
electrical variable may
in terms ofinfluence the hydraulic
the air-vessel and PAT one and
hydraulic
power,vice-versa.
the SEIG Inwas
this section,
not ablea sudden
to reachchange of electrical
its rated or hydraulic
power within parameters
the tested rangeisofanalyzed
speeds.toTherefore,
show
how this affects the system operation after reaching a steady-state condition.
for simulation purposes, the PAT curve (𝐻 𝑣𝑠. 𝑄) was reallocated to higher head values, as shown in The tested scenarios
consider sudden variations of (1) the value of the capacitor bank, (2) the resistive load, and (3) the
Figure 17. This allows higher hydraulic power within the same range of speeds. The new proposal
hydraulic pressure.
PAT was defined by the characteristic curve (29).
Due to the limitation of the Hydraulic lab conditions in terms of the air-vessel and PAT hydraulic
power, the SEIG was not able𝐻 𝑚 to 𝑤. 𝑐. ) its
reach = 10.99 − 694.45Q
rated power within+ the
314560Q
tested range of speeds. Therefore,(29)
for simulation purposes, the PAT curve (H vs. Q) was reallocated to higher head values, as shown in
Figure 17 shows
Figure 17. the hydraulic
This allows curvespower
higher hydraulic (H vs.within
Q andthe
Ph same
vs. Q)range
for the originalThe
of speeds. PAT (PAT1
new in blue)
proposal
and the
PATnew
wasone (PAT2
defined in red).
by the PAT2 is curve
characteristic now able
(29). to produce enough hydraulic power to set the SEIG
rated conditions (rated power of 550 W). The specific speed of PAT2 was 20 rpm (m,kW), and the
2
H (m w.c.in
best efficiency point (BEP) was defined )= 10.99
the − 694.45Q
operation + 314560Q
point 3.48 l/s and 12.38 m w.c. (29)

20 1000
PAT1 PAT1
PAT2 PAT2
15 750

10 500

5 250

0 0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Flow, Q (l/s) Flow, Q (l/s)

(a)

20 1000
PAT1 PAT1
PAT2 PAT2
15 750

10 500

5 250

0 0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Flow, Q (l/s) Flow, Q (l/s)

(b)
Figure 17. Hydraulic
Figure 17. Hydrauliccharacteristic
characteristic curves
curvesofofthe
theoriginal
original PAT (PAT1,blue
PAT (PAT1, blue color)
color) andand
the the
newnew
one one
(PAT2, red color), for N = N
(PAT2, red color), for N = Nref: ref : (a) head curve and (b) hydraulic power
(a) head curve and (b) hydraulic power curve. curve.

Figure 17 shows the hydraulic curves (H vs. Q and Ph vs. Q) for the original PAT (PAT1 in blue)
5.1. Variation of Excitation Capacitance
and the new one (PAT2 in red). PAT2 is now able to produce enough hydraulic power to set the SEIG
The
ratedfirst set of (rated
conditions tests applied
power ofa550
sudden change
W). The inspeed
specific the excitation
of PAT2 wascapacitor values,and
20 rpm (m,kW), with
thethe PAT-
best
efficiency point (BEP) was defined in the operation point 3.48 L/s and 12.38 m w.c.
SEIG system already excited and under steady-state conditions. The initial steady-state conditions
were reached for a differential PAT head, ∆𝐻, of 21.5 m w.c., an initial capacitor value, Ci, of 35 μF
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 18 of 23

5.1. Variation of Excitation Capacitance

The first set of tests applied a sudden change in the excitation capacitor values, with the PAT-SEIG
system already excited and under steady-state conditions. The initial steady-state conditions were
reached for a differential PAT head, ∆H, of 21.5 m w.c., an initial capacitor value, Ci , of 35 µF and
an electric load of RL = 200 Ω. Next, the capacitors’ value was changed, and the new steady-state
electromechanical and hydraulic conditions were recorded. Table 7 shows the final steady-state
hydraulic and electric parameters after a sudden change of the capacitor’s value.

Table 7. Steady-state hydraulic and electromechanical quantities after a sudden change in the
capacitors’ value.

