• Feedback loop is the

signal path from the Block diagram of the elements in a process-control loop
output back to the input
to correct for any
variation between the
output level from the set
level
• Instrument is the name
of any of the various
device types for
indicating or measuring
physical quantities or
conditions, performance,
position, direction, and Measuring Elements are:
the like. Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature,
• The measuring element light intensity, or motion, to give a measurable output.
consists of a sensor, a Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another
transducer, and a Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they
transmitter with its own are suitable for transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of
regulated power supply information.
• Transmitters are devices
used to amplify and
format signals so that ✓ The transmitted signal can be in one of the
they are suitable for several formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital,
transmission over long analog voltage, analog current, or as a radio
distances with zero or frequency (RF) modulated signal.
minimal loss of
information. ✓ Transmitted signal is amplified to increase
• Electrical supply is signal and reduce noise to improve its form
required for all control
systems. ✓ Digital transmission is preferred in newer
• Regulated Power or systems because the controller is a digital
Voltage is provided to system.
avoid electrical noise
affecting performance of ✓ Analog signals can be accurately digitized
sensors, transducers and
transmitters. ✓ Digital signals can be transmitted without
• Noise. Any disturbance loss of information
to the signal.
• Sensor signals, normally
low-level dc signals, Operational Amplifiers
needs to be amplified
before transmitted to a
central control unit, or
used to operate
indicators or actuators. Op-amp Symbol
• Integrated circuit 8-pin 16-pin DIP
interconnection of
multiple active devices
on a single chip to make
an operational amplifier Typical specifications of Op-amp Example of Discrete Amplifier
• LM741/107. general
Voltage gain 200,000
purpose op-amp
Output impedance 75 Ω
• DIP. Dual inline package.
Input impedance bipolar 2MΩ
• Discrete amplifiers are
Input impedance MOS 1012 Ω
not suitable for sensor
signal amplification
because of their
temperature drift and
variations in stage gain
• Input offset voltage. The
voltage that must be Operational Amplifiers Offset Control
applied between the
inputs to drive the
output voltage to zero.
• Input offset current. The
input current required to
drive the output voltage
to zero. Offset control is use when amplifying small signals to set the dc
• Input bias current. output of the amplifier to zero when the dc input is zero
Average of the two input
currents required to
drive the output voltage
to zero.
• Slew rate. The rate of
rise of the output voltage
(V/μs) when a step
voltage is applied to the
input.
• Unity gain frequency.
This is the frequency Voltage Amplifier
where the voltage gain is
unity.
• Feedback stabilizes the
amplifier, minimizes dc
drift, and sets the gain to
a known value.
• The voltage gain of the Inverting Voltage Amplifier Non-inverting Voltage Amplifier
amplifier can be adjusted −𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑅2 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
with different values of
𝐺= = 𝐺 =1+ =1+
𝐸𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 𝐸𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
R2 or can be varied by
adding a potentiometer Example: In an inverting amplifier, resistor R1 = 1,200 Ω and resistor R2 = 150k Ω,
in series with R2. what is the gain and what is the output voltage amplitude if the ac input is 3.5mV.
• The feedback stabilizes Ans: G=125, Eo = -0.44 V
the amplifier, minimizes
dc drift, and sets the gain
to a known value.
• Op-amps can also be
used as current Converters
amplifiers, voltage to
current and current to
voltage converters, and
special-purpose
amplifiers
• Transfer function μ (or Current to Voltage Voltage to Current
ratio) is the relation −𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
μ = = 𝑅1 Ω 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑅2
between input and 𝐼𝑖𝑛 μ= = mhos 𝑅1(𝑅3 + 𝑅5)= R2R4
𝐸𝑖𝑛 𝑅1𝑅3
output

Example: the input current is 165 μA and the output voltage is −2.9 V.
What is the transfer ratio and the value of R1?
Ans: μ =17.6kV/A, R1 = 17.6kΩ
• Current Amplifiers are
devices that amplify Current Amplifier
current.
• In industrial
instrumentation a
voltage-to-current
converter is sometimes
referred to as a current
amplifier.

