Reading Material

for SAS Aspirants

on Information &
Technology

Prepared By: Babita Singh, SAO

O/o CDA(Trg) & NADFM Pune

What is a computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts data from the user as input,
processes it with set of instructions, produces results, displays them to the users, and
stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further infor-
mation regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and fig-
ures".
Information is a structured data i.e., organized meaningful and processed data. To process
the data and convert into information, a computer is used.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:
• Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.
• Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
• Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
• Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
• Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a
keyboard.
Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

The working of a computer can be well understood by the block diagram shown in figure as
under:
Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens,
etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.

Processing the information

Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the pro-
grams.

Storing the information

After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.

Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world
through output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on the
size, a computer can be divided into five types:

1. Micro Computer:
It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other
types. The common examples of microcomputers include laptops, desktop computers, tab-
lets, and smartphones.
2. Minicomputer:
A minicomputer fills the space between the mainframe and microcomputer and is smaller
than the former but larger than the latter. Minicomputers are mainly used as small or mid-
range servers operating business and scientific applications. However, the use of the term
minicomputer has diminished and has merged with servers.
A minicomputer may also be called a mid-range computer.

3. Mainframe Computer:
A mainframe computer is a large computer capable of rapidly processing massive amounts
of data at high speeds. Mainframe computers by definition are computers that have a lot
of memory and processors, so they can do billions of transactions and simple calculations
in real time. A mainframe is used for transaction servers, commercial databases, and appli-
cations that need ample reliability, security, and speed.
4. Supercomputer:
Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of com-
puters. They have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform
millions of instructions per second. The super-computers are task-specific and thus used
for specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engi-
neering disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum engineering, weather
forecasting, medicine, space research and more. For example, NASA uses supercomputers
for launching space satellites and monitoring and controlling them for space exploration.
5. Workstations:
It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more powerful
microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In terms of storage
capacity and speed, it comes between a personal computer and minicomputer. Work sta-
tions are generally used for specialized applications such as desktop publishing, software
development, and engineering designs.

Characteristics of Computer

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while per-
forming mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instruc-
tions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and
nanoseconds.
Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data incon-
sistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and ac-
curacy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superi-
or to that of human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual inter-
vention.
Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory such as RAM (Random Access
Memory), ROM ( Read Only Memory) where it stores data. Secondary storages are remov-
able devices such as Hard disks, CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
What is Computer Hardware
A computer system is divided into two categories: Hardware and Software. Hardware refers
to the physical and visible components of the system. Software is set of instructions which
enable the hardware to perform a specific set of tasks.
Computer Hardware: -

Motherboard is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU) and
other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other
hardware components run through.

• CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from
various programs.

RAM is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately accessible to pro-
grams; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.

Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary da-
ta in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.

SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory technology; SSDs are
non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered down.

Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read
and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or
digital video discs.

Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components to
regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function properly. Typi-
cally, a heat sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most heat among
internal components.
Graphics processing unit. This chip-based device processes graphical data and often func-
tions as an extension to the main CPU.

Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to
connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area network adapter, it
typically supports connection to an Ethernet network.

What is RAM?
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is a type of primary memory of a computer
system. RAM is used in a computer to store those parts of data and instructions on which
the computer is currently working. RAM is a volatile memory which means its data is lost
when the computer is turned off. RAM stores its data temporarily.
RAM is also known as the main memory of the computer because the CPU of the computer
can access all memory cells of the RAM directly. In modern computer, RAM is made up of
semiconductor materials and found in the form of ICs (Integrated Circuits).

What is ROM?
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is also a type of primary memory of the computer.
It is used to store those parts of computer instructions and programs that do not required
to be changed like BIOS. Therefore, ROM is used to make computer firmware. Generally,
data is stored in the RAM during the process of manufacturing. ROM is also a type of semi-
conductor memory and built in the form of ICs.
ROM stores the data permanently, thus it is a non-volatile memory which means it holds
the data even when the computer is switched off. The CPU of the computer can only read
data from the memory cells of ROM, but cannot change it.

What is Firmware in Computer?

