1.

2 LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to
death. It refers to development as patterns of change over time. It does not just involve the
biological and physical aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated
with development. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain
how and why people change throughout life.

1.2.1 Issues in Life Span Development

A number of major issues have emerged in the study of human development. These issues
include the following: Is development due more to genetics or environment? Does development
occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages? Do early childhood experiences have
the greatest impact on development, or are later events equally important?

Continuity and Discontinuity: The question of whether development is solely and evenly
continuous, or whether it is marked by age-specific periods. Developmental Psychologists who
advocate the continuous model describe development as a relatively smooth process, without
sharp or distinct stages, through which an individual must pass.

Stability and Change: Another issue which is of importance to developmental psychologists is

the issue of stability versus change. Whether development is best characterised by stability, for
example, does a behaviour or trait such as shyness stay stable in its expression over time or
change example: Could a person's degree of shyness fluctuate across the life span?

Nature vs. Nurture: Whether the behaviour ultimately developed by the child is due to
hereditary factors or environmental factors. This issue of great to psychologists. The debate over
the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment is one of the oldest issues in both
philosophy and psychology.

Psychodynamic Theory

DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY
The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask
worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities.

Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a
person from others. A product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly consistent
throughout life.
YOUR PERSONALITY INVOLVES:

• TRAITS
• CHARACTER
• TEMPERAMENT

WHAT IS PERSONALITY TRAITS:

Personality traits are characteristic patterns in how you think, feel, and act.

COMMON EXAMPLES OF PERSONALITY TRAITS INCLUDE:

• generosity
• extroversion
• loyalty
• courage
• honesty
• arrogance

PERSONALITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY:

• genes
• biology
• life experiences
• adverse events you've faced
• community and culture
• early bonds
• raising styles

HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS

There are a number of theories about personality, and different schools of thought in psychology
influence many of these theories. Some theories describe how personalities are expressed, and
others focus more on how personality develops.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

Psychodynamic theory was originally a theory of personality created by Freud External It has
evolved significantly over the years, and many theorists have contributed to it. Freud believed
human behavior could be explained by intrapsychic processes and interpersonal patterns outside
of a person's conscious awareness and based on their childhood experiences. A general definition
of psychodynamic theory is that forces outside of a person's awareness explain why they behave
a way.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

Psychodynamic theory is the theory that the patient has a conflict that they need to work through
for self-understanding and self- realization. The idea behind the psychodynamic theory is that,
through introspection, the patient I can have a sense of their inner conflicts, and both
subconscious and unconscious.

SIGMUND FREUD'S THEORY

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as
the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among
these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them "desires,"
determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given
situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral
tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal
control over those drives.

THREE FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF HUMAN MIND

• ID
• EGO
• SUPER EGO

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development is a theory introduced in the 1950s by the

psychologist and psychoanalyst Erik Erikson. It built upon Freud's theory of psychosexual
development by drawing parallels in childhood stages while expanding it to include the influence
of social dynamics as well as the extension of psychosocial development into adulthood.[1] It
posits eight sequential stages of individual human development influenced by biological,
psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan. This bio-psychosocial approach has
influenced several fields of study, including gerontology. personality development, identity
formation, life cycle development, and more.
ERIK ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson was awarded the AM (hon) on appointment in 1960, and the LLD (hon) in 1978. He retired
as Professor Emeritus in 1970. Erik Erikson is listed as number 12 on the American Psychological
Association's list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.

Abraham Maslow's Theory

Holistic Dynamic Theory

Abraham Maslow View of Motivation

• Motivation is HOLISTIC
• Motivation is COMPLEX
• People are ALWAYS MOTIVATED
• People have similar needs and motivation
• Needs have a HIERARCHY

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Psychological Needs
- The basic of all needs such as food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body temerature and
so on.

Safety Needs
- Physical security, financial stability, dependency, protection from threatening forces

Love and Belongingness

- Desire for friendship, wish for a mate and children, need to belong to a community

Esteem Needs
- Need to gain self-respect, confidence, competence, and knowledge that others looks up
to us in high regard.

