MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCES (SoMHS)

BACHELOR OF PHARMACY

HUMAN ANATOMY (MAP250)

ASSIGNMENT 1

GROUP MEMBERS

1. Chishimba Kapambwe – 202104175

2. Zenzo Liboma – 202105850
3. Kunda Mwelwa – 202102723
4. Kasonde Kapembwa – 202108715
5. Kapela Grace – 202102154
6. Blessings Kanyika – 202103360
7. Joseph Kasanda – 202104712
8. Kudenga Magret – 202103238
9. Kombe Sydney – 202109259
10.Kayeba Jackin – 202102722

QUESTION

Clinical correlates of the male and female reproductive systems

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM CLINICAL CORRELATES

URETHRAL CANCER

Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the urethra.
The tube that transfers urine from the bladder to the outside of the body is called the urethra.
The urethra in women is right above the vagina and measures around 1/2 inches long. The
urethra in men is around 8 inches long and exits the body through the penis and prostate
gland. The urethra also transports semen in males. Urethral Cancer occurs in both the male
and female reproductive systems. There are different types of urethral cancer that begin in
cells that line the urethra. A history of bladder cancer can affect the risk of urethral cancer.
Urethral cancer is a rare cancer that occurs more often in men than in women.

TYPES OF URETHRAL CANCERS

These cancers are named for the types of cells that become malignant (cancerous).

 SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of urethral cancer. It forms in the thin,
flat cells that look like fish scales, and are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the
skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the lining of the respiratory and
digestive tracts. In the part of the urethra near the bladder in women, and in the lining of the
urethra in the penis in men.

 TRANSITIONAL CELL CARCINOMA

Transitional cell carcinoma forms in the area near the urethral opening in women, and in the
part of the urethra that goes through the prostate gland in men. Malignant (cancer) cells
develop in the renal pelvis and ureter in transitional cell carcinoma of the kidneys and ureter.

It is usually caused by having a history of the bladder cancer, smoking cigarettes, taking a lot
of certain pain medicines, such as phenacetin and being exposed to certain dyes and
chemicals used in making leather goods, textiles, plastics, and rubber.
  ADENOCARCINOMA

Urethral adenocarcinoma (UA) is rare type of urethral cancer which accounts for less than
5% of urethral carcinoma cases. Histologically, UA is further subclassified into two other
subtypes: clear cell and columnar/mucinous (intestinal).

CAUSES OF URETHRAL CANCER

Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. A risk factor is
anything that makes you more likely to contract a disease. A risk factor does not guarantee
cancer, and the absence of a risk factor does not guarantee cancer absence. If you believe you
may be in danger, speak with your doctor.

 Having a history of bladder cancer

 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human papillomavirus (HPV),
especially HPV type 16
 Frequent urinary tract infections (UTIs)

SYMPTOMS OF URETHRAL CANCER

 Bleeding or trouble with urination

 Trouble starting the flow of urine.
 Weak or interrupted ("stop-and-go") flow of urine.
 Frequent urination, especially at night.
 Incontinence.
 Discharge from the urethra.
 Bleeding from the urethra or blood in the urine.
 A lump or thickness in the perineum or penis.
 A painless lump or swelling in the groin.

DIAGNOSIS OF URETHRAL CANCER

 Physical exam and health history

 Pelvic exam
 Digital rectal exam
 Urine cytology
 Urinalysis
  Blood chemistry studies
 Complete blood count (CBC)
 CT scan (CAT scan)
 Ureteroscopy
 Biopsy

STAGES OF URETHRAL CANCER

After urethral cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread
within the urethra or to other parts of the body.

TREATMENT

There are different types of treatment for patients with urethral cancer

 Surgery

 Radiation therapy

 Chemotherapy

 Active surveillance

Clinical trials are being used to explore new treatment modalities.There could be negative
effects from urethral cancer treatment, patients might consider participating in a clinical trial,
before, during, or after beginning their cancer treatment, patients might enroll in clinical
studies and additional tests might be required.