Firmware is software that provides basic machine instructions that allow the hardware to
function and communicate with other software running on a device. Firmware provides
low-level control for a device's hardware.
Abbreviation
RAM :- Random Access Memory
ROM :- Read Only Memory
BIOS :- Basic Input Output System
UEFI :- Unified Extendable Firmware Interface
HDD :- Hard Disk Drive
SSD :- Solid State Drives or Semiconductor Storage Device
SDD :- Software Design Document or Software Design Description
FTTP :- Fibber to the Premises
HTTP :- Hypertext Transfer Protocol
WinSCP :- Windows Secure Copy
SSL :- Secure Socket Layer
PHP :- Hypertext Pre-processor
HTML :- Hypertext Markup Language
FTTH :- Fibber to the Home
WAN :- Wide Area Network
SSH :- Secure Shell
SFTP :- Secure Shell File Transfer Protocol
FTP :- File Transfer Protocol
LAN :- Local Area Network
FTPS :- File Transfer Protocol Secure
NIC :- Network Interface Card
Computer Software
What is Software?
Software directs all computer hardware and peripherals to perform. Computer under-
stands binary language (composed of ones and zeros). To write codes in binary language is
difficult, Therefore, software programmers write the software program in various human-
readable languages such as Java, Python, C#, etc. and later use the source code.
Types of Software
Software's are broadly classified as
System Software
Application Software.
1. System Software
System software is a computer program that helps the user to run computer hardware or
software and manages the interaction between them. Essentially this runs in the computer
background to maintain the computer hardware and computer's basic functionalities, in-
cluding the operating system, utility software, and interface.
system software is an essential part of computer system. System Software is loaded first in
the system's memory wherever a computer is turned on. System software is also known as
"low-level software" because the end-users do not operate them.

The further classifications of system software are as follows:

1. Operating System
The operating system is the most prominent example of system software that acts as an
interface between the user and system hardware. It is a group of software that handles the
execution of programs and offers general services for the application that runs over the
computer. There are various types of operating systems available in the market, such as
embedded operating systems, real-time OS, distributed OS, single or multi-user operating
system, mobile, Internet, and various others.
Some of the commonly used examples of operating systems are given below.
Microsoft Windows
Apple's iOS , Apple's MacOS , .Android , CentOS , Linux , Ubuntu , Unix
2. Device Drivers
In computing, the device driver is a type of software that operates or controls some spe-
cific hardware devices linked to your system. They provide a software interface to hard-
ware devices allowing computer operating systems and other applications to fetch hard-
ware functions without knowing the exact specifications of the hardware. Some common
examples of such device drivers that connect hardware devices (printers, sound cards, net-
work cards, hard disks, floppy disk, keyboard, mouse, etc.) to a system easily are as follows:
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) Device Driver
USB (Universal Serial Bus) Drivers
Motherboard Drivers
Display Drivers
Printer Drivers
Sound Card Driver
ROM (Read-only memory) Drivers
VGA (Video Graphic Array) Drivers
3. Firmware
It is a set of instructions that are stored permanently on your computer's hardware device.
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a type of permanent software embedded
in the system's ROM (read-only memory) to provide low-level control for some particular
system device hardware.
Common examples of devices utilizing firmware are given below:
Computer Peripherals
Consumer Appliances
Embedded Systems
UEFI (United Extensible Firmware Interface)
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
4. Utility
Utility software is developed to provide support in analysing, optimizing, along configuring,
and maintaining a computer. The job of the utility program is to offer support to the system
infrastructure. Though the system will work even if it doesn't have any utility software, the
right kind of utility software enhances its performance and makes it more reliable.
Some of the common examples of utility software are as follows:
Norton and McAfee Antivirus
WinRAR
Directory Opus
Disk defragmenter
WinZip
Windows File Explorer
Razer Cortex
Application Software
Application programs