Self-actualization
- Desire to self-fulfillment, the realization of ones full potential, a desire to become creative
in every sense of the word.
Being Values
- Truth, goodness, beauty, transcendence of dichotomies, likeness or spontaneity,
uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice, simplicity, richness or totality, effortlessness,
playfulness or humor, and self-sufficiency

Aesthetic Needs
- Need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences

Cognitive Needs
- Desire to know, to solve mysteries, to understand and to be curious

Neurotic Needs
- Same with Horney and From most concept of Neurotic Needs

Maslow's books are easy to read and full of interesting ideas. The best known are Toward a
Psychology of Being (1968), Motivation and Personality (first edition, 1954, and second edition,
1970), and The Further Reaches of Human Nature (1971). Finally, there are many articles by
Maslow, especially in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, which he cofounded.

Carl Roger's Theory

Who is Carl Rogers

• Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist best known for his views about
the therapeutic relationship and his theories of personality and self-actualization.

• Rogers (1959) believed that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides
them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with
unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Person Centered Therapy

• Rogers developed client-centered therapy (later re-named 'person-centered'), which was a
non-directive therapy, allowing clients to deal with what they considered important, at their own
pace.
• This method involves removing obstacles so the client can move forward, freeing him or her for
normal growth and development. By his use of non-directive techniques, Rogers assisted people
in taking responsibility for themselves

Personality Development
• Central to Rogers" personality theory is the notion of self or self- concept. This is defined as
"the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself."

• The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner
personality, and can be likend to the soul. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has
in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our
self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

3 Components of Self-concept (Embodies the answers to the question Who am I?)

SELF-WORTH/ SELF ESTEEM

- Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed
feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction
of the child with the mother and father.

SELF-IMAGE
- How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image
includes the influence of our body image on inner personality.

IDEAL-SELF
- This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life,
and is dynamic - i.e., forever changing.

Positive Regard and Self Worth

- Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued,
respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people
evaluate and judge us in social interaction.
- How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both
to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and
achieve self-actualization.
Unconditional Positive Regard
• Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist)
accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person
does something wrong or makes a mistake. The consequences of unconditional positive regard
are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to
getting it worse at times.

Conditional Positive Regard

• Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the
child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence the child is not loved
for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved
by the parent(s).

Congruence
• Where a person's ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of
congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a
certain amount of incongruence. The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional
positive regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization, they must be
in a state of congruence.

Incongruence
● As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use
defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what
we consider to be our undesirable feelings. A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her
or his real feelings and experiences will defend because the truth hurts.
Self actualization
• Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of "human- beingness" we
can. According to Rogers, people could only self-actualize if they had a positive view of
themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard
from others if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around
them (especially their parents when they were children).

Fully functioning person

• Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in
touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing
and changing. In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one
that people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life's
journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person

Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging
and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back
to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment). Open to experience: both
positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through
(rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).

Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People's
own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.

Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person's life. A person
does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek
new experiences.

Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.
Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory attempts to explain human behavior by studying the mental processes involved
when trying learn and understand.

The three main elements of cognitive theory are perception, attention, and memory. The
process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting stimuli creates a person's perception. The way
they process the information in their environment is known as their attention, and the process
of gathering, storing, and recalling information creates memory.

Jean Piaget's Theory

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget believed that children
take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt
previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

History of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to
the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet
and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test. Piaget proposed that
intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more
quickly than younger children. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences
between the thinking of young children versus older children.

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

According to Jean Piaget, stages of development takes place via the interaction between natural
capacities and environmental happenings, and children experience a series of stages (Wellman,
2011). The sequence of these stages remains same across cultures. Each child goes through the
same stages of cognitive development in life but with a different rate. The following are Piaget's
stages of intellectual development:
 The Sensorimotor Stage - Birth to 2 Years

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest
period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

• Know the world through movements and sensations.
• Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
• Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object permanence).
• Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
• Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage - 2 to 7 Years

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the
emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development. Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

• Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage - 7 to 11 Years

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development,
they become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to
disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

•Begin to think logically about concrete events.

• Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup
is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
• Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
• Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle.
 The Formal Operational Stage - Ages 12 and Up

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, adolescents and young adults
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them. Major characteristics and developmental changes during this
time:

• Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.

• Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
• Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Important Concepts

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change
in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages.
Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation.

Accommodation
Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new information.

Equilibration
As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account
for new knowledge (accommodation).
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

Moral Development Theory

It is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and
engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed this one of the best-known theories. A
theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory
suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily
focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Example: "Heinz Steals the Drug"
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

Earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's
decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking
the rules.

Two stages within Level 1:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to
Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important
because it is a way to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)

At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible
at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what
is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they
have learned from their role models and from society. This period also focuses on the acceptance
of authority and conforming to the norms of the group.

Two stages within Level 2:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships)

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There
is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice", and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)

This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is
maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty, and respecting authority.
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of

morality.

Two stages within Level 3:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to
account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important
for maintaining a society, but membersof the society should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles)

Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict
with laws and rules.

Application for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it can help parents
guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger children might
work on rule obeyance, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about social
expectations. Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom,
providing additional moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral
development by setting clear rules for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them.
This helps kids at stage one of moral development.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior.

Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between
knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not
lead to moral behavior.

Overemphasizes justice
Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the
concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other
interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Cultural bias
Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist cultures stress the importance
of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

Age bias
Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no experience with
marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these children to understand, and
a scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to different results.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Gender bias
Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-
biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg believed that women tended
to remain at the third level of moral development because they place a stronger emphasis on
things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

Introduction

Once I was hiking at Cape Lookout State Park in Tillamook, Oregon. After passing through a
vibrantly colored, pleasantly scented, temperate rainforest, I arrived at a cliff overlooking the
Pacific Ocean. I grabbed the cold metal railing near the edge and looked out at the sea. Below
me, I could see a pod of sea lions swimming in the deep blue water. All around me, I could smell
the salt from the sea and the scent of wet, fallen leaves."

What is sensation?

Sensation is the process that allows our brain to take in information via our five senses,
which can then be experienced and interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs thanks to our five
sensory systems: vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
1. Eyes- Sensory System for Vision (Ophthalmoception)
The human eye is a sense organ adapted to allow vision by reacting to light. The eye contains
structures that allow it to perceive light, movement and colour differences.

2. Ears- Sensory System for Hegring (Audioception)

The most obvious part of the human auditory system is the ear. Hearing is the ability to
detect sound. Three parts of ear:
• Outer ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear

3. Tongue - Sensory System for Taste (Gustaoception)

Taste is one of your basic senses. It helps you evaluate food and drinks so you can determine
what's safe to eat.

4. Nose- Sensory System for Smell, (Olfacoception)

Olfaction is a sense, in which external chemical information is carried and transformed into the
central nervous system in patterns of brain activity, which is involved in mediating odor
perception.

5. Skin- Sensory System for Touch (Tactioception)

Our sense of touch all receive information about our internal and external
environments, making it important for sensory perception.
The three layers of the skin include the following:
•Epidermis
•Dermis
•Hypodermis

Absolute Threshold
The smallest level of stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Differences (JND)

Also known as difference threshold. Minimum level of stimulation that a person can detect 50%
of the time.

Stimulus and Receptor

Stimulus- a stimulus is anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change.

Sensory Receptors- are specialized cells that detect and transmit stimulus.
Subliminal Stimulation - is a sensory stimulation that is below a person's threshold for
perception. It can't be seen by the naked eye or consciously heard.
Sensory Adaptation - Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus due to constant exposure to that
stimulus.

What is perception?

Perception - is the process by which the brain selects, organizes these sensations. In other words,
senses are the physiological basis of perception.
Bottom-up processing - is when sensory receptors pick up signals for the brain to integrate and
process.

Top-down processing - is an important term in psychology used to explain how people

perceptually interpret information to make sense of the world around them.

What is Illusion?
An illusion is a perception that does not correspond to reality: people think they see something
when the reality is quite different. Another way thinking of illusions is as visual stimuli that "fool"
the eye.

