Analysis by Key: Another Look at Modulation

Author(s): Carl Schachter

Source: Music Analysis, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Oct., 1987), pp. 289-318
Published by: Blackwell Publishing
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/854207
Accessed: 01/01/2010 13:27

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=black.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Blackwell Publishing is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Music Analysis.

http://www.jstor.org
CARLSCHACHTER

ANALYSISBYKEY:ANOTHERLOOKAT
MODULATION

Exceptfor thepoint,thestillpoint,
Therewouldbenodance
(T. S. Eliot)

Until fairly recently, most musiciansthought of Heinrich Schenker(if they

thoughtof himat all)as thetheoristwhoreducedwholepiecesto threenotesand
deniedthat they modulatedto differentkeys. Nowadaysanyonefamiliarwith
musictheoryknowsthatSchenkerdid morethananalysethe firstmovementof
the Eroicaas 'ThreeBlindMice'witha collegeeducation.Butmanystillbelieve
that he rejectedoutrightthe conceptof key change,and indeedthereis more
justificationfor this misconceptionthanfor the other. Schenkerwas, to say the
least, highlycriticalof the way the concepthad been generallyformulatedand
applied, and his own theorygreatlyreducesits scope. Near the beginningof
FreeComposition, for example,he writesas follows:

But the most banefulerrorof conventionaltheoryis its recourseto 'keys'

when, in its lack of acquaintancewith backgroundand middleground,it
findsno othermeansof explanation.Oftenits helplessnessis so greatthatit
abandons even this most comfortablemeans of avoiding difficulties.
Nothing is as indicativeof the state of theoryand analysisas this absurd
abundanceof 'keys'. The concept of the 'key' as a higher unity in the
foregroundis completelyforeignto theory:it is evencapableof designating
a singleunprolongedchordas a key.1

Although Schenkerthus acknowledgedthat keys might appearas 'higher

unitiesin the foreground',his own work- especiallyin its laterphases- sheds
little light on the compositionalrole of such higher unities; nor have later
Schenkeriansconcernedthemselvesverymuchwith this question.The time is
perhapsripefortheoristsandothermusiciansto takeanotherlookat thenotion

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 289

 8 " 8

CARI SCHACHTER

of modulationand to see how far a greateremphasison key changecanbe

incorporatedinto a monotonalapproachlike Schenker's.That hearing
modulationsbelongsto ourmoment-by-moment experienceof tonalmusicis so
obviousastoneednocomment.Buta deepandintensehearingofmusiccannot
be onlyfroma moment-by-moment perspective,andexistingconceptions of
modulationhavesurelynotdonejusticeto thepieceofmusicasa 'com-position'
- somethingputtogetherto forma unity.

TheTonicas Centre
To hearsomethingin a key, we haveto be awareof a tonicnote,a pitchthat
to which,directlyorindirectly,werelateall
functionsasa centreof orientation
theotherpitches. Theinferenceofa tonalcentrecanresultfromseveralfactors,
singlyorin combination. Onefactor,mentioned bya hostof authorsincluding
Schenker,is the presenceof a diminishedfifthor tritonebetween7 and4,
expressedeithersimultaneously (as in a V7 chord)or in succession(as in a
progressionof IVorII tOv).2 Thisdiminished to majorand
fifthis indigenous
mustbe importedintominorto offsetthatmode'stendencyto gravitateto its
thirdscaleste?, a tebndencyproducedby minor'sownindigenousdiminished
fifthbetween2 and6. It is easyto hearhowthediminishedfifthclinchesthe
keyin b.3 of theC majorPreludefromBach'sWTCI (Ex. 1).
Ex. 1 Bach:WTCI, PreludeI, bs 1-4

+ 11 - 8 8 1

5th

Of courseour awarenessof the tonic cannotcome froma disembodied

diminished fifth;wemusthearit ina contextthatincludesotherpitchesaswell.
In the Bachexcerpt,all of the notesof the C majorscaleappearby b.3; in
addition,b.1 containsthetonictriad.Beginning withtonicharmony, thoughit
is thenorm,is bynomeansa prerequisite to ourimmediate feelingforthekey.
Chopin'sPreludeOp.28,No. 18soundsunmistakably in F minoratleastfrom
theendof b.1, thougha stabletonicchorddoesnotappearuntiltheveryendof
thepiece.Thedominant ninth,withitstritoneBb-E,locatesF asthetonicpitch
(althoughtheonlyFs in thecitationarepassingnotes),andtheemphasized DSs
suggest- evenin the absenceof Ab- thatthisF is goingto be minor(Ex. 2).
Tonalmusic'spowerto createa senseof futurethroughthe specificityof the
expectatlonslt canarousehasno parallelin anyotherkindof musicof whichI
. .