∆C. Ph (W) N (rpm) Usrms (V) Isrms (A) Pa (W) Qr (Var) ηsys
−50% 1005 1365 139.7 1.16 331 −392 33.0%
−40% 1223 1252 152.6 1.34 392 −515 32.0%
−30% 1333 1173 157.4 1.47 416 −592 31.1%
−20% 1401 1114 158.8 1.58 427 −658 30.5%
−10% 1460 1057 155.5 1.60 403 −661 27.6%
0% 1501 1010 150.2 1.65 384 −664 25.6%
+10% 1512 997 157.0 1.83 417 −783 27.6%
+20% 1535 969 155.2 1.90 412 −810 26.9%
+30% 1553 944 154.4 1.95 408 −833 26.3%
+40% 1568 922 152.1 2.01 403 −851 25.7%
+50% 1581 903 149.4 2.07 387 −866 24.4%

In this table, ∆C is the applied variation of the capacitors in (%), Ph is the resultant hydraulic
power, N the PAT-SEIG speed, Usrms and Isrms are the SEIG stator voltage and current rms values,
Pa and Qr are the SEIG active and reactive power, and ηsys is the PAT-SEIG overall achieved efficiency.
Note that the negative value in Q indicates that the reactive power is flowing from the capacitors to
the SEIG.
Figure 18 is also possible to visualize the variation of the hydraulic, active and reactive powers
and the system speed and efficiency. It is possible to observe that decreasing the capacitors’ value
increases the system speed and efficiency. This follows the results obtained in [2,5], where an inverse
relationship between the speed and capacitors’ values was obtained. The active power (red line
in Figure 18a) provided from the SEIG shows a slight ±15% change of its value for the capacitor’s
variation between −50% and +50%. In contrast, the reactive one (blue line) follows the variation of the
capacitors. Due to mainly reactive power, the SEIG magnetic and windings losses decrease with the
reduction of capacitors (red line in Figure 18b), thus requesting lower values of hydraulic power from
the PAT for lower values of C. This shows that it is possible to control the PAT hydraulic power from
changing the capacitor values in the SEIG.
Another important aspect is the behavior of the SEIG stator current with the variation of capacitors.
Increasing the capacitors’ value increased the SEIG current. This can lead to an overload state of the
SEIG that, if not considered, may significantly decrease the generator’s lifetime and/or damages it due
to overheating of its electric insulation.
 +10% 1512 997 157.0 1.83 417 −783 27.6%
+20% 1535 969 155.2 1.90 412 −810 26.9%
+30% 1553 944 154.4 1.95 408 −833 26.3%
+40% 1568 922 152.1 2.01 403 −851 25.7%
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 19 of 23
+50% 1581 903 149.4 2.07 387 −866 24.4%

(a) (b)
Figure 18.Figure 18. Variation
Variation of hydraulic
of hydraulic andand electromechanical quantities
electromechanical quantities after a change
after in theincapacitor,
a change C:
the capacitor, C:
(a) variation of hydraulic (black), active (red) and reactive (blue) powers, and (b) variation of speed
(a) variation of hydraulic (black), active (red) and reactive (blue) powers, and (b) variation of speed
(black) and system (red) efficiency.
(black) and system (red) efficiency.
5.2. Variation of Resistive Load
The same study was done regarding a sudden change of the resistive load. Equal initial steady-state
conditions were considered using a differential PAT head, H, of 21.5 m w.c., a capacitor value, C,
of 35 µF and an initial electric load of RLi = 200 Ω. After reaching steady-state, a sudden change in the
electrical resistance was applied.
Results in Table 8 and Figure 19 show that the change of SEIG’s resistive load highly influences
the SEIG stator voltage and reactive power. Being the capacitor bank in parallel to the SEIG stator
terminals, both share the same voltage. Therefore, a decrease of SEIG’s terminal voltage implies a
decrease of reactive power stored at the capacitor bank. Despite the reactive evolution, the active
power remains almost unchanged with the electric resistance, presenting a slight increase with the
decrease of the resistance. For ∆RL = −30%, the SEIG starts losing its excitation, getting near to its
non-excited zone. The speed and PAT-SEIG system efficiency have similar behavior with the variation
of the electrical resistance: they both decrease with the increase of the electric resistance. This is in
agreement with the behaviors of the hydraulic, reactive and active power. Despite the active power
remaining almost constant, with the increase of the reactive power, the magnetic power losses inside
the SEIG increases, thus resulting in a decrease of the SEIG efficiency.

Table 8. Steady-state hydraulic and electromechanical parameters after a sudden change in the
resistance value.

∆RL Ph (W) N (rpm) Usrms (V) Isrms (A) Pa (W) Qr (Var) ηsys
−30% 1311 1190 119.1 1.54 342 −466 26.1%
−20% 1412 1105 135.6 1.61 387 −565 27.5%
−15% 1439 1078 139.6 1.60 375 −588 26.0%
−10% 1460 1056 141.5 1.60 366 −601 25.0%
0% 1501 1010 150.2 1.65 384 −664 25.6%
+10% 1499 1013 153.5 1.66 365 −698 24.3%
+15% 1503 1007 157.9 1.66 360 −722 24.0%
+20% 1507 1003 159.2 1.69 353 −749 23.4%
+30% 1507 1003 168.1 1.75 359 −827 23.9%
 −10% 1460 1056 141.5 1.60 366 −601 25.0%
0% 1501 1010 150.2 1.65 384 −664 25.6%
+10% 1499 1013 153.5 1.66 365 −698 24.3%
+15% 1503 1007 157.9 1.66 360 −722 24.0%
+20%
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 1507 1003 159.2 1.69 353 −749 23.4% 20 of 23
+30% 1507 1003 168.1 1.75 359 −827 23.9%