Illusion came from the latin word "illusio" which means to mock (fake). Illusions distort one's
senses. Most illusions tend to deceive the eyes, ears and skin, while there are some illusions that
may distort perception due to changes in internal body structures. Illusions may occur with any
of the human senses but visual illusions (optical illusions) are the best known and understood.
The emphasis on visual illusions occurs because vision often dominates the other senses.
The three main types of illusion include optical illusions, auditory illusions, and tactile illusions.
Types of illusion:

• OPTICAL ILLUSIONS
An optical or visual illusion is a kind of illusion in which the images perceived through the sense
of sight tend to be misleading or deceptive, causing errors in perception. An optical illusion is
based on the process through which the brain creates a visual world in one's mind using either
or both these two sources: previous memory stored in it and the current presentation of the object
in the environment.

Muller lyer illusion: the Muller Lyer illusion is an optical illusion consisting of three stylized
arrows. The distortion happens when the viewer tries to determine if the two lines are exactly
the same length.

The moon illusion: it is another common illusion in which the moon on the horizon appears to
be much larger than the moon in the sky.

• AUDITORY ILLUSIONS
While optical illusions deceive the eyes through visual images, auditory illusions mislead the ears
through sounds. These sounds are usually those are not really present in physical stimulus but is
heard by the ears and perceived as a sound related to the stimulus in the environment.

There are also auditory illusions that come from "impossible sounds" such as hearing a missing
fundamental frequency. False perceptions of real sound or outside stimulus.

• TACTILE ILLUSIONS
While optical illusion and auditory illusions are common manifestations of several psychological
disorders such as schizophrenia and psychosis, tactile illusion is experienced by patients who
have undergone amputation.

The phantom limb is a tactile illusion wherein the patient still feels pain on the leg, arm or digit
that has already been removed.

ILLUSIONS OF MOTION
Sometimes people perceive an object as moving when it is actually still.

AUTOKINETIC EFFECT
In this effect, a small stationary light in a darkened room will appear to move or drift because
there are no surrounding cues to indicate that the light is not moving.
STROBOSCOPIC MOTION
seen in motion pictures, in which a rapid series of still pictures will seem to be in motion. Many
student has discovered that drawing little figures on the edges of a notebook and then flipping
the pages quickly will also produce this same illusion of movement.

PHI PHENOMENON
In which lights turned on in sequence appear to move.

What is hallucination?

A hallucination is a perception in the absence of external stimulus that has qualities of real
perception. Hallucinations are vivid, substantial and are perceived to be located in external
objective space.

The word "hallucination" itself was introduced into the English language by the 17th century
physician Sir Thomas Browne in 1646 from the derivation of the Latin word alucinari meaning to
wander in the mind.

TYPES OF HALLUCINATION
Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality:
• Visual Hallucination
• Auditory Hallucination
• Olfactory Hallucination
• Command hallucination
• Gustatory Hallucination
• Tactile Hallucination

VISUAL HALLUCINATION

A visual hallucination is the "perception of an external visual stimulus where none exist". A
separate but related phenomenon is a visual illusion, which is a distortion of a real external
stimulus. Visual hallucinations has two classification, the simple or complex visual hallucination.

Classification of Visual Hallucination

Simple visual hallucination (SVH)- are also referred to as non-formed visual hallucinations.
These terms refer to lights, colours, geometric shapes, and indiscrete objects.
 Complex visual hallucination (CVH) – a also referred to as formed visual hallucinations. It is
clear, lifelike images or scenes such as people, animals, objects, places, etc.

AUDITORY HALLUCINATION

Auditory hallucinations are perception of sound without outside stimulus. Auditory

hallucinations are the most common type of hallucinations.

Elementary hallucinations- are the perception of sounds such as hissing, whistling, an extended
tone or more.

Complex hallucinations- are voices, music or other sounds that may or may not be clear, may be
familiar or completely unfamiliar and friendly or aggressive, among other possibilities.

Command hallucinations are in the form of commands; they can be auditory or inside of the
person's mind or consciousness. The contents of the hallucinations can range from the innocuous
to commands to cause harm to the self or others. Command hallucinations are sometimes used
to defend a crime that has been committed, often homicides. In essence it is a voice that one
hears and tells the listener what to do. Sometimes the commands are quite benign directives
such as "stand up" or 'shut the door". Whether it is a command for something simple or
something that is a threat, it is still considered a command hallucination.