amaware;thatits signalsareatleastasoftencontradictedastheyareconfirmed

290 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

only servesto makemusicaltime a morepowerfulsymbolicrepresentationof

humantemporalexperience.And further,a piece that strugglesto achieveits
tonic presentsa worldof soundand feelingvery differentfromone wherethe
tonicis assertedas a givenfromthe outset.
Ex. 2 Chopin:Prelude,Op.28, No. 18

Allegro molto

+Aye J: : ,> ag, '/ : |

augmented4th

t) tb e 5 b > _ * t

X. *

TheTonicas Matnx
Duringthe firstnine or so barsof anotherChopinPrelude,No. 24 in D minor,
thereis no diminishedfifthC#-Gto specifyD as the tonicpitch.Thatthe key of
D minoris never in doubt duringthese barsresultsfrom the ever-presentD
minortriadarpeggiatedin both the left-handostinatoandthe melodicline;that
the few non-harmonicnotes ali belong to the D minor scale adds further
confirmation.If we look a bit further- say up to b.21 - we shall see that the
tonicizedharmoniesare the openingD minor, the F majorof b. 15 and the A
minorof b. 19, forminga hugeexpansionof the samearpeggio.
Despite its complexand unusual- perhapsunique- tonalplan, the Prelude
sustainsits keywitha minimumof helpfromthe diminishedfifthon the leading
note. Indeedin seventy-sevenbarsof highlychromaticmusic, C,"occursonly
twice:beforethe reprisein b. 50 (introducedenharmonically as DS), andin the
final cadentialdominant,b.64 (not countinga few rapidpassingnotes of no
harmonicsignificancein bs 55-6). D minor is securelyestablishedas a key
because the D minor chord so clearly forms the matrix that generatesthe
ostinatofigure, the melodicline and the large-scaleharmonicstructureof the
Prelude'sextendedopeningphase(bs 1-20).
Centralto Schenker'sworkis the notionthatthe tonic triad,an imageof the
overtoneseriesgeneratedby the tonicnote, functionsas a matrix- the sourceof
the FundamentalStructurethatgovernslarge-scaleharmony(throughthe bass
arpeggio)and melody(throughthe FundamentalLine) as well as the ultimate
sourceof the middlegroundstructuresand foregrounddetailsthatgrowout of
the FundamentalStructure.As matrix,the tonictriadhasrhythmicproperties:
it definesthe beginningand end of completeand self-containedharmonicand
melodicprogressions;it alsoprovidesthe foundationfor formanddesign,since
motivicand thematicelementsalwaysconnect(usuallyquite closely)to tonal
structure.As FredLerdahlandRayJackendoffwrite,'thetonicis in somesense

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 291

 .LL_L z

CARL SCHACHTER

implicitin everymomentof the piece'.3

Obviously the tonic triad as matrix is a chord elaboratelyprolongedor
composedout (auskomponiert); this applies to the main tonic of a piece (for
Schenkerthe only true tonic)as well as formosttemporary'tonics'producedby
modulation. Every tonic conceived as a matrixis a prolongedchord, but not
everyprolongedchordis a tonic. The D minorandG majortriadsof Ex. 3 are
not. AlthoughD andG governtheirprolongedharmonies,theyhaveno special
relationto the non-harmonicnotesof the melodiclines, nordoeseitherformthe
point of originor expectedgoal of a self-containedtonalprogression.D and G
arecentresof a sort, for they areharmonicrootsor fundamentals,but they are
centresin a much more limited sense than tonic notes, for they exerciseno
control over scalar functions, over the syntactic propertiesof subordinate
chords,overformor design.Theirgovernanceis looserandfarless elaborately
hierarchical.In Schenker'sterminology,the pitchesof Ex. 3 aresubjectto the
controlof a C majordiatony.Thus althoughf2in b.2 andbl in b. 3 areconsonant
with the rootsof theirchords,theyprojecta dissonantcharacterwithrespectto
the C majortriad;and they eventuallyresolveinto the third and root of that
chord.
Ex. 3

a lf#! ,, .