TESTICULAR TORSION

When a testicle rotates, the spermatic cord that supplies blood to the scrotum is twisted,
resulting in testicular torsion. Swelling and abrupt, frequently severe discomfort are brought
on by the restricted blood supply.

Torsion of the testicles can happen at any age, even before birth, but it most frequently occurs
between the ages of 12 and 18.

Emergency surgery is typically required for testicular torsion. The testicle can generally be
saved if treated quickly. However, if blood supply is interrupted for an extended period of
time, a testicle may suffer such severe damage that it has to be removed.
CAUSES

Testicular torsion happens when the spermatic cord, which carries blood to the testicle from
the abdomen, spins around the testicle. Blood flow to the testicle may completely stop if it
rotates numerous times, hastening the rate of injury.

The cause of testicular torsion is unknown. The testicle can rotate freely inside the scrotum in
most males who have testicular torsion due to a hereditary characteristic. Both testicles are
frequently affected by this genetic illness. However, not all men with the characteristic will
experience testicular torsion.

Testicular torsion frequently happens many hours after strenuous activity, after a small
testicular injury, or while you're resting. Another factor could be the testicle's quick growth
during adolescence or the cold weather.

SYMPTOMS

 Sudden, severe pain in the scrotum , the loose bag of skin under your penis that
contains the testicles

 Swelling of the scrotum

 Abdominal pain

 Nausea and vomiting

  A testicle that's positioned higher than normal or at an unusual angle

 Frequent urination

 Fever

COMPLICATIONS

 Inability to father children

 Damage to or death of the testicle

PREVENTION

 Having testicles that can rotate in the scrotum is a trait inherited by some males. If
you have this trait, the only way to prevent testicular torsion is surgery to attach both
testicles to the inside of the scrotum.

TESTICULAR CANCER

Testicular cancer is a growth of cells that starts in the testicles. The testicles, which are also
called testes, are in the scrotum. The scrotum is a loose bag of skin underneath the penis. The
testicles make sperm and the hormone testosterone.

One of the testicles may develop a painless lump or enlargement, and the testicles may alter
in size or texture.

It's critical to recognize your own sense of normalcy. Learn about your body, and if you
notice any changes, consult a doctor.
TYPES OF TESTICULAR CANCER

The different types of testicular cancer are classified by the type of cells the cancer begins
in.The most common type of testicular cancer is germ cell testicular cancer, which accounts
for around 95% of all cases. Germ cells are a type of cell that the body uses to create sperm.

There are 2 main subtypes of germ cell testicular cancer. They are:

 Seminomas – which have become more common in the past 20 years and now
account for 40 to 45% of testicular cancers
 Non-seminomas – which account for most of the rest and include teratomas,
embryonal carcinomas, choriocarcinomas and yolk sac tumours

CAUSES OF TESTICULAR CANCER

 Undescended testicles
 Family History
 Previous Testicular Cancer

TREATMENT

 Surgery
 Radiotherapy
 Chemotherapy

INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS

This is a chronic condition causing bladder pressure, bladder pain and sometimes pelvic pain.
The pain ranges from mild discomfort to severe pain. The condition is a part of a spectrum of
diseases known as painful bladder,the bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that stores urine.
The bladder expands until it's full and then signals the brain that it's time to urinate,
communicating through the pelvic nerves. This creates the urge to urinate for most people.

With interstitial cystitis, these signals get mixed up, one feels the need to urinate more often
and with smaller volumes of urine than most people. Interstitial cystitis most often affects
women and can have a long-lasting impact on quality of life. Although there's no cure,
medications and other therapies may offer relief.

