Machine Elements

Electric Motors
∆W
Power: P=
∆t

Work: force times distance W =∫ Fds

Combining both: P ( t ) =F∗v (t ) This is for linear movement (ex.: conveyor belt)

For rotating motion: P=T ∗ω ω=angular speed ( rads ) , T =torque ( Nm)

DC motor

- Attraction and repulsion between magnets

- Permanent magnet is housing (= stator)
- Electromagnet in rotor
- Commutation using ‘brushes’
- Cheap

Input: current (I in A) and voltage (E in V).

Output: torque (T in Nm) and angular speed (rad/s)

Flux: ϕ field lines in the motor, depends on the motor construction and the angle of the
motor

1 dϕ dϕ
Give: ω= and E=
C dt dt

Formula for Torque for a motor: T =K m∗I

Formula for Voltage for a motor: E=K m∗ω

For any motor, but in this case, an electric motor.

Motor Characteristic of Torque Curve: Relation between torque and speed.

DC Motors:

Pros

- Speed adjustable by changing the voltage applied to the motor

- Direction of rotation is reversible
- Acceleration and deceleration a can be controlled to desired response
- Torque can be controlled by varying the current to the motor
- Dynamic breaking by reversing the polarity
- Quick response and acceleration due to small rotor diameter and high ratio of torque to
inertia

Cons

- DC power must be available

- Brushes that wear (there are brushless motors)

Types of DC Motors

Permanent magnet motors

- Constant electromagnetic field

- Current varies linearly with torque
- Frequently used in combination with gearboxes to reduce speed and increase torque

Shunt-wound motor

- Electromagnetic field connected in parallel

- Good speed regulation up to 2x full-load torque
Series-Wound motor

- Electromagnetic field connected in series

- Steep curve giving the motor a soft performance
- Very high starting torque, up till 800% of full load
- No-load speed is theoretically unlimited

Compound-Wound motors

- Both series and shunt field

- Fairly high starting torque, a soft speed characteristic and limited no-load speed

Mechanical Drives
Rigid body model, E-L-T: Energy source (E) -> Transmission (T) -> Load Process (L)

The load process determines power, torque and/or speed

Goal is to find a suitable energy source and transmission.

Schematic diagram of drive system: dominant

components and transmission ratios.

Transmission:

J=moment of i
i=
v out R ¿
=
T
= ¿=
v ¿ Rout T out
J¿
J out √ with R=radius, T =torque , v=speed ,

For speed: v=ωR

With the force: ∑ F=ma is linear

dω
For rotation: ∑ T =Jα is circular, with α =
dt

Inertial match: J motor =i 2 mload and J motor =i 2 J load

i=
√ J motor
mload
and i=
√ J motor
J load
Match the moment of inertia of the engine and that of the reflected load. If they differ too much,
undesired dynamic behaviour may occur, like vibrations and overshoot.

Moment of inertia of simple shapes.

Transmission: Belts and Gears

Related: Power transmission

- Input: From motor, hydraulics, windmill, etc.

- Mechanical Drive: Makes it available at a different, commonly lower, speed, in other
direction or at another location
- Output: Power to driven component.

Velocity Ration VR:

ω¿ n d out z out
VR=i= = ¿ = =
ω out nout d ¿ z¿

With d=diameter of wheel , z=number of teeth and if VR>1 there is a reduction of speed

Train Values TV: TV =( VR 1)∗( VR 2 )∗…∗(VR n )

Flat belts

Pro’s

- Low-cost
- Shaft alignment not critical (a belt can twist without causing problems)
- High speed compatible
- Low maintenance
- High transmission ratio possible
- Bendable in 2 directions

Con’s

- Risk of slip
- Not for higher temperature
- Risk of electrostatic charge
- For lower torque applications
- Preload adjustment needed
- Higher bearing forces due to preload

V-belt:

