Projective Geometric Algebra 3,0,1 Geometric Product a⟑b a¥b = a¡b a¥b = a £ b Norms

a b e1 e2 e3 e4 e 23 e 31 e 12 e 43 e 42 e 41 e 321 e 124 e 314 e 234 Definitions

a « = a £ a Bulk norm of a. a ¬ = a ¤a Weight norm of a. a« a £ a

e1  
a = = Projected geometric norm of a.

projectivegeometricalgebra.org a ¤a
e2
a = a « + a ¬ = a £ a + a ¤a Geometric norm of a. a¬

e3
e4 Type Bulk and Weight Norms Projected Geometric Norm Interpretation
e 23
p ●
= px2 + p y2 + pz2 px2 + p y2 + p z2 Distance from origin to point p.
e 31 Point p 
p =
Basis Elements Exterior Products Inner Products Geometric Products Commutators e 12 p ○
= pw 1 pw Half distance that origin is moved by flector p.
Type Values Grade / Antigrade Notation Description Notation Description Notation Description Notation Definition e 43
¥ 1 e 42 L = m x2 + m y2 + m z2 Perpendicular distance from origin to line L.
Scalar 1 0/4
• Exterior product • Inner product • Geometric product [a, b] [a, b] = (a ¥ b − b ¥ a )
¥
Line L
●

L =
m x2 + m y2 + m z2
a£b
− −
2 e 41
e1 a∧b • Wedge product • Dot product a⟑b • a “wedge-dot” b L = 1 vx2 + v y2 + vz2 vx2 + v y2 + vz2 Half distance that origin is moved by motor L.

[a, b]¥+
○
1 e 321
e2 • a “wedge” b • a “dot” b • Identity is scalar 1 [a, b]¥+ = (a ¥ b + b ¥ a )
Vectors 1/3 2 e 124
e3 f = fw fw Perpendicular distance from origin to plane f.
¦ 1 e 314 ● 
e4 • Exterior antiproduct • Inner antiproduct • Geometric antiproduct [a, b] [a, b]¦− = (a ¦ b − b ¦ a ) Plane f f =
a ¤b = 1 f x2 + f y2 + f z2
− 2 e 234 f x2 + f y2 + f z2 Half distance that origin is moved by flector f.
a∨b • Antiwedge product • Antidot product a⟇b • a “antiwedge-dot” b f ○

[a, b]¦+
e 23 = e 2 ∧ e 3
• a “antiwedge” b • a “antidot” b • Identity is antiscalar 1 1
[a, b]¦+ = (a ¦ b + b ¦ a )
e 31 = e 3 ∧ e1 2 Q = u x2 + u y2 + u z2 + uw2
●
 u x2 + u y2 + u z2 + uw2
e 12 = e 1 ∧ e2 Motor Q Q = Half distance that origin is moved by motor Q.
Geometric Antiproduct a⟇b a¦b = a¢b a¦b = a ¤b =1 r +r +r +r rx2 + ry2 + rz2 + rw2
Bivectors 2/2 Interior Products Unary Operations Q 2 2 2 2
e 43 = e 4 ∧ e3 ○ x y z w

e 42 = e 4 ∧ e2 a b e1 e2 e3 e4 e 23 e 31 e 12 e 43 e 42 e 41 e 321 e 124 e 314 e 234

Notation Description Definition Basis element a 1 e1 e2 e3 e4 e 23 e 31 e 12 e 43 e 42 e 41 e 321 e 124 e 314 e 234 1
G = s x2 + s y2 + s z2 + hw2
a§b
e 41 = e 4 ∧ e 1 ● sx2 + s y2 + s z2 + hw2
1