30 25
20 15
10
5
0 0
-5
-10
Hydraulic Power
Energies 2020, 13, -20
x FOR PEER REVIEW Active Power -15 Speed 20 of 22
Reactive Power System Efficiency
5.3. PAT Head -30
Variation
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-25
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
The PAT head variation (∆𝐻) RL (%) is an important issue, as it is common RL (%) to occur in industrial
applications due to external influences. This case analyzed the impact of a sudden increase or
decrease of the PAT head in (a)the overall PAT-SEIG operation. The same (b)initial steady-state conditions
were considered with anofof
Figure 19. Variation
Variation initial differential
hydraulic
hydraulic PAT head, 𝐻parameters
andelectromechanical
and electromechanical , parameters
of 21.5 m w.c.,
after
after aa capacitor
change
a change value,
inresistive
in the the C, of 35
resistive
load,
μF andload,
an electric
RL : (a) load
𝑅 variation of
: (a) variation 𝑅 =
of hydraulic 200 Ω.
of hydraulic
(black),(black), activeand
active (red) (red) and reactive
reactive (blue) powers,
(blue) powers, and (b) variation
and (b) variation of speed
Results
of presented
speedand
(black) (black) insystem
and(red)
system Figure 20 efficiency.
(red)
efficiency.and Table 9 shows there is a linear behavior of the hydraulic,
active and reactive power and rotational speed with the variation of PAT head. Regarding the system
Another
efficiency, important
results indicated aspect
thatisonly
the evolution
in an extremeof thecase
current. When decreasing
characterized the electric
by a significant resistance,
decrease of
the current
head pressure presents
(−50%)a would
slow reduction.
the PAT-SEIGHowever, with
suffer the increasereduction
a meaningful of the resistance, the currentAnother
of its efficiency. presents
a higher increase.
important Thisincrease
effect is the must beoftaken
SEIGinto consideration,
current with the PAT as anhead,
increase
whichof the
maySEIG current
damage the to values
SEIG if
higher
the than
current its nominal
exceeds one,value.
its rated which may damage the SEIG in a medium or long term.

5.3. PAT9.Head
Table Variation
Steady-state hydraulic and electromechanical quantities after a sudden change in the PAT head
The PAT∆𝑯 head 𝑷𝒉 variation (∆H) is𝑼an important issue,
𝑰𝒔 𝒓𝒎𝒔 (A) as𝑷𝒂it(W)
is common
𝑸𝒓 (Var)to occur
𝜼𝒔𝒚𝒔 in industrial
(W) N (rpm) 𝒔 𝒓𝒎𝒔 (V)
applications due to external influences. This case analyzed the impact of a sudden increase or decrease
−50% 457 887 75.0 0.74 96 −145 21.1%
of the PAT head in the overall PAT-SEIG operation. The same initial steady-state conditions were
−40% 642 912 100.2 1.01 163 −267 25.3%
considered with an initial differential PAT head, Hi , of 21.5 m w.c., a capacitor value, C, of 35 µF and an
−30% 842 942 118.8 1.23 221 −386 26.2%
electric load of RL = 200 Ω.
−20% 1057 970 132.9 1.41 277 −499 26.2%
Results presented in Figure 20 and Table 9 shows there is a linear behavior of the hydraulic,
−10% 1297 995 144.8 1.55 334 −601 25.3%
active and reactive power and rotational speed with the variation of PAT head. Regarding the system
0% 1501 1010 150.2 1.65 384 −664 25.6%
efficiency, results indicated that only in an extreme case characterized by a significant decrease of head
+10% 1782 1059 170.2 1.92 453 −885 25.5%
pressure (−50%) would the PAT-SEIG suffer a meaningful reduction of its efficiency. Another important
+20% 2047 1086 180.6 2.08 521 −1017 25.5%
effect is the increase of SEIG current with the PAT head, which may damage the SEIG if the current
+30% 2320
exceeds its rated value. 1091 181.3 2.11 569 −1040 25.3%

60 30
40 20
20
0 10
-20 0
-40 -10
-60 Hydraulic Power
Active Power -20 Speed
-80 System Efficiency
Reactive Power
-100 -30
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
H (%) H (%)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure20.20.Variation
Variationofofhydraulic
hydraulicandandelectromechanical
electromechanical parameters
parameters after a change
after inin
a change thethe
PAT
PAThead,
head,
∆𝐻:
∆H:(a)(a)
variation
variationofof
hydraulic
hydraulic(black), active
(black), (red)
active (red)and
andreactive
reactive(blue)
(blue)powers,
powers,and
and(b)
(b)variation
variationofof
speed
speed(black)
(black)and
andsystem
system(red)
(red)efficiency.
efficiency.