CRYPTORCHIDISM

Cryptorchidism is also known as undescended testis, it is the failure of one or both testis to
descend into the scrotum, and it is the most common birth defect in the male genital tract.
About 3% of full term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one
undescended testis, however most on the undescended testes descend in the first year of life,

Cryptorchidism is distinct from monarchism, the condition of having only one testicle.
Though the condition may occur on one or both sides, it more commonly affects the right
testis, the undescended testis can be found in;

Anywhere along the "path of descent" from high in the posterior (retroperitoneal) abdomen,
just below the kidney, to the inguinal ring

Ectopic, having "wandered" from the path of descent, usually outside the inguinal canal and
sometimes even under the skin of the thigh, the perineum, the opposite scrotum, or
the femoral canal.
TESTICULAR ATROPHY

Testicular atrophy refers to the shrinkage of the testicles, which are the male reproductive
glands responsible for producing sperm and the hormone testosterone. This condition can
occur for a variety of reasons and can result in infertility, reduced sexual function, and other
health problems. .Testicular atrophy can be caused by a variety of factors such as Imbalances
in testosterone levels, certain infections, such as mumps or orchitis, can cause inflammation
of the testicles, which can lead to testicular atrophy. Trauma to the testicles, such as from a
sports injury or accident, can cause damage to the testicles and lead to atrophy. As men age,
the testicles may naturally shrink in size, although this is not always accompanied by
testicular atrophy.

The most common symptom of testicular atrophy is a noticeable reduction in the size of one
or both testicles. Other symptoms may include:

 Pain or discomfort in the testicles

 Changes in sexual function, such as reduced sex drive or difficulty achieving or

maintaining an erection
  Infertility, due to a reduced number of sperm or poor sperm quality

To diagnose testicular atrophy, a doctor will usually perform a physical exam of the testicles
and scrotum. This may include an ultrasound to visualize the size and structure of the
testicles. Blood tests may also be ordered to check hormone levels and rule out other potential
causes of testicular shrinkage.

The treatment of testicular atrophy depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, no
treatment may be necessary, especially if the condition is due to aging or a mild hormonal
imbalance. In other cases, medications or surgery may be recommended.

Surgery may be recommended for cases of testicular atrophy caused by a varicocele or other
physical trauma. Surgery can repair damaged veins or other structures in the testicles, which
may help to restore normal size and function.

BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) is a common condition among aging men, characterized
by the enlargement of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is a walnut-sized gland located at
the base of the bladder, surrounding the urethra, which is the tube that carries urine from the
bladder out of the body. As the prostate gland enlarges, it can cause urinary symptoms, such
as difficulty in urinating, weak urine stream, and frequent urination..

The exact cause of BPH is unknown, but it is believed to be a result of hormonal changes that
occur with age. Specifically, as men age, their levels of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a
hormone derived from testosterone, increase. DHT promotes the growth of prostate cells,
which can cause the gland to enlarge. Other factors that may contribute to BPH include
genetics, obesity, and lifestyle habits such as lack of physical activity and a diet high in fat
and red meat.

The symptoms of BPH can vary from person to person and can range from mild to severe.
Some of the most common symptoms of BPH include, difficulty starting to urinate, Weak
urine stream, dribbling after urination, sensation of the bladder not completely emptying and
frequent urination, especially at night (nocturia).

To diagnose BPH, a doctor will first take a detailed medical history and perform a physical
exam, including a digital rectal exam (DRE), which involves inserting a gloved, lubricated
finger into the rectum to feel the prostate gland. The doctor may also order diagnostic tests,
such as a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test, which can help rule out prostate cancer.
Imaging tests, such as an ultrasound or MRI, may also be used to evaluate the size of the
prostate gland and the extent of the enlargement

For more severe cases of BPH, surgery may be necessary. The two most common surgical
procedures for BPH are:

 Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), which involves removing part of the
prostate gland through the urethra using a special instrument

 Laser surgery, which uses a laser to remove or vaporize prostate tissue

HYDROCELE
A hydrocele is a type of swelling in the scrotum, the pouch of skin that holds the testicles,
which happens when fluid accumulates in the thin sac that surrounds a testicle. It is common
in newborns and often go away without treatment by age 1. Older children and adults can get
a hydrocele due to an injury within scrotum, infection (including a sexually transmitted
infection) or other health problems.
A hydrocele often isn't painful or harmful and might not need any treatment, however, it is
important to see a health care provider if the scrotum looks swollen. The figure below
illustrates what a hydrocele appears like.