Right interior product a §b = a¢b Right complement a e 234 e 314 e 124 e 321 −e 41 −e 42 −e 43 −e 12 −e 31 −e 23 −e 4 −e 3 −e 2 −e 1 1 e1 Flector G G = Half distance that origin is moved by flector G.
e 321 = e 3 ∧ e 2 ∧ e 1 G = 1 h x2 + h y2 + h z2 + sw2 h x2 + h y2 + h z2 + sw2
1
a¨b
○
Left complement a −e 234 −e 314 −e 124 −e 321 −e 41 −e 42 −e 43 −e 12 −e 31 −e 23 e 4 e3 e2 e1 1 e2
Trivectors / e 124 = e 1 ∧ e 2 ∧ e 4 Left interior product a ¨ b = a ¢b
e3
3/1 Double complement a or a 1 −e 1 −e 2 −e 3 −e 4 e 23 e 31 e 12 e 43 e 42 e 41 −e 321 −e 124 −e 314 −e 234 1
a©b
Antivectors e 314 = e 3 ∧ e 1 ∧ e 4
Right interior antiproduct a©b = a¡b e4 Euclidean Distances
e 234 = e 2 ∧ e 3 ∧ e 4 Reverse a 1 e1 e2 e3 e 4 −e 23 −e 31 −e 12 −e 43 −e 42 −e 41 −e 321 −e 124 −e 314 −e 234 1
e 23
Antiscalar 1 = e1 ∧ e 2 ∧ e3 ∧ e 4 4/0 aªb Left interior antiproduct aªb = a ¡b Antireverse a 1 −e 1 −e 2 −e 3 −e 4 −e 23 −e 31 −e 12 −e 43 −e 42 −e 41 e 321 e 124 e 314 e 234 1 e 31
Formula Interpretation

e 12
[ p, q ] ∧− ○
2
( q x pw − p x qw ) 2 + ( q y pw − p y qw ) + ( q z pw − p z qw ) 2
Projective Geometries Bulk and Weight Attitude Extraction e 43 = Distance between points p and q.
e 42
[ p, q ] ∨+ ○
pw qw
Type Representation Illustration Notation Definition Formula Interpretation
e 41
w p = ( p x , p y , p z , pw ) e 321
Point p Bulk of element a. p  = − pw e 321 Plane at infinity. [ p, L ] ∧+ ○
2 2
( v y p z − v z p y + m x pw ) + ( v z p x − v x p z + m y pw ) + ( v x p y − v y p x + m z pw )
2
Perpendicular distance between
p = p x e 1 + p y e 2 + p z e 3 + pw e 4 e 124 =
(Vector) w =1 a« All components without factor of e 4 .
L  = −vx e 23 − v y e 31 − vz e 12 Line at infinity perpendicular to line L.
[ p, L ] ∨
+ ○ pw 2
v +v +v
x
2
y
2
z
point p and line L.
e 314
p pw 1, e 1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 23 , e 31 , e 12 , e 321
Bulk p ● = px e 1 + p y e 2 + pz e 3 e 234

0D
f  = f x e1 + f y e 2 + f z e 3 Normal vector of plane f. [ p, f ] ∧− p x f x + p y f y + p z f z + pw f w
Weight p ○ = pw e 4 ○ Perpendicular distance between
y Weight of element a. =
Quaternion, directional part of motor Q. [ p, f ] ∨
pw 2
f + f + fz 2 2 point p and plane f.
Unitization pw2 = 1 x a¬ All components with factor of e 4 .
+ ○ x y

w e 4 , e 41 , e 42 , e 43 , e 234 , e 314 , e 124 , 1

Q  = −rx e 23 − ry e 31 − rz e 12 + rw q = ( ax i + a y j + a z k ) sin φ + cos φ Interior Products a§b a¨b
Line L L = vx e 41 + v y e 42 + vz e 43 + m x e 23 + m y e 31 + m z e 12 p∧q q ∧ x ∧ q = rotation about origin.
a b e1 e2 e3 e4 e 23 e 31 e 12 e 43 e 42 e 41 e 321 e 124 e 314 e 234 [ L , K ] ∧+ vx n x + v y n y + vz n z + wx m x + wy m y + wz m z L = { v | m}
(Bivector) L ¥ L = L £ L  vx mx + vy m y + vz mz = 0 w =1 Dualization Directional part of flector G.