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅 2𝑅 6
=
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑅 1𝑅 3

𝑅1(𝑅3 + 𝑅5)= R2R4

• Differential Amplifiers is
a dual input amplifier Differential Amplifier
that amplifies the
difference.
• One signal is fed to the
negative input of the op-
amp and the other signal
is fed to the positive
input of the op-amp.
• Sometimes called DC
𝑅2
amplifiers Vout= (V2-V1)
𝑅1

Example: An input of 130 mV is applied to terminal A, and –85 mV is applied to

terminal B. What is the output voltage (assume the amplifier was zeroed with 0
V at the inputs)?
Ans: Vout = -5.5 V
• Buffer Amplifiers is an
impedance matching op- Buffer Amplifier
amp
• Have feedback to give Vout ≈ Vin
unity voltage gain, high
input impedance (more G≈ 1
megaohms), and low
output impedance (<20
Ω) Example Circuit:
• impedance is used to
cover both ac
impedance and dc
resistance

what is the output voltage of the buffer

amplifier? Assume the input impedance of
the buffer amplifier is 2 MΩ and its output
impedance is 15 Ω.
• Sensors may have a
logarithmic or nonlinear Nonlinear Amplifier (logarithmic amplifier)
transfer characteristic 𝑉𝐼𝑁
D1 I1= = - IF
and such devices require 𝑅1
signal linearization
𝐼𝐹
• Nonlinear elements are VOUT= - VF = - ŋ VT𝑙𝑛
diodes or transistors 𝐼𝑆
• Combinations of
𝑉𝐼𝑁
resistors and nonlinear VOUT= - ŋ VT𝑙𝑛
𝑅1𝐼𝑆
elements can be chosen
to match the
26𝑚𝑉
characteristics of many r D=
𝐼𝐹
sensors for linearization
of the output from the
sensor. IF ≲ 1 mA (log amps)
• Nonlinear Amplifiers are
configured as a IF >1 mA (linear amps)
logarithmic amplifier
• Sensors may have a
logarithmic or nonlinear Nonlinear Amplifier (antilogarithmic amplifiers)
transfer characteristic
and such devices require
signal linearization
• Nonlinear elements are
diodes or transistors
• Combinations of
resistors and nonlinear
elements can be chosen
to match the
characteristics of many
sensors for linearization
of the output from the
sensor.
• Antilogarithmic
Amplifiers are
configured as shown.
• Op-amp can have
different input Instrumentation Amplifiers
impedances at the two
inputs.
• Instrumentation
Amplifiers are for low-
level instrument signal
amplification
• Shown amplifier has
inputs with very high
input impedance and
good common-mode 𝑅5 2𝑅1
noise reduction. Gain is VOUT= ( +1) (Vin1-Vin2)
𝑅3 𝑅𝐴
set by RA.
• Op-amp can have
different input Instrumentation Amplifiers (Practical Circuit)
impedances at the two
inputs.
• Instrumentation
Amplifiers are for low-
level instrument signal
amplification
• Shown amplifier is a
practical circuit using an
instrumentation
amplifier to amplify the
output signal from a
resistive bridge.
• R6 is used to adjust for
any zero signal offset. 𝑅5 2𝑅1
VOUT= ( +1) (Vin1-Vin2)
𝑅3 𝑅𝐴
• Amplifiers are used in
many applications other
than signal amplification, Amplifier applications
filtering, and
linearization
▪ Capacitance multiplier
▪ Gyrator
▪ Sine wave oscillators
▪ Power supply regulators
▪ Level detection
▪ Sample and hold
▪ Voltage reference
▪ Current mirrors
▪ Voltage-to-frequency converters
▪ Voltage-to-digital converters
▪ Pulse amplitude modulation
• Digital electronics. Study
of electronic circuits
where the inputs and
outputs are limited to
two fixed or discrete
Digital Signals
values or logic levels, ( 1
and 0)
• Binary digit is called a bit
• 4 bits are defined as a
nibble ▪ The logic low (binary 0) level is from 0 to 1V
• 8 bits form a byte ▪ The logic high (binary1) level is from 2 to 5V;
• 8-bit word can represent
numbers up to 255 Power Value
• Analog signals are easily
converted to digital
signals using
commercially available
analog-to-digital
converters (ADC).
• Commercial integrated
Voltage-to-digital conversion Technique
A/D converters are
readily available for
instrumentation Flash converters which are very fast and expensive with limited accuracy, that is, 6-
applications. bit output with a conversion time of 33 ns. The device can sample an analog voltage
• Advantages of digital 30 million times per second.
circuits are:
➢ Lower power Successive approximation is a high-speed, medium-cost technique with good
requirements accuracy, that is, the most expensive device can convert an analog voltage to 12 bits
➢ More cost effective in 20 μs, and a less expensive device can convert an analog signal to 8 bits in 30 μs.
➢ Can transmit signals over
long distances without Resistor ladder networks are used in low-speed, medium-cost converters. They have
loss of accuracy and a 12-bit conversion time of about 5 ms.
elimination of noise
➢ High-speed signal Dual slope converters are low-cost, low-speed devices but have good accuracy and
transmission are very tolerant of high noise levels in the analog signal. A 12-bit conversion takes
➢ Memory capability for about 20 ms.
data storage
➢ Controller and alpha
numeric display
compatible
• Commercial integrated
Voltage-to-digital conversion
A/D converters are
readily available for
instrumentation
applications.
• ADC 0804. A commercial
8-bit ADC that converts
analog input to a byte of
digital information every
Sample and Hold Circuit
few milliseconds.
• LM 331. A commercial
voltage-to-frequency
converter