Pro’s

- Low-cost
- Shaft alignment less critical
- Higher speed
- Ability of slip (in case of overloading)
- For medium torque applications
- Low maintenance
- Average transmission ratio possible

Con’s

- Risk of slip
- Not for higher temperature
- Risk of electrostatic charge
- Preload adjustment needed
- Higher bearing forces due to preload
- Bendable in only one direction
Synchronous belt

- No slip
- Very accurate movement

Belt Drives Formulas

ω1 D 2
Assuming no slip: v b=R1 ω1=R 2 ω 2 =
and with
ω2 D 1
ω= pulley speed , R=pitch radius and D= pitch diameter
2
( D2−D1 )
Pitch Length L=2 C+ 1,57 ( D2−D1 ) +
4C

Centre distance C=
√
B+ B2−32 ( D2−D1 )
2

16

B B=4 L−2 π ( D 2−D 1 )

( D 2−D 1)
Angle of contact θ1=π −2 sin−1 This may not be larger than θ>120 °
2C

Chains

Pro’s

- High torque applications

- Lower speed compatible
- Chain is divisible
- For higher temperature
- Shaft alignment moderately critical

Con’s

- High maintenance (oil)

 - Length adjustment necessary
- Moderate bearing forces
- Noisy
- Polygon effect

Polygon Effect

Variance in speed of the chain due to the radius not

being constant when the sprocket rotates.

Design Guidelines chain drives:

- Smaller sprocket: z>17 teeth to avoid polygon

effect
- Chain length is an even number * pitch
- Bigger sprockets produce quieter drives
- Higher speed decreases torque and tensile
force
- Respect the upper-limit speed of each
sprocket
- Select chain type on suppliers info
- Type of lubrication is recommended by the
supplier

Transmission: Gears
Gears

- The pinion is the smaller gear and the gear is the larger one.

Pro’s

- Relaible
- Highly efficient
- Synchronized movements
- Compact
- Large reduction
- High torques available

Con’s

- Expensive
- Need accurate rotation/aligning
- Noisy
- Need of lube
 ( rads ) and
nP N G
Velocity ratio for gears VR= = With nG =rotational speed
nG N P
N G =number of teeth

Addendum: distance from the pitch circle to the top of the teeth = a

Dedendum: distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the teeth = b

Tooth thickness (t): arc length between tooth sides

πD
Circular pitch p=
N
p=distance ¿ one tooth ¿ the next , measured alonthe pitch ¿˚ , N=number of teeth and
D= pitch diameter

N
Diametral pitch pd = pd =number of teeth per inchof diameter in America
D

D
Module m= m=module where D∈mm
N

Pitch diameter D=mN N = number of teeth

Outside diameter D O =D+2 m Diameter top

Root Diameter D R=D−2b

Whole depth ht =a+b

Working depth h k =a+ a

π∗m
Tool thickness t=
2

Kinds of gears:

Ft
Bending stress for spur gears: σ b= Y ≤ allowable stress Ft = tangential force
bm Fa
(N), σ = bending stress (N/mm2), b = gear width (mm), m = module (mm) and Y Fa = form factor
Contact stress for spur gears:

Z E =√ 0,175 E
σ H=
√ F t u+ 1
b D1 u
Z H Z E ≤ allowable contact stress and

ZE = Elasticity factor (N/mm2), ZH = curvature factor (2.5 normally), Ft = tangential force, b = gear
z2
width (mm), D1 = pitch diameter (mm), u = teeth ratio
z1

Transmission: Couplings and Seals

Three ways to constrain movement in a joint

- Form fit: geometrical elements prevent the movement of the components relative to one
another
- Force fit: a friction force prevents the movement of components relative to one another
- Material fit: the connection is made by a third material – glue (bonded), weld or solder – that
transmits the load. If the load is higher than the max shear stress, the bond fails.