OLFACTORY HALLUCINATION

• Phantosmia ( olfactory hallucinations)- smelling an odor that is not actually there, and Parosma
(olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered,
are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system) that in most cases, are not caused by
anything serious and usually go away on their own time.

TACTILE HALLUCINATION

Tactile hallucination are the illusion of tactile sensory input, stimulating various types of pressure
to the skin or other organs. One subtype of tactile hallucination, formication, is the sensation of
insects crawling underneath the skin and is frequently associated with prolonged cocaine use.
The most common tactile hallucination in patients with schizophrenia is a sensation in which a
patch of their skin is stretched elastically across their head. They feel this stretching painful
sensation which also known as cutaneous hallucination.

GUSTATORY HALLUCINATION
This type of hallucination is the perception of taste without stimulus. These hallucinations which
are typically strange or unpleasant are relatively common among individuals who have certain
types of focal epilepsy, especially temporal lobe epilepsy. The regions of brains responsible for
gustatory hallucination in this case are the insula and the superior bank of the sylvian
fissure.

Other types of hallucination:

Hypnagogic hallucinations- can occur as one is falling asleep.

Hypnopompic hallucinations- occur when one is waking up.
Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations are considered normal phenomena.

Possible reasons for hallucinations include:

MENTAL HEALTH CONDITION- hallucinations can be a symptom of a number of mental health

conditions and are often a part of psychosis. Mental health conditions that may frequently
include hallucinations: Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective disorder, Brief psychotic disorder, Major
depressive disorder with psychotic features, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and Bipolar
disorder.

NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS - given that hallucinations originate in the brain, medical

conditions that impact brain functioning can sometimes result in hallucinations. This is
particularly true of disorders that impact sensory processing, motor functioning, memory, and
other key areas of the brain. Neurological disorders that sometimes include hallucinations
include: -Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Other forms of dementia, Migraines and
Seizure disorders.

SUBSTANCE USE - many substances alter how the brain processes information. Psychoactive
substances, drug use, marijuana and alcohol can sometimes induce hallucinations. Typically,
these effects last only until the substance wears off. However, in some cases symptoms may
continue to last and become chronic.

EMOTIONAL DISTRESS, STRESS, & GRIEF - a person may experience hallucinations for emotional
or mental health related reasons that are not associated with a diagnosable disorder.
SLEEP DISTURBANCES - poor sleep and some sleep disorders may lead to hallucinations. When
people experience severe sleep impairment, brain function may be negatively impacted,
resulting in sensory issues such as hallucinations.

Difference between illusion and hallucination:

The term illusion refers to a specific form of sensory distortion unlike hallucination, which is a
distortion in the absence of stimulus. Both hallucination are related with perceptual processes.
Hallucinations are false perception while illusion are misinterpretations of a true sensation
Unlike illusions, it is difficult to conduct researches on hallucinations due to its uniquely
experienced nature. As hallucinations are general abnormal, they receive more negative
connotations as compared to illusions which is largely associated with the arts and
entertainment.

CONSCIOUSNESS
Awareness to one's own mental activity as well as the environment

HAS THREE (3) APPLICATIONS

Sensory Awareness- is the focused, thematic experience of a particular sensory aspect of the
external or internal environment.

Inner Awareness- the surreal feeling of what's happening in your consciousness.

Sense of Self- your perception of the collection of characteristics that define you.

DEFINITION OF CONSCIOUSNESS
The state of being aware; awareness to both internal and external stimuli. The state of being
aware of and responsive to one's surroundings. The state of being characterized by sensation,
emotion, volition, and thought (mind).
Stages of consciousness

SLEEPING
Sleep creates a unique state of consciousness because while you experience a lowered level of
awareness during sleep, your brain is still active. Your brain's ability to cycle through different
stages of sleep with both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep is proof of this
activity.

DREAMING
REM sleep is part of the sleep cycle most often associated with dreams you can remember
when you wake up. During this time, your brain is active in a way similar to when you are
awake, but your state of awareness is lowered.