C D G C
(C: I II V I )

A Changeof Centrewithina ProlongedTnad

The tonal centreof a passagemay changeduringthe prolongationof a single
harmony- a realignment,as it were,in themagneticfieldsof the notesthatform
the musical atoms of the passage. Example 4 contains foreground and
middlegroundreductionsof the Presto section from the E minor Preludeof
WTC I. Tovey characterizesthis passageas 'firstassertingthe key of A minor
(bars23-26). . .; andthenceproceedingfor twelvesteps . . ., till E minoris re-
establishedin bar 32. Afterthis it quicklyproceedsto a dominantpedal . . .'4
Now it seems self-evidentto me that the E minor triad of b.32, though
containingthe samepitchesas the Prelude'stonicchord,does not functionin a
deep senseas a tonic- as a significantbeginningor goalof motion.Insteadit is
a detailof motion,clearlyon the wayto the A minorsixthat the headof the next
bar, which continuesthe prolongationof IV begun in b.23. The governing
harmonyof bs 23-33 is A minor(IV); withinthe prolongedIV, the E minorof
b.32 fulfils a contrapuntalfunction: it provides consonantsupport for the

292 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

Fn te (t---V-8a' ^r 2f 0 r i kj rJ4 7C 0 CS #, o f
ANALYSIS BY KEY

Ex. 4a Bach:WTC I, Prelude

10

Fovev
'9$t'°-__#-'-
AssertsA minc)r - " r CS C J J 2 ji22
FEminor u -
2 S
Jw
re-established
#2 pedal
j
Mdgd e: iV (mostly?
Fdgd(= a : I ) 6 V I
(a:I/e: IV)
Ex. 4b
Q (9 @ (R (i) (@
2 l

9 '51 /: -- '

I
iV
(a: I 6
V
passingnote bl. At the same /e:1V) It

time, however, bs 30-2, with

dirninished fifth fromA down their prominent
noteA, so thatthe prolonged to D", effectivelycancelthe tonicqualityof the
guise, it standsrevealedas theharmonychangesits function;droppingits tonic
ithas been all along.The two subdominantof E minorthat,in a deepersense,
As faras it goes, Tovey's graphsof Ex. 4 attemptto depicttheseevents.
descriptionis correct- correct,thatis,
understand the 're-established'E as longas we
notyet the boundaryof a time minoras anexpectedfocalpointorcentre,but
span
Indeed it is not even the boundary filled with the E minorchordas a matrix.
of a
specify just where in bs 30-2 the key key, for it is difficultor impossibleto
boundaries of E minor begins to
of keys are often indistinct). reappear(the
Tovey's interpretationis that its exclusivePerhapsthe greatestweakness of
seems to have blockedaccessto the concentrationon key succession
awareness of the vast differencein underlyingIV-V-Iprogressionand to an
anda truetonic, say the final structuralmeaningbetweenthe E chordof
b.32
Changingthe key of a prolongedchordof the piece.
resourcecreating,asit were,a 'pivotharmony
chord' of
is a mostirnportant
compositional
the
BachPrelude,an initially highstructuralorder.
to
themain tonic before that tonicized chordwill beginto suggestaOften,asin
'future'). In many sonata-form resolutionoccurs (again projectingaresolution
movements sense of
development continuesto prolongthe dominantin major, for example, the
thatis tonicizedin the second
293
ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987
MUSIC
 CARL SCHACHTER

part of the exposition, but at the end of the prolongation(before the

recapitulation)the prolonged dominant is heard as V in the tonic key.
Sometimes,on the otherhand, it is the firstbig tonic thatpreparesa changeof
key; it becomes transformedinto a dissonantchord (perhapsan augmented
sixth or diminishedseventh)thatfunctionsas a chromaticizedscalestep in the
new key - usuallythe key of the dominant(Ex. 5). Thus the boundariesof a
prolongedharmonyneed not coincidewith the oftenindistinctboundariesof a
key area,norneed thoseof eithercoincidewith thoseof a formsection.
Ex. 5 Beethoven:Sonata,Op.7, I

O e @
cons p.n.

