Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)

Chapter  I
Development of
computers

Development of Computers

CONTENTS

History of computing
Abacus
Pascal’s Calculator
The difference engine and the analytical engine
Herman Hollerith’s tabulating machine
Mark I
ENIAC
The Von Neumann Machine
Commercial computers
Generations of computers
First, second, third, and fourth generations
Current Trends

Instructor: Lemlem K.G1-Math-AMU 1

Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
History of Computing
“Necessity is the mother of invention”. The saying holds true for computers also because
computers were invented as a result of man’s search for fast and accurate calculating
devices. Computers as we know them today have been developed over the past 60 years.
In the 300 years before, the mid- 1900’s, a series of increasingly complex mechanical
devices (constructed from gear wheels, levers and pulleys) were used to perform the basic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

The earliest device that qualifies as a digital computer is the “Abacus”. (Also known as
“Soroban”). This device permits users to represent numbers by the positioning beads on
a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can be carried out rapidly and efficiently by
positioning the beads. Although, the abacus was invented around 600 B.C., it is
interesting to note that it is still used in the Far East and its users can calculate at amazing
speeds.

PASCAL’s - First Adding Machine

 The French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher Blaise Pascal
developed the first adding machine between 1642 and 1644 to help his father, a
civil servant, in tax calculations.

VON LEIBUIZ - First Calculator for Multiplication

 Later in 1971, Barson Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibuiz of Germany invented the
first calculator for multiplication.

HOLLERITH-Introduced Punched Cards

 Herman Hollerith, a government statistician, came up with the concept of
punched-card system of collecting and tabulating the data. Tabulating equipment
was extremely successful and allowed the 1890 census of U S A to be completed
in less than two years.
 Hollerith continued to develop his card methods for railroad accounting and
founded the Tabulating Machine Company at the turn of the century. Upon
Hollerith’s retirement in 1904, Thomas Watson, became president and later
changed the name of the company to International Business Machines
Corporation (I B M).

BABBAGE-Difference Engine
 Charles Babbage, a professor at Cambridge University is considered to be the
father of modern digital computers.
 During his period, mathematical & statistical tables were prepared by a group of
clerks. Babbage had to spend several hours to check these tables. Soon he became
dissatisfied and exasperated with that type of monotonous job. The result was that
he started thinking to build a machine which could compute tables guaranteed to
be error-free.
 In this process, Babbage designed a “Difference Engine” in the year 1822.
 In 1842, Babbage came out with new idea of Analytical Engine that was
intended to be completely automatic. It was to be capable of performing the basic
Instructor: Lemlem K.G1-Math-AMU 2
Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
arithmetic problem at an average speed of 60 additions per minute.
 Unfortunately he was unable to produce a working model of that machine because
of the unavailability of some technology required to manufacture the machine.
However his efforts established a number of principles which have been shown to
be the fundamental to the design of any digital computer.

MAUCHLY AND ECKERT

 In 1945, two scientists University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly and Presper
Eckert, designed and developed the Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer ( ENIAC), an electronic device often acknowledged to be the first
modern electronic computer.
 Eckert and Mauchly subsequently developed the Universal Automatic Computer -
I (UNIVAC - I) the first electronic computer offered as a commercial product.

VON NEUMANN
 John von Neumann, a mathematics genius at Princeton, is called the intellectual
father of computers.
 He has been credited with developing highly significant stored-program theory.
 He was first to point out the advantages of binary-based circuitry over its decimal
counterpart.
 He also defined and promoted flowcharts as logic aids for computer
programming.

Here are some well known early Computers

THE MARK I COMPUTER (1937-1944)

This was the first fully automatic calculating machine designed by Howard. A.
Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM (International Business
Machines) co-operation. This entire machine proved to be extremely reliable, very
complex in design, huge in size. It was basically an electromechanical device, since both
mechanical and electronic components were used in its design with 3000 electrical
switches to control its operation. It was approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high.

ABC (ATANASOFF -BERRY COMPUTER) [1939-1942]

This electronic machine was developed by Dr.John Atanasoff to solve certain
mathematical equations. Clifford Berry , assistant of John Atanasoff also contributed a lot
towards ABC’s development. It used 45 vacuum tubes, for internal logic and capacitors
for storage.