Application programs are end-user computer programs developed primarily to provide

specific functionality to the user. The application software can either be designed for a gen-
eral-purpose or specially coded as per the requirements of business cooperation. The ap-
plications programs assist the user in accomplishing numerous tasks such as passing bills,
processing IRLAs, New Compilation System.
Today there are varieties of application software available in the market. Given below are
some of the popular examples:
a. Word Processors
Word processor applications are globally used for documentation, making notes, and typ-
ing data. It also helps the end-users store and format data. They also enable the users to
print their documents.
Some examples of Word Processor software's are as follows:
MS Word (Microsoft)
iWork-Pages (Apple)
Corel WordPerfect
Google Docs
b. Database Software
Database software is used to create, manage, modify and organize a massive amount of
data quickly retrieved. Another name for database software is Database Management Sys-
tem (DBMS). Such software helps companies in their data organization. Common examples
of Database Software's are:
Oracle
MS Access
SQLite
Microsoft SQL Server
FileMaker
dBase
MariaDB
MySQL
c. Multimedia Software
This software enables the users to play, create or record images, music, and video files.
Different graphic designing companies widely use multimedia software to make animation,
images, posts, packaging, marketing creative, gif, or even video editing. Due to their popu-
larity and increasing demand, every software product development corporation has mas-
sive avenues in creating and upgrading them.
Common examples of Database Software's are given below:
Adobe Photoshop , Windows Movie Maker , Adobe Illustrator , Picasa ,
Windows Media Player , Corel Draw.
d. Web Browsers
These are a type of software that is globally used to browse the Internet. Web browsers
help the users in positioning as well as fetching data across the web. Common examples of
web browsers are given below:
Chrome
Mozilla Firefox
Microsoft Internet Explorer
Opera
Microsoft Edge
UC Browser
Apple Safari

COMPUTER LANGUAGES

Languages are a means of communication. Normally people interact with each other
through a language. On the same pattern, communication with computers is carried out
through a language. This language is understood both by user and the machine. Just as
every language like English, Hindi has its grammatical rules; every computer language is
bound by rules known as SYNTAX of that language. The user is bound by that syntax while
communicating with the computer system.

Computer languages are broadly classified as:

1. Low Level Language:
The term low level means closeness to the way in which machine understand. The low lev-
el languages are:
a. Machine Language:
This is the language (in the form of 0’s and 1’s, called binary numbers) understood directly
by the computer. It is machine dependent. It is difficult to learn and even more difficult to
write programs.
b. Assembly Language:
This is the language where the machine codes comprising of 0’s and 1’s are substituted by
symbolic codes (called mnemonics) to improve their understanding. It is the first step to
improve programming structure.
Assembly language programming is simpler and less time consuming than machine level
programming, it is easier to locate and correct errors in assembly language than in ma-
chine language programs. It is also machine dependent. Programmers must have
knowledge of the machine on which the program will run.
2. High Level Language
You know that low level language requires extensive knowledge of the hardware since it is
machine dependent. To overcome the limitation, high level language has been evolved
which uses normal English like, easy to understand statements to solve any problem. High-
er level languages are computer independent and programming becomes quite easy and
simple. Various high level languages are given below:

l. BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code):

It is widely used, easy to learn general purpose language. Mainly used in microcomputers
in earlier days.
ll. COBOL (Common Business Oriented language): A standardized language used for com-
mercial applications.
lll. FORTRAN (Formula Translation): Developed for solving mathematical and scientific
problems. One of the most popular languages among scientific community.
lV. C: Structured Programming Language used for all purpose such as scientific application,
commercial application, developing games etc.
V. C++: Popular object oriented programming language, used for general purpose.
COMPILER AND ASSEMBLER
As you know that High Level language is machine independent and assembly language
though it is machine dependent yet mnemonics that are being used to represent instruc-
tions are not directly understandable by machine. Hence to make the machine understand
the instructions provided by both the languages, Compiler and Assembler are required to
convert these instructions into machine language. The software (set of programs) that
reads a program written in high level language and translates it into an equivalent program
in machine language is called as Compiler. The program written by the programmer in high
level language is called source program and the program generated by the compiler after
translation is called as object program.

The software (set of programs) that reads a program written in assembly language and translates it into an equivalent program
in machine language is called as Assembler.
Application software used in our office: -
1. Project Tulip was developed by ITSDC Secundrabad for working of Regional CDAs.
Operating System Fedora
Server JBoss
Data Base postgresql
Key features of this project: -
Personal Management System.
Centralized pay and Allowances of DAD officers and staff.
Pay and allowances, TA/DA/LTC, medical and any other claims of Defence Ci-
vilians can be processed and maintained in Tulip.
All offline and online claims of Stores and Miscellaneous section of Regional
CDAs can be processed in Tulip.
Single master for cheque slips and punching medium for all sections helps in
quick generation of MIS reports.