=
Perpendicular distance between
[L, K] ∨ 2 2 lines L and K.
q
G  = h x e 1 + h y e 2 + h z e 3 − sw e 321 g = ( ax e 1 + a y e 2 + a z e 3 ) cos φ + e 321 sin φ e1
−  ( v y wz − vz wy ) + ( vz wx − vx wz ) + ( vx wy − v y wx )2
K = { w | n}
Bulk L ● = m x e 23 + m y e 31 + m z e 12 (moment) p a« = a ¥1 Bulk right complement of a.

1D
−g ∧ x ∧ g = rotoreflection about origin. e2
Weight L ○ = vx e 41 + v y e 42 + vz e 43 (direction)
y a« = a ¥1 Bulk left complement of a. e3
Unitization vx2 + v y2 + vz2 = 1 x 
e4
Projections
Skew Lines
w p∧q∧r a¬ = 1¦ a Weight right complement of a. e 23 Operations
Plane f Formula Illustration
f = f x e 234 + f y e 314 + f z e 124 + f w e 321 e 31
(Trivector) w =1 a¬ = 1¦ a Weight left complement of a. ( b¬ § a ) ¨ b = ( b¬ ¡ a ) ¢ b General projection of a onto b.
r  J = [ L , K ] − = ( v y wz − vz wy ) e 41
∨
J e 12
f ● = f w e 321 L = { v | m}
Bulk
p q a = a ¥1 + 1¦ a
+ ( vz wx − vx wz ) e 42 + ( vx wy − v y wz e 43 ) e 43 ( b¬ © a ) ª b = ( b¬ ¢ a ) ¡ b General antiprojection of a onto b.

2D
Right complement of a. + ( v y n z − vz n y + m y wz − m z wy ) e 23 K = {w | n}
Weight f ○ = f x e 234 + f y e 314 + f z e 124 (normal) e 42
+ ( vz n x − vx n z + m z wx − m x wz ) e 31 Formula Illustration
y
Unitization 2 2
f + f + fz = 1 2 a = a ¥1 + 1¦ a Left complement of a. + ( vx n y − v y n x + m x wy − m y wx ) e 12 e 41
x y x  
e 321
Projection of point p onto plane f. p
e 124
Join and Meet Motors (Rigid Motion Operators) e 314 ( f ○ ∧ p ) ∨ f = ( f x2 + f y2 + f z2 ) p
Formula Description Illustration Representation of Proper Euclidean Isometry e 234 − ( f x p x + f y p y + f z p z + f w pw ) ( f x e 1 + f y e 2 + f z e 3 ) f
p ∧ q = ( qx pw − px qw ) e 41 + ( q y pw − p y qw ) e 42 + ( q z pw − p z qw ) e 43 Q = rx e 41 + ry e 42 + rz e 43 + rw 1 + u x e 23 + u y e 31 + u z e 12 + u w
Line containing points p and q.
q
+ ( p y qz − pz q y ) e 23 + ( pz qx − p x q z ) e 31 + ( px q y − p y q x ) e 12 p p∧q Q¥Q
 = Q£Q
  rx u x + ry u y + rz u z + rw uw = 0
Zero if p and q are coincident.
Flectors (Reflection Operators) Projection of point p onto line L.
= [ p, q ]
∧
Bulk Q ● = u x e 23 + u y e 31 + u z e 12 + uw p
−
L Representation of Improper Euclidean Isometry
Q ∨ x ∨ Q ( L ○ ∧ p ) ∨ L = ( vx px + v y p y + vz p z ) v + ( v ) pw e 4
2 2
+v +v 2
Q ○ = rx e 41 + ry e 42 + rz e 43 + rw 1
x y z
Weight 
L ∧ p = ( v y pz − vz p y + m x pw ) e 234 + ( vz p x − vx p z + m y pw ) e 314 G = s x e 1 + s y e 2 + s z e 3 + sw e 4 + h x e 234 + h y e 314 + h z e 124 + h we 321 + ( v y m z − v z m y ) pw e 1 + ( v z m x − v x m z ) pw e 2 + ( v x m y − v y m x ) p w e 3 L
Plane containing line L and point p. Unitization rx2 + ry2 + rz2 + rw2 = 1
p
+ ( vx p y − v y px + m z pw ) e 124 − ( m x p x + m y p y + m z p z ) e 321 L∧p 2d G ¥G
 = G £G
  sx hx + sy hy + sz hz + sw hw = 0
L
Normal is zero if p lies in L.
= [ L, p ] +
∧
Q = e ∨( d +φ 1 )∨ L = cos ∨ ( d + φ 1 ) + sin ∨ ( d + φ 1 ) ∨ L Bulk G ● = s x e 1 + s y e 2 + s z e 3 + hwe 321
f○ ∧ p Projection of line L onto plane f.
Q = L sin φ + 1 cos φ + ( d ∨ L ) cos φ − d sin φ Weight G ○ = sw e 4 + h x e 234 + h y e 314 + h z e 124
L
f ∨ g = ( f z g y − f y g z ) e 41 + ( f x g z − f z g x ) e 42 + ( f y g x − f x g y ) e 43 f Q = ( vx e 41 + v y e 42 + vz e 43 ) sin φ + 1 cos φ − d sin φ
(f ∧ L) ∨ f = ( f x+ f + f z ) ( vx e 41 + v y e 42 + vz e 43 )
2
y
2 2