+>66

i?b 5' z Ekf

EbzI'°==aug.6th II
(= Bb: WIV V)

Schenker,by the way, was awareof the possibilityof changingthe sense of

key withinthe prolongationof a singleharmony;his graphsof the foreground
andof latermiddlegroundlevelsoftenspecifythesekey changes.An interesting
and easily accessibleexampleoccursin his analysisof the Largofrom Bach's
ThirdSonatafor SoloViolin. His Fig. 1 showsthe openingF majortonicof the
Ursatz transformedinto a IV of C major;the latter'key',of course,representsa
tonicized structuralV. As the upper voice descends over V, the counter-
pointingof Bb by G leads to a G minor chord;since this chordis tonicized,
Schenkershows a key changeto G minor (still within a prolongedV of F).
Beforethe prolongationof V is concluded(indeedstill withinthe prolongation
of the dividingG minortriad),theirnminentreturnof a structuralI is prepared,
and Schenkershowsa key changeto F major.Thus the prolongationof a single
harmony- V of F major- encompassesthreekeys, C major,G minorand F
maor.
Related to, though not quite the same as, key changewithin a prolonged
harmonyis the alternationof keys producedby a 5-6 or 6-5 intervalsuccession.
For instanceC majorcan alternatewith A minorif the G belongingto the C
majortonic changesto an A (5-6) and if the A minoris tonicized.Similarly,A
minorcangivewayto F major.If thiskindof alternationstretchesovermuchof
the piece, the composercanleavein abeyance- at leastfor a while- the issueof
whichtonicis primary.Usuallyone presumesthatthe firsttonicis themainone,
and often that presumptionturns out to be correct;the second movementof

294 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

Brahms'sA majorSonatafor Violinand Pianois a good example.In Chopin's

big dual-keypieces,on the otherhand,the f1rsttonicis alwayssupplantedby its
rival- thinkof the Fantasy,the SecondScherzo,the SecondBallade,etc. I am
not going to addressmyselfhereto the questionof whetherany of these pieces
hasonlyone primarytonic;but I shouldliketo suggestthattheproblemcan'tbe
explainedawayby assertingthat for Chopina relativemajorand minorforma
singleextendedkey. Sincewhen does the notionof'key' involvetwo tonicsof
equal rank?6(In any case this explanationfounderson the F major/Aminor
Ballade,whosetwo keys arenot relatives.)

ApparentCentres
In Ex. 2, the beginningof the ChopinF minorPrelude,we saw a passagethat
impliesF as centrelong beforethereis any tonicharmony.Of coursethe tonic
appearseventually;the promiseof the piece'sbeginningis kept. But although
musicmostlykeepsits promises,it neednot do so in the obviouswaywe might
expect;like the WeirdSisters'propheciesin Macbeth,its messagessometirnes
admitof morethanone interpretation.Bars29-36of the Scherzomovementof
Schubert'sPianoSonata,D.845 (Ex. 6), havea pitchcontentverysimilarto that
of Ex. 2. Followinga firmlyestablishedC major(itself a tonicizedIII in the
homekey of A minor),the passagecontinuesthe C harmony,but in a waythat
makesit soundlikea V in F minor.As theexampleshows,theexpectedF minor
nevermaterializes,forthechromaticpitchesserveinsteadto prepareAb major.
Ex. 6 Schubert:PianoSonata,D.845, III