6. Conclusions
The study of the improvement of sustainable indicators in water systems has been an important
issue in this last decade, especially in the context of sustainable development goals for 2030. The
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 21 of 23

Table 9. Steady-state hydraulic and electromechanical quantities after a sudden change in the PAT head

∆H Ph (W) N (rpm) Usrms (V) Isrms (A) Pa (W) Qr (Var) ηsys

−50% 457 887 75.0 0.74 96 −145 21.1%
−40% 642 912 100.2 1.01 163 −267 25.3%
−30% 842 942 118.8 1.23 221 −386 26.2%
−20% 1057 970 132.9 1.41 277 −499 26.2%
−10% 1297 995 144.8 1.55 334 −601 25.3%
0% 1501 1010 150.2 1.65 384 −664 25.6%
+10% 1782 1059 170.2 1.92 453 −885 25.5%
+20% 2047 1086 180.6 2.08 521 −1017 25.5%
+30% 2320 1091 181.3 2.11 569 −1040 25.3%

6. Conclusions
The study of the improvement of sustainable indicators in water systems has been an important
issue in this last decade, especially in the context of sustainable development goals for 2030.
The improvement of the efficiency in water systems can be leveraged by using PATs, which have
been mainly studied in the last years under the hydraulic point of view. However, the PATs analysis
cannot only be focused on hydraulic behavior, as PAT requires an electrical machine to operate.
In the particular case of off-grid (absence of electrical grid) applications, using self-excited induction
generators, the hydraulic-electric behavior becomes more complex.
This research focuses on delving into the study of the hydraulic-electrical transient stability
interaction when possible perturbations occur in an off-grid PAT-SEIG system. Analytical models
were developed to simulate the PAT and the SEIG behaviors, both individually validated through
experimental tests. Then the coupled PAT-SEIG model also validated experimentally in IST hydraulic
laboratory, was tested for different electrical loads. To analyze the accuracy of the models, error measures
were considered, resulting in NSI values between 0.75 and 0.98 and BIAS values below 0.10.
The developed models can estimate the variation in SEIG voltage, current and frequency, as well
as in the PAT flow and recovered head when a sudden change in the resistive load, capacitance and
PAT head occurs. With a sudden increase of resistive load, the hydraulic power and SEIG stator current
remain almost constant. However, there is an increase of the SEIG reactive power and a decrease in
the PAT-SEIG efficiency. With a sudden increase of the SEIG capacitors or PAT head, the SEIG stator
current increases and PAT-SEIG efficiency decreases. The increase of the SEIG current may be critical,
as it may contribute to the machine overload.
The possibility to estimate these variations will allow operators to define new operating models,
in which new recovery systems can be coupled between them. This analytical coupling will measure
the injected perturbations in the water grid or electrical batteries when the electric and the hydraulic
transients occur. These developed models are the basis for the real integration of the PATs in the
water sector, where they can correctly operate under hydraulic and/or electric regulation conditions.
The use of these models can be extrapolated to other off-grid electro-hydraulic systems, considering
both electrical and hydraulic parameters of the used machines.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology and software: F.C.M. and J.F.P.F.; validation and formal
analysis: J.F.P.F., M.P.-S., and P.J.C.B.; writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, J.F.P.F.,
M.P.-S., P.J.C.B., and H.M.R.; supervision and lab concept, J.F.P.F., M.P.-S., P.J.C.B., and H.M.R.; final review H.M.R.
and P.A.L.-J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received some support from the project REDAWN (Reducing Energy Dependency in
Atlantic Area Water Networks) EAPA_198/2016 from INTERREG ATLANTIC AREA.
Energies 2020, 13, 4521 22 of 23

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P.,
through IDMEC, under LAETA, project UIDB/50022/2020. This research is supported by the “Program to
support the academic career of the faculty of the Universitat Politècnica de València 2019/2020 in the project ‘A
STEP AHEAD IN SUSTAINABILITY OF WATER SYSTEMS FOR THE ENERGY TRANSITION IN COMMUNITIES‘
of the Modesto Pérez-Sánchez. The authors wish to thank the project REDAWN (Reducing Energy Dependency
in Atlantic Area Water Networks) EAPA_198/2016 from INTERREG ATLANTIC AREA Fluids PROGRAMME
2014–2020 and CERIS, the Hydraulic Laboratory, for the support in the conceptual developments and the
experiments on PATs.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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