Line where planes f and g intersect. Unitization h x2 + h y2 + h z2 + sw2 = 1 − ( f x vx + f y v y + f z vz ) ( f x e 41 + f y e 42 + f z e 43 )

+ ( f x g w − g x f w ) e 23 + ( f y g w − g y f w ) e 31 + ( f z g w − g z f w ) e 12 g + ( d vx e 23 + d v y e 31 + d vz e 12 ) cos φ 2φ
f ∨g + ( f x m x + f y m y + f z m z ) ( f x e 23 + f y e 31 + f z e 12 ) f
Direction is zero if f and g are parallel. + ( m x e 23 + m y e 31 + m z e 12 ) sin φ x 2φ x
= [ f , g ] −
∨
G = p sin φ + f cos φ + ( v y f z − vz f y ) f w e 23 + ( vz f x − vx f z ) f w e 31 + ( vx f y − v y f x ) f w e 12
G = ( px e 1 + p y e 2 + pz e 3 + pw e 4 ) sin φ
L ∨ f = ( m y f z − m z f y + vx f w ) e 1 + ( m z f x − m x f z + v y f w ) e 2 f Q ∨ x ∨ Q rotates object x through angle 2φ + ( f x e 234 + f y e 314 + f z e 124 + f w e 321 ) cos φ p
Point where line L intersects plane f. L Q+1 Q1 f
+ ( m x f y − m y f x + vz f w ) e 3 − ( vx f x + v y f y + vz f z ) e 4 about line L and translates by distance 2d Q= ∨ 1 − Antiprojection of plane f onto point p.
L∨f 2 + 2Q1 2 + 2Q1
Weight is zero if L and f are parallel. along direction of line L. f
= [ L, f ] +
∨ −G ∨ x ∨ G rotates object x through angle 2φ (p ○ ∨ f ) ∧ p = f x pw2 e 234 + f y pw2 e 314 + f z pw2 e 124 − ( f x px + f y p y + f z pz ) pw e 321
about lineperpendicular to plane f passing −G ∨ x ∨ G p
Simplified Motors
through point p and reflects across plane f. 
f ○ ∧ p = − f x pw e 41 − f y pw e 42 − f z pw e 43 p R ∨ x ∨ R rotates object x through angle 2φ
Line perpendicular to plane f and R = ( ax e 41 + a y e 42 + az e 43 ) sin φ + 1 cos φ  axis a through origin. Simplified Flectors
+ ( f y pz − f z p y ) e 23 + ( f z px − f x pz ) e 31 + ( f x p y − f y px ) e 12 about unit
passing through point p. f
S ∨ x ∨ S rotates object x through angle 2φ −H ∨ x ∨ H translates object x by vector 2 ( h x , h y , h z ) × ( s x , s y , s z ) Antiprojection of line L onto point p. L
= [ p, f ] + S = L sin φ + 1 cos φ
∨