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 295

 CARI SCHACHTER

Mightwe saythatbs 29-36of the Schubertexcerptarein F minor?Yes, I

think,aslongaswerealizethattheyare'in'F minorin a moreattenuated sense
thantheChopinPreludeis. Hearingthesebarsascontaining theV of F minoris
partof ourmoment-by-moment experience of thepiece,justasresponding toa
falseclueis partof ourmoment-by-moment experienceof readinga mystery
novel.Butinneithercaseis theexperience grounded inthelargerrealitycreated
by composeror author.The 'tonic'is an expectedcentrethat is never
confirmed;in no senseis its harmonya matrixfor the pitchcontentof the
passage.Whenwe use the word 'tonic'in analysis,we shoulddo well to
remember thatit canrepresent quitedifferentkindsof musicalstructure.We
canquicklyinfera tonicas centrefromsignalsgivenby otherpitches;neither
thetonicchordnoreventhetonicnoteneedbepresent.Wecaninfera tonicas
matrix,however,onlythroughthe presenceof at leasttwo (andtypicallyall
three)of thetonictriad'sconstituent notes,andthesenotesmustbespreadout
throughtime as the beginningsor goalsof significantlinearand harmonic
structures.
'Keys'withouttonics(likethe'Fminor'in theSchubertScherzo)canenliven
a musicalforeground preciselybecausetheyarousespecificexpectations that
they do not fulfil. (Passagesof 'rovingharmony'whichlackanydistinctor
abidingtonalfocuscreatequitedifferent,thoughequallyvaluable,effects.)In
thesecondhalfof theeighteenth century,asCharlesRosenpointsout,cadences
tonicizingVIoccurredsofrequently neartheendof development sectionsasto
becomea cliche.7Rosenthenshowshowcomposerscanavoidthe clicheby
withholding theexpectedgoal.'Onewayof escapingtheeternalcadenceon vi
preceding thereturnto I - oratleastenlivening it - wasbya cadenceonV ofvi,
followedbya jumpintothetonicandthemaintheme.'8
One of Rosen's examplesof this device is the Kyrie of Haydn's
Harmoniemesse, apieceinsonataform;ashewrites,'thecadenceonvi (Gminor)
is neatlyavoided'.9But the G minorharmonyis not simplyavoidedas a
cadentialgoal;it doesnot occuranywherein the passage.As in the Schubert
excerptof Ex. 6, if thispassagehasa localtonicat all, it is anabsenteetonic.
Example7 containsa voice-leading reductionof thedevelopment section,and
showsthattheputativeV of G minorturnsoutto havea differentfunction:it
leadsbydownward arpeggiationfromV to I in theprogression V-(IIIs)-I.This
eventresonates withimportant motivicimplications thatI cannotgo intohere,
butthequotation followingthegraphsshowshowthechromatic melodiclineof
theentiredevelopment sectionis prefiguredin thesection'sopeningphrase.
LikeTovey'saccountof the BachPrelude,Rosen'sanalysisis correctbut
insufficient.His pointingoutthenon-fulfilment of anexpectation is perfectly
valid,buthe doesnotgo on to explainwhatin factdoeshappen.Non-events
havetheirimportance, butpartly,atleast,in thelightof theoutcomethattheir
expectation masks.Andnoneof thegreatcomposers - leastof allHaydn,with
hisunparalleled powersofinvention - makescompositional choicesjusttoavoid
stereotypes; indeedtheyareoftenmorewillingthanlessermusiciansto use
clichesif thecontextis appropriate.

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

296
 Iip "-4) at

ANALYSIS BY KEY

Ex. 7 Haydn:Harmoniemesse,
Kyrie,development

Keys " (= F:l =c: W|| = g. 1<

I
X V
, .

= BS :111' 1)
Form i exp dev.

i 5
, i $ a
" Mdgd: V
(111') 1
I @
, cf. solosoprano C| C"l Dl clc
@> t :5tltl "g r
Partof thedifferencebetweenRosen'sapproach andmineprobablyresults
fromthe differingperspectives of a historiandealingwithcommonstylistic
featuresof a largenumberof pieces,anda theoristexamining fewerpiecesin
greaterdetail.If I encounter
a numberof development sectionsthattonicizeVI
orsuggestthattheyaregoingto do so, myinterestis capturedby thespecific
tonalstructures thatthe composercreates:withBeethoven,forexample,the
rootof VI mightbe anupperneighbour to V (Op.10,No. 2, I), a passingnote
between therootandthirdof V (Op.7,I), evenpartof anarpeggiation fromI
downto IV(Op.79,I).10Formethesefunctional differencesareof paramount
importance, butthatdoesnotinvalidate thenotionthatthecommonkeyarea
forms a stylisticlink amongthesepieces.SanchoPanzaandJeevesarevery
different
characters, buttheybelongto a commonliterarytradition.
Interestingly enough,the specificstructurefoundin the HaydnKyriealso
formsa stylisticlinkamongmanylateclassicaldevelopment sections,thoughof
coursenot as manyas the tonicization, confirmedor unfulfilled,of VI. In a
recentarticle,DavidBeachhas shownthatmanyof Mozart'sdevelopments
showa downward arpeggiation
fromV to I throughIII;othersuseIIIaspartof
adescending motionwithina prolongedV.1lA sharingof the perspectives of