HYPNOSIS
The phenomenon of hypnosis involves hyper-awareness which leads to an alteration of a
person's state of consciousness. During hypnosis, a person will often appear as if they are
asleep. Although, in reality, they are actually processing their thoughts through a deep, focused
awareness.

STAGES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

1. Sensory awareness: This is the most basic level of consciousness, characterized by the
ability to perceive sensory stimuli from the environment, such as light, sound, touch,
taste, and smell.

2. Perceptual awareness: This is a higher level of consciousness, characterized by the

ability to interpret and make sense of sensory information, and to recognize objects,
people, and events in the environment.

3. Self-awareness: This is a more advanced level of consciousness, characterized by the

ability to recognize oneself as a separate entity from the environment and other
individuals, and to have a sense of one's own thoughts, emotions, and intentions.

4. Executive awareness: This is the highest level of consciousness, characterized by the

ability to plan, decisions, and take actions based on one's own goals and values, and to
reflect on one's own mental processes and experiences.
Sleeping and Dreaming

Altered States of Consciousness: with psychoactive drugs or without drugs

The Sleep Cycle

The Circadian Rhythm

- This cycle is controlled by an internal biological clock.

√ Non-REM Sleep
√ REM Sleep

Non-REM Sleep

1. Transition between sleep and wake

2. State of Deep Relaxation Awake

DEFINITION OF COGNITION

Cognition, the states and processes involved in knowing. Cognition includes all conscious and
unconscious processes by which knowledge is accumulated, such as perceiving, recognizing,
conceiving, and reasoning.

Cognition is a state or experience of knowing that can be distinguished from an experience of

feeling or willing.

DEFINITION OF ATTENTION

The behavior a person uses to focus the senses, from sight to hearing and even smell. It may
focus on information that matters. The concentration of awareness on some phenomenon to
the exclusion of other stimuli. Attention is awareness of the here and now in a focal and
perceptive way.
EDWARD BRADFORD TITCHENER: Attention determined the content of consciousness and
influenced the quality of conscious experience.

ATTENTIVE PROCESSES
• Closely observing and searching through an item to recognize particular features. Being
Mindful and Observant.

PRE-ATTENTIVE PROCESSING
• Is the subconscious accumulation of information from the environment. Occurs before the
conscious mind starts to pay attention to any specific objects in its area.

PRE-ATTENTIVE PROCESSING
Pure-capture - focuses on stimulus salience
Contingent-capture – emphasizes the idea that a person's current intentions and/or goals
affect the speed and efficiency of pre-attentive processing.

LIMITATION OF ATTENTION

• Attention is the ability to actively process specific information in the environment while
tuning out other details. Limitation is on how many different (cognitive or overt) actions we can
attend to at the same time in order to control them.

Attention is limited in terms of:

• Capacity
• Duration
• Multitasking

SHIFTING OF ATTENTION

● Is moving the focus of attention from one location to another. Shifts can be made
intentionally or automatically by the abrupt onset of a stimulus. It is alternating an individuals
attention back and forth. Individual need sudden changes in their activities which need to shift
their attention.

Process of Attention shifting

• Disengaged
• Shifted to a new location
• Re engaged
ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER

• ADD is an old term for the ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
• Is an condition that affects people behavior. People with ADHD can seem restless.
• May have trouble concentrating and may act impulse.
• Symptoms of ADHD tend to be noticed at an early age and may become more
noticeable when a child's circumstances change, such as when they start school.
• Most cases are diagnosed when children are under 12 years old, but sometimes it's
diagnosed later in childhood.

People with ADHD or ADD may experience an ongoing pattern of the following types of
symptoms.

Inattention- means a person may have difficulty staying on task, sustaining focus, and staying
organized, and these problems are not due to defiance or lack of comprehension.

Hyperactivity - means a person may seem to move about constantly, including in situations
when it is not appropriate, or excessively fidgets, taps, talks. In adults, hyperactivity may mean
extremely restlessness or talking too much.

Impulsivity - means a person may act without thinking or having difficulty with self-control.
Impulsivity could also include a desire for immediate rewards or the inability to delay
gratification. An impulsive person may. Interrupt others or make important decision without
considering long term consequences.