The ENIAC [1943-1946]

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) was the first
all electronic computer. It was developed at Moore School of Engineering of the
Pennsylvania, USA by a team led by professors J.Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly.
ENIAC was developed as a result of military need. It took up the wall space in a 20x40
square feet room and used 18000 vacuum tubes. The addition of 2 numbers where
achieved in 200 microseconds and multiplication in 2000 microseconds.

Instructor: Lemlem K.G1-Math-AMU 3

Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
All though ENIAC was much faster in speed, compared to MARC I computer, it
had some drawbacks too. It could store and manipulate only a very limited amount of
information, and its programs where wired on boards. These limitations made it difficult
to detect errors and to change the programs.

EDVAC
The problem with ENIAC was its wiring board. This was later solved by the
concept of “stored programs” developed by Dr.John Von Neumann. The basic idea
behind the stored program is that a sequence of instructions as well as data can be stored
in the memory of the computer for the purpose of automatically directing the flow of
operations. This concept considerably influenced the development of modern digital
computers. The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was
designed on stored program concept.

The UNIVAC I (1951)

The UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer.
Many UNIVAC machines were produced, the first of which was installed in census
bureau in 1951 and was continuously used for 10 years. In 1952, the IBM Corporation
introduced 701 commercial computers. In rapid succession, improved models of
UNIVAC I and 700-series, machines were introduced.

Generations of Computers
The major stages, which this computers development has gone through, are known in
computer jargon as generations. Each generation has been brought about by major
technological advancements in the hardware. These hardware advances have resulted in:
 Larger storage capacities
 Greater and faster processing abilities
 More reliability
 Reduced hardware costs
But nowadays it has been extended to include both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system. The development of the technologies used
to fabricate the processors, memories, I/O units of computers has been divided into four
generations.

The first commercially available computers (such as the UNIVAC I and IBM 650) were
referred to as first-generation computers. Subsequent improvements in technology led to
second, third, and fourth generation computers.
The major characteristics that distinguish the various generations are the following
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used
 Major secondary storage media used
 Computer languages used
 Type or characteristic of operating system used
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word of data from
memory)
There are generally five computer generations known till today. Although there are
certain disagreements and overlapping between the generations, the approximate dates
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Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
shown against each are normally accepted.
FIRST GENERATION (1942-1955)
 These are the earliest general-purpose computers.
 Most input and output media were punched cards and magnetic tape, and main
memory was almost exclusively made up of hundreds of vacuum tubes-although one
computer used a magnetic drum for main memory.
 These vacuum tube computers are referred to as first generation computers. Vacuum
tubes were used to perform logic operations and to store data.
 Programmed in machine language
 These computers were slow and large and produced a tremendous amount of heat.
They could run only one program at a time.
 ENIAC and UNIVAC – I the UNIVersal Automatic Computer, which was used by the
U.S. Bureau of the Census from 1951 to 1963, are examples of first generation
computers.

Advantages
 A vacuum technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computers.
 These were the fastest calculating machines of their time.
 They could perform computations in milli-seconds.

Disadvantages
 Too bulky in size, Unreliable, Burnt out frequently, Non-portable, Limited
commercial use.
 Large amount of heat emitted (because of 1000’s of vacuum tubes were used.)
 Air-conditioning required, prone to hardware failure so constant maintenance
required.

SECOND GENERATION (1955-1964)

 The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the vacuum tube, was
invented in 1947.
 The Second generation emerged with the transistors being the brain of the computer.
 Programmed in Assembly language and some high level language
 Magnetic cores, which looked like very small metal washers strung together by wires
that carried electricity, became the most widely used type of main memory.
 Removable magnetic disk packs (stacks of disks connected by a common spindle like
a stack of records) were introduced as storage devices.
 Second-generation machines tended to be smaller, more reliable, and significantly
faster than first-generation computers.
 The manual assembly of individual components and the cost of labour involved at
this assembly stage made the commercial production of these computers difficult and
costly.