PROSTATITIS

Prostatitis is a disorders of the prostate gland, usually associated with inflammation as

illustrated in the diagram below, which often causes painful or difficult urination, as well as
pain in the groin, pelvic area or genitals. Bacterial infections cause some but not all cases of
prostatitis.

The prostate gland, about the size of a walnut, located just below the bladder in men and
surrounds the top of the tube that drains urine from the bladder (urethra) is enlarged in
prostatitis. The prostate and other sex glands produce fluids that transport sperm during
ejaculation.

The types of prostatitis include Acute bacterial prostatitis, Chronic bacterial, Chronic pelvic
pain and Asymptomatic prostatitis and each has its own signs and symptoms which may
include Painful urination as mentioned above, Nocturia (frequent urination at night), urgency
to urinate, difficulty urinating, painful ejaculation, abdominal pain, pelvic pain, bloody urine,
blood in semen and urinary retention.

Treatment for prostatitis may include antibiotics, alpha blockers (drugs that help relax parts
of the urinary tract), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants or anti-seizure
medications and last but not the least, urinary catheter.
PHIMOSIS

Phimosis is a condition in which the foreskin the penis can’t be retracted (pulled back) from
around the tip of it. A tight foreskin is common in baby boys who aren’t circumcised, but
usually stops being a problem by the age of 3. Phimosis can occur naturally or be the result of
scarring. Young male individuals may not need treatment for phimosis unless it makes
urinating difficult or causes other symptoms. As these individuals grow up, the need for
treatment may increase. The main symptom of phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin
by the age of 3. The foreskin usually loosens over time, but this process can take longer in
some boys. By around the age of 17, a male individual should be able to easily retract his
foreskin.

Another common symptom of phimosis is a swelling of the foreskin while urinating, pain
with erection or with sexual activity. Additionally, Inflammation or an infection of the
foreskin or the head of the penis (glans) may cause phimosis in boys or men. However,
Balanitis is an inflammation of the glans. It’s sometimes the result of poor hygiene or an
infection of the foreskin.

One of the infections that can lead to balanitis is called lichen sclerosus. It’s a skin condition
that may be triggered by an abnormal immune response or a hormone imbalance. Symptoms
can include white spots or patches on the foreskin. The skin may become itchy and easily
torn.
EPISIOTOMY

Episiotomy it is a type of female reproductive clinical correlate it mainly affects the vagina
and the anus, it is a perineal cut between the vaginal opening and anus made with surgical
scissors to widen the birth canal during childbirth. The cut is made along the midline or about
45degrees angle to the midline. A long time ago episiotomy was believed to help prevent
larger vaginal tears during childbirth and it was also thought to help preserve the muscles and
connective tissue that support the pelvic floor. Today, however, research suggests that routine
episiotomies don’t prevent these problem after all.

The reasons of episiotomy include a very large foetus, breech presentation (buttocks or lower
limbs coming out first), foetal distress (such as abnormal heart rate), forceps delivery, the
incision is closed in layers with sutures that are absorbed within few weeks.

There are some risks which can occur after episiotomy. i.e. recovery is uncomfortable, it can
cause infections, can also cause pain during sex in the months of delivery, also a tearing
which can extend to anal sphincter and into the mucous membrane that lines the rectum.
Faecal incontinence could also result.

TREATMENT

There is no antibiotic discovered for the healing of episiotomy, patients are advised to take
ibuprofen for relieving the pain, taking a warm bath and putting some ice packs on the
wound, mostly episiotomy wound heals on their own .Below shows a diagram for
episiotomy;
PRIAPISM

Priapism is a disorder in which the penis maintains a prolonged , rigid erection in the
absence of appropriate stimulation, this disorder affects the penis and it is manly common in
males. This erection lasts for hours it commonly affects males in their 30s and older but can
begin in childhood for males with sickle cell disease . Priapism is caused by trauma or
injury to ones penis, pelvis, or the region between the base of the penis and the anus
(perineum).