2. Project Dolphin was developed by ITSDC Secundrabad for working of Pay

Accounts Office (ORs) for Pay and allowances of Other Ranks of Army.
Operating System Fedora
Server JBoss
Data Base postgresql
Key features of this project: -
Date wise DO2 processing. Financial effect of the same can be seen imme-
diately.
Monthly closing of accounts.
Payment of pay and allowances of ORs through NEFT.
Monthly MIS reports.
Generates monthly and quarterly IT upload files.
3. New Compilation System for prepare of all compilation reports of Defence e.g. All
India Compilation, Detail Voucher Compilation (DVC), Sectional Compilation etc.

4. Defence Travel System for Booking of tickets for TA/DA & LTC, and adjustment of
TA/DA and LTC claims.
 5. Ashray for working of DPDOs.

6. Suvigya to help Pensioners to find their entitlement.

7. Nidhi for maintaining GPF of Defence Civilians and DAD.

8. SIFA for IFA work.

9. Vishwak for AOGE work.

10. Bhawan for AAOBSO work. To generate Rent bills for Army, Navy, Airforce, and De-
fence Civilians.

11. Sparsh for disbursement of pension to Defence personnel and Defence Civilians

However, there also occurs another classification of the software that exists based on their
availability and shareability. The classification is given below:
1. Freeware
As the name suggests, Freeware software is available free of cost for an unlimited time.
Any user can easily download their respective software from the Internet and start using
them instantly without paying any charges or fees. Software development companies
mostly design and develop freeware software as a strategy to reach out to more people.
Typical examples of Freeware Software are as follows:
Adobe Reader
Zoom
Skype
ImgBurn
Audacity
Whatsapp
Anydesk
2. Shareware
Shareware software is readily available on the Internet to download on a fixed trial basis. It
is distributed freely with a set time limit, and at the end of the trial period, the user is
asked either to pay the fee or uninstall the software. Some shareware, mainly including the
gaming softwares, have a fixed trial based on the counts an application is opened rather
than the number of days it has been installed on the system.
Give below are some of the popular examples for Shareware Software:
Adobe Acrobat
Adobe Photoshop
AnyDVD
PHP Debugger
WinZip
3. Open source
People usually get confused with freeware and open source, but both are different. Though
both the software is available on the Internet free of cost with the only difference that
open source software is available online along with their source code. It means the user
can change, transform, and even can add additional features to them. Based on their ser-
vices, they can be chargeable as well free of cost.
Give below are some of the popular examples for open-source Software:
Mozilla Firefox
MySQL
Thunderbird
OpenOffice
Apache Web Server
Data and Information
Data is collection of facts in the form of number, text, images etc. Collection of Data is not
enough to take decision. This may or may not be organised.

Information is organized form of data. Information can be used to understand the concept
and take decision.
Difference Between Data and Information
Data and Big Data
Input data to the computer is classified so that the compiler or interpreter of the computer
understands how the programmer intends to use the data. Most programming languages
support various types of data, including integer, real, character or string, and Boolean.
The Data are the quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by
a computer, which may be stored and transmitted in the form of electrical signals and rec-
orded on magnetic, optical, or mechanical recording media.
Big Data is a collection of data that is growing exponentially with time. It is a data with so
large size and complexity that none of traditional data management tools can store it or
process it efficiently. Eg Facebook, stock exchange etc.
Big Data can be classified as: -
1. Structured data are be stored, accessed, and processed in fixed format.
2. Unstructured data are stored with unknown form or the structure.
Semi-structured data are partially stored in know n format.