f○ ∧ p  H = sx e 1 + s y e 2 + sz e 3 + h  across unitized plane h (transflection).
about unitized line L. and reflects
(p○ ∨ L) ∧ p = v x pw2 e 41 + v y pw2 e 42 + vz pw2 e 43
L ○ ∧ p = −vx pw e 234 − v y pw e 314 − vz pw e 124 T = t x e 23 + t y e 31 + t z e 12 + 1 T ∨ x ∨ T translates object x by vector 2t. Point p −p ∨ x ∨ p inverts object x through point p. + ( p y vz − pz v y ) pw e 23 + ( p z vx − p x vz ) pw e 31 + ( p x x y − p y vx ) pw e 12
  p
+ ( vx px + v y p y + vz pz ) e 321 Plane perpendicular to line L and p L○ ∧ p
containing point p.
Line L L ∨ x ∨ L rotates object x through 180° about line L. Plane f −f ∨ x ∨ f reflects object x across plane f.
= − [ p, L ] +
∨
L  
Antiprojection of plane f onto line L. f
Matrix Conversion M = A+B M −1 = A − B Matrix Conversion M = A+B M −1 = A − B
f○ ∧ L
f ○ ∧ L = ( v y f z − vz f y ) e 234 + ( vz f x − vx f z ) e 314 + ( vx f y − v y f x ) e 124 Plane perpendicular to plane f and L 1− 2 ( ry2 + rz2 ) 2rx ry 2rz rx 2 ( ry u z − rz u y ) 0 −2rz rw 2ry rw 2 ( rw u x − rx u w ) 2 ( h y2 + h z2 ) −1 −2h x h y −2h z h x 2 ( s x sw − h x h w ) 0 2h z sw −2h y sw 2 ( h y s z − h z s y ) ( L ○ ∨ f ) ∧ L = ( vx2 + v y2 + vz2 ) ( f x e 234 + f y e 314 + f z e124 )
− ( m x f x + m y f y + m z f z ) e 321 containing line L.
2rx ry 1− 2 ( rz + rx )
2 2
2ry rz 2 ( rz u x − rx u z ) 2rz rw 0 −2rx rw 2 ( rw u y − ry u w ) −2h x h y 2 ( h z + h x ) −1
2 2
−2h y h z 2 ( s y sw − h y h w ) −2h z sw 0 2h x sw 2 ( h z s x − h x s z ) − ( f x vx + f y v y + f z vz ) ( vx e 234 + v y e 314 + vz e 124 )
A= B= A= B=
f 2rz rx 2ry rz 1− 2 ( rx + r y ) 2 ( rx u y − ry u x )
2 2
−2ry rw 2rx rw 0 2 ( rw u z − rz u w ) −2h z h x −2h y h z 2 ( h x + h y ) −1 2 ( s z sw − h z h w )
2 2
2h y sw −2h x sw 0 2 ( h x s y − h y sx ) + ( f x m y vz − f x m z v y + f y m z vx − f y m x vz + f z m x v y − f z m y vx ) e 321 L
= [ L, f ] −
∨
Zero if L is perpendicular to f.
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

By Eric Lengyel
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