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Blood will not be able to leave the penis, erection lasting more than four hours or unrelated to
sexual interest or stimulation, rigid penile shaft, but the tip of penis (glans) is soft and
progressively worsening penile pain. This disorder is illustrated as shown in the figure below.

TREATMENT

Aspiration decompression the excess blood drained from the penis using a small needle or
syringe, medications include phenylephrine which is the choice of drug and also an antibiotic
known as cefazolin can be used. Below the diagram which priapism disorder.
EPIDIDYMITIS

Epididymitis is the inflammation of the coiled tube called the epididymis at the back of the
testicle. It is the clinical correlate which affects the male reproductive system. Epididymitis is
caused by the spread of a bacterial infection which often begins in the urethra, the prostate, or
the bladder, trauma, urine in the epididymis and sexually transmitted diseases such as
gonorrhea and chlamydia infections are most often the cause of this problem in young
heterosexual men. There are some risk factors of epididymitis which include sex with a
partner who has as STI, sex without a condom, anal sex, urinary tract infections,
uncircumcised penis and prostate enlargement.

SYMPTOMS

A swollen, decoloured or warm scrotum, testicle pain and tenderness, pain when passing
urine, an urgent or frequent need to urinate, discharge from the penis, pain or discomfort in
the lower abdomen or pelvic area, blood in the semen and most commonly fever.

TREATMENT

By practicing safe sex, circumcision and also the use of antibiotics such as doxycycline,
ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Below is the diagram showing
epididymitis.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

VULVAR CANCER

This is the type of cancer that occurs on the outer surface of the female genitalia, the vulva is
the area of the skin that surround the urethra and the vagina including the clitoris and
labia.vulvar cancer commonly forms as a lump or sole over the vagina that causes itching,
though it can occur at any age it is commonly diagnosed in older adults. Risk factors
include vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN), HPV infection, genital warts, smoking, and
many sexual partners. Most vulvar cancers are squamous cell cancers. Other types
include adenocarcinoma, melanoma, sarcoma, and basal cell carcinoma Diagnosis is
suspected based on physical examination and confirmed by tissue biopsy. Routine screening
is not recommended.

Basal cell carcinoma account for approximately 8% of all vulvar cancers. It typically affects
women in the 7th and 8th decade of life. These tend to be slow-growing lesions on the labia
majora but can occur anywhere on the vulva. Their behavior is similar to basal cell cancers in
other locations. They often grow locally and have low risk for deep invasion or metastasis.

Treatment involves local excision, but these lesions have a tendency to recur if not
completely removed.
ENDOSALPINNGIOSIS

Is a condition in which the tissue that behaves like the cells lining of the uterine tube grows in
other areas of the body causing pain and infertility? Also defined as the ectopic location of
the benign ciliated tubal epithelium outside of the fallopian tubes. Develops from
transformation of caulomic tissue.

Common symptoms include, pelvic pain, infertility, menstrual irregularities and dyspareunia.
Further reports suggest chronic back pain as a common issue reported years before diagnosis.

ECTOPIC PREGNANCY

Ectopic pregnancy is when a fertilized egg implants itself outside of the womb usually one of
the uterine tubes. Pregnancies cannot continue if they are ectopic because only your uterus is
meant to carry a pregnancy. It can be life threatening especially if your uterine tube breaks
[raptures]. This is a raptured ectopic pregnancy, and it can cause severe bleeding infection
and sometimes death. This is a medical emergency. Healthcare providers must treat ectopic
pregnancies quickly. Characterised by pain in your lower abdomen, pelvis and lower back.
Dizziness, fainting, low blood pressure [hypotension], shoulder pain and rectal pressure or
bowel problems room immediately. Ectopic pregnancy can be caused by; when you have a
scar tissue, adhesions/inflammation from a prior surgery. Your uterine tubes have damage
such as from sexually transmitted infections. You were born with an irregularly shaped
uterine tube. Have a growth blocking your uterine tube.
PARATUBAL CYST