Keys: form-fit for hub-shaft connections. Cheap but introduce high stress concentrations

Common form-fit options for hub-shaft connections

- Polygonal
o Resisting impact loads
o Highly accurate
o Lower stress concentrations
o Self-centering of components
o Needs special production machines
- Pin
o Simple constructions
o High-stress concetrations
o Lower torques
o Breakable pins for safety application

Force fit

- Locking assembly and taper bushing

o Industrial use
o Fast mounting
o Highly accurate
o For higher torques
o Low stress concentration
- Taper and screw
o Accurate radial and axial positioning
- Press fit (by force) or shrink fit (by heating)
 - Set screw
o Low torques

In a key:

4T Sy
Compressive stress: σ d= σ d=
dhl N

2T 0,5 S y
Shear stress: τ d= τ d=
dbl N

With d = shaft diameter, l = length of the key, l’ = l – b = load carrying length, b = width of the key, h =
height of the key, N = safety factor.

Couplings

- Transmission of torque
- Misalignment compensation
- Suspension of vibrations

Misalignment types:

Suspension of vibrations;

- Start-shock loads
- Load shocks
- Vibrations

Using:

- Rigid coupling
- Lowly flexible coupling
- Highly flexible coupling
Seals

- Separate functional spaces for static or moving parts

- Keep lubricants inside
- Keep contaminations outside

You need to know:

- Environment
- Pressure difference
- Temperature
- Speed

Types

- O-ring: Static and dynamic sealing

o Material and hardness can be chosen
o Use datasheet
o Low speed: v < 7m/s
- Seal: Rotational sealing
o Many types
o Use datasheet
o Surface roughness shaft important: Ra 0.2 – 1.6 µm
o Surface hardness shaft important: 45 – 55 HRC
o Higher speeds: v < 25 m/s
- Contactless seal: High speed/no friction seal

Transmission: Shaft Design

Shaft: Rotating machine elements used to transmit power

Axle: Shaft with a wheel or pair of wheels

Axles: Vertical shear stress only significant at the ends, Bending stress is dominant.

Transmission shaft: Bending insignificant (bending only due to own weight), torsional shear stress
is dominant.

Shaft (generally): Vertical shear stress only significant the ends, bending and torsional stress
dominant.

Fixed shaft: Wheels turn on the shaft, the shaft stays still. The bending stress is constant.

Rotating shaft: Wheels and axle rotate together. The bending stress cycles: Fatigue!

Endurance strength: Materials ability to withstand fatigue. See Wohler diagram.

'
Modified endurance strength: Sn=S n ( C m ) ( C st ) ( C R ) ( C s )
Sn = Endurance strength, Cm = material factor, Cst = type of stress factor, CR = reliability factor, Cs = size
factor.

A gear connected to a shaft transfers its contact force to the shaft.

For shaft sections with dominant bending and/or torsional stresses:

(( ) (( ) ( )) )
1
2 2 1
32 N Kt M 3 T 2 3
Diameter (mm): D= ∗ +
π Sn 4 Sy

N = design factor (safety factor), K t = stress concentration factor, M = bending moment (Nmm),
Sn = modified endurance strength (MPa), T = torque (Nmm), Sy = yield strength (MPa)

For shaft sections with only dominant vertical shearing stresses:

( )
1
N
Diameter (mm): D= 2,94 K t (V ) 2
S

Sn = modified endurance strength (MPa), Kt = stress concentration factor, N = design factor

(safety factor), V = vertical shear force (N).

To locate components on a shaft precisely:

- Use shoulders for axial positioning

- Use an appropriate solution to fix it in opposite axial direction
- Us ISO-fits for proper concentric positioning

To prevent stress concentrations

d
- Add fillets in corners, preferred r ≥
20
D
- Reduce diameter changes: <1,4
d
- Do not combine 2 stress factors in 1 zone
- Use ductile materials (no brittle/hard materials)

Joining Bolts and Welding

Screws and bolts
Fasteners: Devices used to connect or join two or more components

Screw

- Threaded fastener designed to be inserted through a hole in one member to be joined and
into a threaded hole in the mating member
- The threaded hole may have been preformed or it may be formed by the screw itself
Bolt

- Threaded fastener designed to pass through holes in both mating members and to be
secured by tightening a nut from the end opposite the head of the bolt

Bolt grades: Grade is a number, the first number is the tensile strength multiplier, the second is
the yield strength multiplier.