Advantages
 Smaller in size compared to first generation computers.
 More reliable, less heat generated, Less prone to hardware failures, Better portability.
 Wider commercial use than Ist generation computers.

Instructor: Lemlem K.G1-Math-AMU 5

Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
 These computers were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds to
microseconds.
Disadvantages
 Air-conditioning required, frequent maintenance required.
 Manual assembly of individual components into functional unit was required.

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1975)

 Advances in electronics technology continued and the advent of “micro
electronics” technology made it possible to integrate large number of circuit elements
into very small surface of silicon known as “chips”. This new technology was called
Integrated Circuits (IC). The third generation was based on IC technology and the
computers that were designed with the use of IC were called 3 rd generation
computers.
 It uses High level languages as the programming languages
 The use of magnetic disks became widespread, and computers began to
support such capabilities as multiprogramming (processing several programs
simultaneously) and timesharing (people using the same computer simultaneously).
 Minicomputers were being widely used by the early 1970s. The production
of operating systems-a type of systems software and applications software packages
increased rapidly. The size of computers continued to decrease.

Advantages
 Smaller in size, more reliable, lower heat generation, easily portable.
 Less power requirement than the previous generation computers.
 Able to reduce computational times from micro seconds to nano- seconds.
 Hardware failure is less, so maintenance cost is low.
 Totally general purpose and widely used for various commercial applications.
 Commercial production was easier and cheaper.
 Manual assembly of individual components was not required,
 Human labour and cost involved at assembly stage reduced drastically.

Disadvantages
 Air-conditioning required in many cases, Highly sophisticated technology required
for the manufacture of IC chips.

FOURTH GENERATION (1975 - 1985)

 Initially the IC contained only about 10-20 components. This technology was named
SSI (Small Scale Integration). Later with the advancement in technology for
manufacturing IC’s it became possible to integrate up to a 100 components on a
single chip. This technology came to be known as Medium Scale Integration. (MSI).
Then came the era of Large Scale Integration (LSI) when it was possible to integrate
over 30,000 components on a single chip.
 In 1975, the first electronic computers were introduced that used Large-Scale
Integration(LSI) circuits ( thousands of integrated circuits on a chip) for main
memory and logic circuitry (the circuitry that performs the logical operations of the
CPU; different types of chips had different functions).

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Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
 These computers had a much larger capacity to support main memory. This period
has also seen increased use of input and output devices that allow data and
instructions to be entered directly through the keyboard.
 The microprocessor, introduced in 1971, combined all of the circuitry for the central
processing unit on a single chip. LSI and the microprocessor enabled the development
of the supercomputer.

Advantages
 Smaller in size, Very reliable, Heat generated is negligible, much faster in
computation.
 No air-conditioning required in most cases, easily portable, totally general purpose.
 Hardware failure is negligible, hence minimum maintenance required.
 Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage than previous generation
computers.

Disadvantages
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

FIFTH GENERATION (1985 onwards)

 These are also termed as knowledge information processing systems.
 This generation computers aim to solve highly complex problems which require
reasoning, intelligence and expertise when solved by the people. Scientists have also
tried to develop new superconductors that can conduct electricity with no resistance,
thus generating no heat but great speed.
 These generations are with new parallel architecture, new memory organization and
new languages.
 These are functionally and conceptually different from the first four generations.
Most of these are used in artificial intelligence, Temperature prediction, Satellite
connectivity etc.

Generation of computer summary

  First Second Third Fourth Fifth

Time Frame 1942-1955 1955-1964 1964-1975 1975 - 1985 1985 onwards
Circuit Vacuum Tube Transistor Integrated LSI (Large VLSI (very
Component Circuit (Silicon scale Large scale
Chip) Integration ) Integration)
Internal Storage Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic Disks Integrated Integrated
drum, Tape & Cores Circuits Circuits
Punched cards
Memory Smallest Smaller Good Batter Best
Capacity
(Characters)

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Introduction to Computer Science(Comp 201)
Chapter  I
Development of
computers
Popular IBM 650, IBM-1401, IBM 360, IBM 303X, PARAM 2000
computers Univac – I CDC 36000 Honeywell Univac 6000
200

Instructor: Lemlem K.G1-Math-AMU 8