It is also known as a para ovarian cyst [hydatid cyst of Morgagni] is a closed, fluid filled
mass that develops beside or near the ovary and uterine tube [also referred to adnexa], but is
never attached to them. Women who have them may not be aware of their presence. Large
cysts causes pelvic pain and may cause acute abdominal pain. Causing complications such as.
Haemorrhaging [bleeding] rapture of the uterine tube. Ovarian torsion. Caused if some
remnants of the duct remain, the para tubal cysts will grow out from these areas.
UTERUS DIDELPHYS

Uterus didelphys is a condition where there is lack of fusion of the paramesonephric duct
throughout their normal line of fusion. This condition represents a uttering malformation
where the uterus is present as a paired organ when the embryogenetic fusion of the millerian
duct fails to occur. This results in duplicated uteruses with separate cervices and vaginas.
Each uterus has a single horn linked to the ipsilateral fallopian tube that faces its ovary. It
occurs in approximately every 1/3000 women.

Uterus didelphys may be asymptomatic and the person having it may be unaware of having
two uteruses. Nevertheless, symptoms could include dyspareunia (persistence or recurring
pain around the genital that occur during or after sexual intercourse) and dysmenorrhea
(lower abdominal pain before or during menstruation). This was according to a study done by
Heinonen.

PROSTATE CANCER

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancerous tumor worldwide and fifth leading
cause of cancer-related mortality among men. It is also known as carcinoma of the prostate.
Most prostate cancers are slow growing and cancerous cells may spread to other areas of the
body, particularly the bones and lymph nodes. This type of cancer is associated with old age,
family history among others.

There are no clear signs and symptoms in its early stages but May eventually result in;

 Frequent urination
 Nocturia (frequent urination at night)
 Hematuria (presence of blood in urine)
 Dysuria (painful urination) and
 Painful ejaculation or difficulty in achieving erection.

Treatment for prostate cancer may be surgical and non-surgical availability by

 External beam radiation therapy

 Brachytherapy
  Cryosurgery
 High-Intensity focused ultrasound
 Radical prostatectomy and
 Radical retro-pubic prostatectomy.
Below is the diagram illustrating prostate cancer disorder.

CERVICAL CANCER

Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix, the lower part of the
uterus that connect to the vagina. Various strains of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a
sexually transmitted infection, plays most role in causing cervical cancer. When exposed to
human papilloma-virus, the body’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing
harm in small percentage of people, however, the virus survive for years contributing to the
process that cause some cervical cells to become cancer cells. However risk can be reduced
by having screening tests and receiving the vaccine that protects against human papilloma-
virus infection.

Early stage cervical cancer produces no signs and symptoms but more advanced cervical
cancer includes vagina bleeding after intercourse between periods or after menopause also
includes watery blood vagina discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor. pelvic pain
and or pain during intercourse.

Two main types of cervical cancer includes squamous cell carcinoma which is the type of
cervical cancer that begins in the thin flat cells (squamous cells), lining the outer part of the
cervix which projects into the vagina. Most cervical cancer cells are squamous cells
carcinomas. Adenocarcinoma is a type of cervical cancer that begins in the column shaped
glandular cells that lines the cervical canal.

Risk factor for cervical cancer includes many sexual partners, early sexual activities having
sex at an early stage, other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), a weakened immune
system, smoking, exposure to miscarriage prevention drug and drugs such as
diethylstilbestrol (DES).