Big data is defined by 5V's, which refers to the volume, Variety, value, velocity, and veraci-
ty.
Volume
Data is the core of any technology, and the huge volume of data flow in the system makes
it necessary to appoint a dynamic storage system. Nowadays, data is coming from various
sources such as social media sites, e-commerce platforms, new sites, financial transactions,
etc., and it is becoming mandated to store data in the most efficient manner. Although,
with the passing of time, storage cost is gradually decreasing, thus permitting storage of
collected data. The gravitas that the term big data owns is because of its volume.
Variety
Data can be structured as well as unstructured and comes from various sources. It can be
audio, video, text, emails, transactions, and many more. Due to various formats of data,
storing, managing, and organizing the data becomes a big challenge for organizations. Alt-
hough storing raw data is not difficult but converting unstructured data into a structured
format and making them accessible for business uses is practically complex for IT expertise.
Velocity
Rendering and data sorting is very necessary to control data flows. Further, the superiority
of processing data with high accuracy and speed is also necessary for storing, managing,
and organizing data in an efficient manner. Smart sensors, smart metering, and RFID tags
make it necessary to deal with huge data influx in almost real-time. Sorting, assessing, and
storing such deluges of data in a timely fashion become necessary for most organizations.

Veracity
In general, Veracity refers to the accuracy of data sets. But when it comes to Big data, it is
not only limited to the accuracy of big data but also tells us how trustworthy is the data
source. Further, it also determines the reliability of data and how meaningful it is for analy-
sis. In one line, we can say Veracity is defined as the quality and consistency of data.

Value
Value in Big Data refers to the meaningful or usefulness of stored data for your business. In
big data, data is stored in structured as well as an unstructured format, but regardless of its
volume, usually, it is not meaningful. Hence, we need to convert it into a useful format for
the business requirements of organizations. For e.g., data having missing or corrupt values,
missing key structured elements, etc., are not useful for companies to provide better cus-
tomer service, create marketing campaigns, etc. Hence, it leads to reducing the revenue
and profit in their businesses
Sources of data in Big Data
Big data can be of various formats of data either in structured as well as unstructured form
and comes from various sources. The main sources of big data can be of the following
types:
Social Media
Data is collected from various social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
WhatsApp, etc. Although data collected from these platforms can be anything like text, au-
dio, video, etc., the biggest challenge is to store, manage and organize these data in an effi-
cient way.
Online cloud platforms:
There are various online cloud platforms, such as Amazon AWS, Google Cloud, IBM cloud,
etc., that are also used as a source of big data for machine learning.
Internet of things:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a platform that offers cloud facilities, including data storage
and processing through IoT. Recently, cloud-based ML models are getting popular. It starts
with invoking input data from the client end and processing machine learning algorithms
using an artificial neural network (ANN) over cloud servers and then returning with output
to the client again.
Online Web pages:
Nowadays, every second, thousands of web pages are created and uploaded over the in-
ternet. These web pages can be in the form of text, images, videos, etc. Hence, these web
pages are also a source of big data.

Data Analysis
The data available in the office grow in amount and complexity. To harness value from the
available data needs an effective and efficient process. The data analysis process involves:
Identify the problem.

Collect the raw data sets you’ll need to help you answer the identified question. Data
collection might come from internal sources, like a company’s client relationship
management (CRM) software, or from secondary sources, like government records
or social media application programming interfaces (APIs).

Clean the data to prepare it for analysis. This often involves purging duplicate and
anomalous data, reconciling inconsistencies, standardizing data structure and for-
mat, and dealing with white spaces and other syntax errors.

Analyse the data to find trends, correlations, outliers, and variations .

Interpret the results of your analysis to see how well the data answered your original
question.
Data Mining

Data mining is the act of automatically searching for large stores of information to find
trends and patterns that go beyond simple analysis procedures. Data mining utilizes com-
plex mathematical algorithms for data segments and evaluates the probability of future
events. Data Mining is also called Knowledge Discovery of Data (KDD).

Data Warehousing
A Data Warehouse can be viewed as a data system with the following attributes:
• It is a database designed for investigative tasks, using data from various applications.
• It supports a relatively small number of clients with relatively long interactions.
• It includes current and historical data to provide a historical perspective of information.
• Its usage is read-intensive.
It contains a few large tables.

• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires,
optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a
network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.
Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC (National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this ad-
dress to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct des-
tination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is
made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
Lease Line: - A leased line is a reserved circuit between two communication points that is
always active and rented for a monthly fee. Leased lines are dedicated, meaning that any
bandwidth associated with the leased line is solely for private, organizational use. This is
different from traditional telecommunications methods that reuse the same circuit through
switching.

Access Point: - An access point is a wireless network device that acts as a portal for devices
to connect to a local area network. Access points are used for extending the wireless cover-
age of an existing network and for increasing the number of users that can connect to it.
A high-speed Ethernet cable runs from a router to an access point, which transforms the
wired signal into a wireless one. Wireless connectivity is typically the only available option
for access points, establishing links with end-devices using Wi-Fi.

Switches
A switch is a networking device, which provides the facility to share the information & re-
sources by connecting different network devices, such as computers, printers, and servers,
within a small business network. With the help of a switch, the connected devices can
share the data & information and communicate with each other.
Cables and connectors
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three
types of cables:
Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more ex-
pensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light
beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more
expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem
is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC
slot found on the motherboard.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the com-
puter to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applica-
tions.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:
Router: - The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to re-
ceive, analyse, and forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a
destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding ta-
bles to decide the best way to transfer the packets.

LAN (Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office. The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Net-
work. Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters. Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network. Thomas Zimmerman was the first re-
search scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network. Personal computer devices
that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by intercon-
necting a different LAN to form a larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc. It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city. Eg Army intranet ,Airline Res-
ervation, colleges within a city.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries. A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geograph-
ical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links. The internet is one of
the biggest WAN in the world.A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network: Mobile Broadband

Cyber Security
Cyber Security is the set of principles and practices designed to protect our computing re-
sources and online information against threats.

Types of Cyber Security

Cybersecurity can be sub categorized in the following sub-domains:
Network Security: It involves implementing the hardware and software to secure a com-
puter network from unauthorized access, intruders, attacks, disruption, and misuse. This
security helps an organization to protect its assets against external and internal threats.

• Application Security: It involves protecting the software and devices from unwanted
threats. This protection can be done by constantly updating the apps to ensure they are
secure from attacks. Successful security begins in the design stage, writing source code,
validation, threat modeling, etc., before a program or device is deployed.
• Information or Data Security: It involves implementing a strong data storage mecha-
nism to maintain the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in transit.
• Identity management: It deals with the procedure for determining the level of access
that each individual has within an organization.
• Operational Security: It involves processing and making decisions on handling and se-
curing data assets.
Mobile Security: It involves securing the organizational and personal data stored on mobile
devices such as cell phones, computers, tablets, and other similar devices against various
malicious threats. These threats are unauthorized access, device loss or theft, malware,
etc.
• Cloud Security: It involves in protecting the information stored in the digital environ-
ment or cloud architectures for the organization. It uses various cloud service providers
such as AWS, Azure, Google, etc., to ensure security against multiple threats.

• Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity Planning: It deals with the processes, moni-
toring, alerts, and plans to how an organization responds when any malicious activity is
causing the loss of operations or data. Its policies dictate resuming the lost operations after
any disaster happens to the same operating capacity as before the event.
User Education: It deals with the processes, monitoring, alerts, and plans to how an organ-
ization responds when any malicious activity is causing the loss of operations or data. Its
policies dictate resuming the lost operations after any disaster happens to the same oper-
ating capacity as before the event.

Malware: It is malicious software, which is the most common cyber attacking tool. It is
used by the cybercriminal or hacker to disrupt or damage a legitimate user's system. The
following are the important types of malwares created by the hacker:
• Virus: It is a malicious piece of code that spreads from one device to another. It can
clean files and spreads throughout a computer system, infecting files, stoles infor-
mation, or damage device.

• Spyware: It is a software that secretly records information about user activities on

their system. For example, spyware could capture credit card details that can be used
by the cybercriminals for unauthorized shopping, money withdrawing, etc.
• Trojans: It is a type of malware or code that appears as legitimate software or file to
for downloading and running. Its primary purpose is to corrupt or steal data from our
device or do other harmful activities on our network.

• Ransomware: It's a piece of software that encrypts a user's files and data on a device,
rendering them unusable or erasing. Then, a monetary ransom is demanded by mali-
cious actors for decryption.