Output: 8 bits
19.53mV rise = 1 bit

Freq.: 1-Hz to 100-kHz

• Commercial integrated
A/D converters are
readily available for
instrumentation
applications.
• ADC 0804. A commercial
8-bit ADC that converts
analog input to a byte of
digital information every
few milliseconds.
• LM 331. A commercial
voltage-to-frequency
converter
• Commercial integrated
SeatWork
A/D converters are
readily available for
instrumentation
applications.
• ADC 0804. A commercial
8-bit ADC that converts
analog input to a byte of
digital information every
few milliseconds.
• LM 331. A commercial
voltage-to-frequency
converter
• Feedback loop is the
signal path from the Block diagram of the elements in a process-control loop
output back to the input
to correct for any
variation between the
output level from the set
level
• An actuator is a machine
part that initiates
movements by receiving
feedback from a control
signal.

Controlling Elements are:

Actuator is a device that uses a form of power to convert a control signal
into mechanical motion
Regulator (automatic control), a device that maintains a designated
characteristic
• An actuator is a machine
part that initiates Types of Actuators (in ref to motion) are Linear and Rotary
movements by receiving
feedback from a control ✓ Linear actuators are devices that produce movement within a straight path
signal. ✓ Rotary actuators create a circular motion.

Types of Actuators (in ref to Source Energy)

✓ Hydraulic Actuators. Use of a fluid-filled cylinder with a piston suspended at
the center
✓ Pneumatic Actuators. Use pressurized gases to create mechanical movement
✓ Electric Actuators. Require electricity to work. Examples include electric cars,
manufacturing machinery, and robotics equipment
✓ Thermal and Magnetic Actuators. Consist of shape memory alloys that can
be heated to produce movement
✓ Mechanical Actuators. Mostly mechanical, such as pulleys or rack and pinion
systems
✓ Supercoiled Polymer Actuators. Used in robotics and prosthetic limbs as
they can replicate the motion of human muscle via a coil that contracts and
expands when heated or cooled
Types of Actuators (in ref to Source Energy)
✓ Electric Actuators.

✓ Hydraulic Actuators. ✓ Pneumatic Actuators

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vF61cZerj2M
 Types of Actuators (in ref to Source Energy)
✓ Supercoiled Polymer Actuators

✓ Thermal and Magnetic Actuators. ✓ Mechanical Actuators

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Kuq6rAzzs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ditS0a28Sko
• Linear actuators are Most well-known Actuators
devices that produce
movement within a
straight path
Electric motors. Any part of a piece of equipment or appliance that
• Rotary actuators create translates electrical energy into motion, such as those found in
a circular motion. ventilation fans, blenders, or refrigerators, contains at least one
actuator.

Stepper motors. These actuators are best known for receiving digital
pulses and converting them into mechanical motion. Stepper motors
are often seen in robots, smart tools, or automated cutting equipment.

Hydraulic cylinders. These are linear-motion devices that operate using

a tube, piston, and rod. Many vehicles operate using hydraulic motion,
such as bulldozers, backhoes, or excavators.