CERVICAL POLYPS AND CYST

A cervical polyps is a small growth on the cervix, the passage that connects the uterus to the
vagina. They are often reddish, purplish or grayish in color. They may be shaped like a
finger-bulb, or thin stem. They can range in size from a few millimeters to several
centimeters long. These pumps inside the cervix are pretty common in women over the age of
20 who’ve given birth to more than one child. They are rare in girls who haven't started their
menstrual cycles. Most cervical polyps are not cancer cells, they are benign. Symptoms may
include;

 periods that are heavier than usual

 Bleeding after sex
 Bleeding after menopause
 Bleeding between periods
 Vagina discharge which may be sticky due to infection

On the other hand, cervical cyst is the most common variety in a nabothian cyst which forms
when a normal tissue on the outer part of the cervix grows over the range of the glandular
mucus, producing tissue of the inner part of the cervix when mucus fluid or tissue becomes
trapped a cyst. These are not cancerous. In general cervical cyst don’t cause any symptoms
and requires no treatment. However, nabothian cyst is very common that it’s considered to be
normal but under normal circumstances, it is not the normal part of the tissue. Some common
causes of cysts might be as a results of infection, chronic inflammatory diseases genetic
diseases, parasites and injury.
CERVICAL INCORPETENCE

The incompetent cervix occurs when the cervix opens, weakens or shortens too early in
pregnancy. It’s also known as cervical insufficiency. During pregnancy, the cervix is closed
at the lower end. It closes and opens before child birth. This can cause problem such as
miscarriage (loss of pregnancy) and premature birth (being born before the 37th week of
pregnancy) If one is at risk of an incompetent cervix or the cervix shows the signs of opening
too soon, the pregnancy health care recommends some preventive measures to avoid
pregnancy complications. Incompetent cervix is not common, it occurs about 1 in 100
pregnancies. The cervix is situated at the lower end of the uterus and opens to the vagina.
Before pregnancy the cervix is closed and firm. As a woman nears to her pregnancy due time,
the cervix softens, shortens (effaces) and opens (dilates) so that the baby can born through the
vagina. With cervical insufficiency, the cervix may soften, open or shorten before the fetus is
old enough to be born. This put the fetus at risk of being born too soon before their organs are
fully developed.

Therefore any woman is at risk of developing cervical incompetence, however, one may be at
higher risk if they have:

 An irregularly shaped cervix or uterus.

 Experienced a premature birth or miscarriage in the second trimester of pregnancy.
 Injured your cervix or uterus during a previous pregnancy or child birth.
 Had a surgery on your cervix.

A genetic disorder like ehlers danlos syndrome which may cause cervical weakness and can
lead to cervical insufficiency.

Unlike other signs of premature labor like contraction or water breaking cervical
insufficiency may not cause notable symptoms in some people though symptoms includes;

 Pelvic pressure or pain in the belly.

 Spotting or change in the vaginal discharge.
Because there are no symptoms, most pregnancy care providers rely on understanding the
health history of an individual which tells them if women may be at risk for an incompetent
cervix.

ENDOSALPINGIOSIS

Endosalpingiosis a condition in which the tissue-lining of the uterine tube grows in other
areas of the reproductive body of a woman, causing pain and infertility. Also defined as the
ectopic location of the benign ciliated tubal epithelium outside of the uterine tubes. It
develops from transformation of coelomic tissue. Common symptoms include, pelvic pain,
infertility, menstrual irregularities and dyspareunia.

Further reports suggest chronic back pain as a common issue reported years before
diagnosis.

REFERENCES

 Barry, M. J., Fowler, F. J., O’Leary, M. P., Bruskewitz, R. C., Holtgrewe, H. L., &
Mebust, W.K. (1992). Correlation of the American Urological Association symptom
index with selfadministered versions of the Madsen-Iverson, Boyarsky and Maine
Medical Assessment Program Symptoms Indexes. Journal of Urology, 148, 1558–
1563.
 Carson, C. C. (2004). Erectile dysfunction: Evaluation and new treatment options.
Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 664–671.
 Chapple, C. R. (2004). Pharmacological therapy of benign prostatic hyperplasia/lower
urinary tract symptoms: An overview for the practicing clinician. British Journal
Urology International, 94(5), 738–744.
 Ellsworth, P., & Kirshenbaum, E. M. (2008). Current concepts in the evaluation and
management of erectile dysfunction. Urologic Nursing, 28(5), 357–369.
 Lovejoy, B. (2001). Diagnosis and management of chronic prostatitis by primary care
providers. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 13(7), 317–321.