• Worms: It is a piece of software that spreads copies of itself from device to device
without human interaction. It does not require them to attach themselves to any pro-
gram to steal or damage the data.

• Adware is an advertising software used to spread malware and displays advertise-

ment on our device. It is an unwanted program that is installed without user's per-
mission. The main objective of this program is to generate revenue for its developer
by showing the ads on their browser.

• Botnets: It is a collection of internet-connected malware-infected devices that allow

cybercriminals to control them. It enables cybercriminals to get credentials leaks, un-
authorized access, and data theft without the user's permission.

• Phishing: It is a type of cybercrime in which a sender seems to come from a genuine

organization like PayPal, eBay, financial institutions, or friends and co-workers. They
contact a target or targets via email, phone, or text message with a link to persuade
them to click on that links. This link will redirect them to fraudulent websites to pro-
vide sensitive data such as personal information, banking and credit card information,
social security numbers, usernames, and passwords. Clicking on the link will also in-
stall malware on the target devices that allow hackers to control devices remotely.
• Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack.
A man-in-the-middle attack is a type of cyber threat (a form of eavesdropping
attack) in which a cybercriminal intercepts a conversation or data transfer between two in-
dividuals. Once the cybercriminal places themselves in the middle of a two-party commu-
nication, they seem like genuine participants and can get sensitive information and return
different responses. The main objective of this type of attack is to gain access to our busi-
ness or customer data. For example, a cybercriminal could intercept data passing between
the target device and the network on an unprotected Wi-Fi network.
• Distributed denial of service (DDoS)
It is a type of cyber threat or malicious attempt where cybercriminals disrupt tar-
geted servers, services, or network's regular traffic by fulfilling legitimate requests to the
target or its surrounding infrastructure with Internet traffic. Here the requests come from
several IP addresses that can make the system unusable, overload their servers, slowing
down significantly or temporarily taking them offline, or preventing an organization from
carrying out its vital functions.

• Brute Force
A brute force attack is a cryptographic hack that uses a trial-and-error method to
guess all possible combinations until the correct information is discovered. Cybercriminals
usually use this attack to obtain personal information about targeted passwords, login info,
encryption keys, and Personal Identification Numbers (PINS).

• SQL Injection (SQLI)

SQL injection is a common attack that occurs when cybercriminals use malicious
SQL scripts for backend database manipulation to access sensitive information. Once the
attack is successful, the malicious actor can view, change, or delete sensitive company da-
ta, user lists, or private customer details stored in the SQL database.

• Domain Name System (DNS) attack

A DNS attack is a type of cyberattack in which cyber criminals take advantage of
flaws in the Domain Name System to redirect site users to malicious websites (DNS hijack-
ing) and steal data from affected computers. It is a severe cybersecurity risk because the
DNS system is an essential element of the internet infrastructure.
Difference between DBMS and RDBMS
Although DBMS and RDBMS both are used to store information in physical database but
there are some remarkable differences between them.
The main differences between DBMS and RDBMS are given below:

After observing the differences between DBMS and RDBMS, you can say that RDBMS is an
extension of DBMS.
Data Encryption
Encryption helps us to secure data that we send, receive, and store. It can consist text mes-
sages saved on our cell-phone, logs stored on our fitness watch, and details of banking sent
by your online account.
It is the procedure of taking ordinary text, such as a text or email, and climbing it into an
unreadable type of format known as "cipher text." It helps to protect the digital infor-
mation either saved on or spread through a network such as the internet on computer sys-
tems.
The cipher text is converted back to the real form when the calculated recipient accesses
the message which is known as decryption.
"Secret" encryption key, a lining up of algorithms that climbed and unscramble info. back
to a readable type, must be worked by both the sender and the receiver to get the code.

Symmetric encryption and asymmetric encryption are two kinds of encryption schemes.
They are.
Symmetric encryption encrypts and decrypts information using a single password.
For encryption and decryption, asymmetric encryption uses two keys. A public key,
which is interchanged between more than one user. Data is decrypted by a private
key, which is not exchanged.

References:
Lesson_01.pdf (nios.ac.in)
Computer - Wikipedia