Example: Grade 4.6 RT =4∗100=400 MPa and RY =RT ∗0,6=400∗0,6=240 MPa

Maximum applicable force: F max=R T∗A

With RT = Tensile strength, A = cross section (Tensile stress area) of the bolt

Length of engagement: Find correct length to prevent failure

σ bolt
∗2 A t
σ nut
Le =
0,5 π ( D−0,64952 p)

With At = tensile stress area (mm2), σ = tensile strength of the bolt/nut (N/mm2), D = diameter (mm)
and p = pitch (mm).

Use inserts when the base material (material to be screwed/bolted) is weak (i.e. plastics, aluminium,
wood)

When designing:

- All bolts have the same dimensions despite unequal loading

- Mention bolt grades on drawings
- Holes according to standards
- Add washers
- Keep room for tools

F
Tensile stress area (mm2): At =
σt

σy
Tensile stress (MPa): σ t=
S

With At = tensile stress area (mm2), σ t = tensile strength (N/mm2), σ y = yield strength (N/mm2), S =
safety factor

When the two joined plates have forces that make them slide past each other, fitting bolts create
force transfer through the bolt by shear and pre-loaded bolts transfer power by friction.

FQ
Clamping force (N); F kl=
μ∗n
With FQ = the force in the two joined plates (N), n = the number of bolts and μ = the friction
coefficient.

Welded joints
General advantages:

- Material saving: lighter constructions

- Freedom of shape for small series
- Economic

Advantages over casting

- Larger parts possible (doesn’t have to be one piece)

- Less sensitive to variation in wall thicknesses
- Great freedom in shaping
- Suitable for smaller series

Advantages over bolting

- Weight reduction due to less material overlaps

- Smooth wall: looks good!
- Improved force transmission

Disadvantages:

- High internal stresses and structural changes in and along the weld seam
- Danger of fracture and cracking
- Can cause shrinkage and therefore distortions
- Re-setting of deformed welded parts due to shrinkage is time consuming and costly
- Difficult to check the quality of the weld
 P
Tension/compression stress: f=
Aw

V
Vertical share: f=
Aw

M
Bending: f=
Sw

T∗c
Twisting: f=
Jw

Bearings: Plain and Rolling Contact

Rolling contact bearings:

- Rolling contact
- Fatigue
- Low resistance
- Relatively expensive
- Environment critical

Plain bearings

- Sliding contact
- Wear
- Start-up resistance
- Relatively cheap
- Environment less critical

Contactless bearings

- No contact
- No wear
- No resistance expensive
- Environment less critical
Combined loads:

- Radial load: on the inside of the bearing.

- Axial load: in the side of the bearing

Tapered roller bearings and angular contact bearings can take axial loads
Type selection:

- Standard situation: ball bearing

- Little space:
- High radial load:
- Combined loads:
- Misaligning:
- Axial loads:
needle bearing (or cylindrical roller bearing)
cylindrical roller or spherical roller bearing
angular contact ball bearing or tapered bearings
spherical bearing types
thrust bearings

Possible mounting methods:

- Fit
- Locking nut
- End cap
- Retaining ring
- Adapter sleeves

“Fixed-floating” bearing arrangement:

- Each shaft is supported by 2 bearing positions

- The fixed bearing carries radial loads and all the axial loads
- The loose bearing carries only radial loads.
- Generally used arrangement
- Allow shaft to expand
- Allow for manufacturing tolerances