CAUSES:
• Genetics
• Brain function and structure
• Group at Risk
- who were born premature
- with epilepsy
- with brain damage
Problem Solving

PROBLEM
A problem is described as a situation wherein one is required to accomplish a goal and the
resolution is not clear.

2 types of Problem

WELL-DEFINED
Well-defined problem is one that has a clear goal or solution, and problem solving strategies
are easily developed.

POORLY-DEFINED
Poorly-defined problem is one that is unclear, abstract, or confusing, and that does not
have a clear problem solving strategy.

Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem;
identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.
Problem-solving in psychology refers to the process of finding solutions to problems
encountered in life. The process starts with problem finding, where the problem is discovered
and an attempt is made to simplify it.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

TRIAL AND ERROR - Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved.

ALGORITHM - Step-by-step problem- solving formula.

HEURISTIC – General problem- solving framework

Understanding the problem in problem solving refers to identifying and defining the problem
to be solved. It involves analyzing the situation, breaking it down into smaller components,
identifying the root cause, and clarifying the goals and objectives.
4 Steps to Problem-Solving using IDEA Model
IDEA Model

• I - Identify the Problem

• D - Developing solution
• E - Executing your plan
• A - Assessment or Execution

Step 1: Identify the Problem

> Locating the root cause

Very often, people start by observing the symptoms or effect of a problem. Problems are often
like puzzles, with pieces that interconnected and overlap forming a system. This can make it
difficult to separate symptoms from the underlying causes that needed to address.

Step 2: Developing Solution

>Potential solutions stem directly from the cause from the identification steps (The whys?)
would determine the best solution from the solution you derived. Comparing each one to
another using (pros and cons, weighted rubric and SWOT analysis) looking at its strength,
weakness, opportunities and threats.

Steps 3: Executing your plan

> Goals that can be executed, a well structured goal (SMART) Specific, measurable, actionable,
relevant and Time-bound. Execution consist of focusing on implementing the real action
designed to achieve solution. When the solution is reached, the root cause should be reduced
or eliminated.
Step 4: Assessment or Evaluation
> It determine and document the extent to which a problem has been resolved. It is a
evaluation phase wherein the whole process is reviewed.

Definition of Memory
>Is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when
needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action.
Memory is not a perfect processor, and is affected by many factors. The ways by which
information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted.
Pain -has been identified as a physical condition that impairs memory and has been noted in
animal models as well as chronic pain patients.
Storage Process -can become corrupted by physical to areas of the brain that are associated
with memory storage, such as the Hippocampus.
Memory loss - is usually describe as forgetfulness or amnesia.

3 Memory Processes
1. Sensory register process
2. Short-term Memory

3. Long-term Memory

1. Sensory Register process

-The brain obtain information from the environment. This activity is short, lasting of most a few
seconds.

-During sensory register, the brain gathers information passively through visual and auditory
cues, known respectively as "iconic" and "echoic" memory.

2. Short-term memory

-begin when your individual gives attention to the information received through sensoryregister
and it has two parts:
• Short-term memory
• Working memory

Short-term memory -is when the brain stores information temporarily so that it can be
repeated, e.i. remembering a phone number you see on TV.

Working refers to the brain storming for the purpose of information manipulating it such as
remembering a set of formulas while working on a math problem.
3. Long-term Memory
-Many think a long-term memory as a permanent "bank" within the brain. Once an information
arrives there, the mind stores it completely and indefinitely. In truth, this is not the case.
Although the long-term memory process allows information to remain in the brain for an
extended period, nothing in the brain avoids risk.
-Information stored in long-term memory can stay in the brain for a short while (a day, a week)
or last as long as a lifetime.

-When long-term memories form, the Hippocampus retrieves information from the working
memory and begins to change the brain's physic al neural wiring.
-These new connections between neurons and synapses stay as long as they remain in use.
Psychologists divide long-term memory into two length types: Recent and Remote.

-Long-term memory can also be described by the nature of the memories themselves according
to the the Guardian;
Implicit memories - remembering automatically
Explicit memories - you are actively trying to remembering explicit memories.

These can further be divided into:

Episodic memories - contain events that happen to an individual specifically.
Semantic memories- contain general knowledge, required knowledge, require conscious recall.