“Floating” bearing arrangement

- Each shaft is supported by 2 bearing positions

- Unknown which of the bearings carries radial loads and all the axial loads
- Easier to produce
- Shaft is not fully adjusted
- Each bearing might take axial load

Bearings with little or no axial load run less stable. Prevent by preloading:
 - With an adjustment mechanism
- With a spring or spring package
- Preloaded bearings are quitter
- Mass of the shaft doesn’t provide enough for a minimum preload
- As a guide: Fmin = 0.01 – 0.02 C

Dynamic load rating (C/kN)

- Common reference is the load P that produces no bearing failure after 1 million
revolutions with a reliability of 90% (Failure mechanism: fatigue)

Static load rating (C0/kN)

- Common reference is the load P that produces 0.01% permanent deformation of the
roller diameter (Failure mechanism: brinelling)

Equivalent dynamic load (N): P= X∗F r +Y ∗Fa

With X = radial load factor, Y = axial load factor (from table), F r = actual radial load (N), Fa actual axial
load (N) (From FBD).

Equivalent static load (N): P0=0,6 F r + 0,5 F a if P0 < F r then P0=F r

C0
Static safety factor: S0 =
P0

With C0 = static rating load (N) and P0 = static equivalent load (N)

Lifetime:
 ( )
k

( )
L2 P 1 C k
10
6
= L10 m= L10 h=L10 m
L1 P 2 P 60 n

With L1 = life at load P1, L2 = life at load P2 (in revolutions), P1 and P2 being equivalent dynamic load
(N), C = basic dynamic load rating (N), L10m = life rating in 106 revolutions and 90% reliability, L10h = life
rating in hours (h) and 90% reliability and n = rotational speed (r/min).

Springs, Clutches and Brakes

Springs
lineair spring

Spring force (N) F=kx

Fx k x 2
Spring energy (W) W= =
2 2

EA
With k =springrate =
l

Spring characteristic

- Linear (Normal)
- Progressive
o Increase in force -> stiffer spring
o Fast damping of vibrations
- Digressive
o Increase in force -> weaker spring

Distance Minimum halfway maximum

V 0 Max 0
Ekin 0 Max 0
Epot Max 0 Max
Parallel Rtot =R 1+ R 2

1 1 1
Series = +
R tot R1 R 2

1 1 1
Combination: = +
R tot R1 + R2 R3

Applications:

- Storage and release of energy

- Realisation of movement or power
- Dimension compensation
o Design
o Thermal
o Wear
- Dampening
 Dm
D m =OD−Dw =ID+ D w C=
Dw

With OD = outside diameter, ID = inside diameter and D W = wire diameter, p = pitch (axial distance
from a point on one coil to the corresponding point on the next adjacent coil)

8 KF D m 8 KFC
Shear stress in a spring: τ= 3
=
πD w π D2w
3 3
8 F Dm Na 8 F C Na
Deflection of a spring: ∆ L= 4
=
G Dw G Dw

4 C−1 0,615
Wahl factor: K= + Accounts for curvature of the wire
4 C−4 C

L0−L s
Coil clearance: cc=
Na

Clutches and brakes

Control of energy, either adding energy to accelerate a system or absorbing energy to decelerate it:
 1 2 1 2
E= mv ∨E= I ω
2 2

Required torque capacity of clutch or brake:

P
T =K ∨T =Iα
ω

Guidelines for K:

- K=1 for brakes under average conditions

- K = 1,5 for clutches in light duty conditions
- K = 3,0 for clutches in heavy duty conditions
- K = 4,0 for clutches in combination with high starting torque motors
- K = 5,0 for clutches in systems driven by gasoline and diesel engines

Friction Materials

- A relatively high coefficient of friction when operating against the mating material ->
highest coefficient not always the best choice due to smooth engagement.
- The coefficient of friction should be relatively constant over the range of operating
pressures ant temperatures.
- The material should have good resistance to wear.
- Environmental hazards must be minimised