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 297

 11

CARI SCHACHTER

historianandtheoristwill, I hope,leadto an increasedawareness

of specific
voice-leading
techniques(togetherwithmoregeneralfeatureslikekeyor 'key'
succession)
aselementsof style.

Tonicizations
Contradicted
byVoice-Leading
Continuity
In the HaydnKyrie,the III# of a V-III#-Iarpeggiosuggestedthe key of G
minorevenin theabsenceof a Gminorchord.Butwhatif therehadbeensuch
a chord?Theliterature aboundswithcaseswherea chordfunctionslocallyasa
V and, at the sametime, has a differentand moresignificantlong-range
function.TheAmajorchordthatendsthedevelopment of Beethoven's 'Spring'
Sonata,for instance,followsa ratherprominentD minortriadandis surely
heard, at least initially,as its dominant.But the magicaleffect of the
recapitulationdependson themotiondowna thirdfromA majorto thehome
tonicF, on theconcomitant chromatic adjustmentof C,"to C, andon theway
themelodiclinethatgrowsoutof theA majorprepares thereturnof thetonic
theme.Andthe wayBeethovencomposesthislong-drawn-out A chordmore
andmoreobliterates our(oratleastmy)sensethatit is goingtoresolve,in fact,
to D. Imaginehowthepiecewouldsoundif theA reallydidmoveto D, andthe
D to F! Thestructural bassprogressionof thisdevelopment, then,is V-(III#)-I
- exactlythesameasin theHaydnKyrie(Ex.8). Thatthereis akeysuccesssion
D minor-Fmajoris undeniable, butherethedominant of theD minorkeyhas
a highersyntacticvaluethanitstonic.It helpstoremember thattheelementsof
linearstructurein musicarepitches,not keys.To saythatthe noteA (or D)
movesto F is a usefulmetaphor; to saythatthekeyof D (orA)movesto thekey
of F is not. A key is a networkof relationshipsthatstretchesthroughall of
musical'space'andthatcanhardlybe saidto 'move'.
Ex.8 Beethoven:
SonataforPianoandViolin,Op.24,I, development

(i) $6, (i) i)

1- G +<X
(= d: I V)

: >g #wt0m:7"t t:=>:

I V A f: (111") 1

Form exp. dev. recapk

298 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

Monotonality;
KeySuccession
asLarge-Scale
ChordProgression
TheBeethoven andHaydnillustrations, wherethegoverning linearandchordal
pitchstructure differsfromthesuccession of keys,callintoquestiona frequent
analyticassumption-thatkeysuccessions aresimplychordprogressions writ
large.This is by no meansa recentnotion:in the earlieststagesof modern
harmonic analysis,theoristsattempted to relatesecondary keys- atleastthose
mostfrequentlyemployed- to thewholepieceratherthanregarding themas
separateand self-contained entities. SchenkerpraisesC. P. E. Bach for
conceivingof 'keys'as prolongedStufen,drawingthisinferencefromBach's
referringto thegoalsof modulation asscaledegreesin themainkey('fifthwith
majorthird,sixthwithminorthird'andsoon).12 ButBachwasbynomeansthe
only eighteenth-century theoristto definein this way the relationbetween
prlmaryand secondarykeys. Both Rameaul3and Kirnbergerdo so; and
Kirnberger'4 evenuses Romannumeralsto indicatethe scaledegreesin the
mainkeyonwhichthenew'tonics'fall.
Themostbeautifulformulation of thisideathatI knowstemsfromBrahms,
thoughtheprecisewordingcomesfromhispupil,GustavJenner.Indiscussing
hislessonsin songcomposition, Jennerwrites:
The positionand formof the cadencesis closelyboundup with the pathof
modulation.HereBrahmsdemandedthe utmostrestraintandconsistency.
In the dispositionof evena verylongsongwithextendedandself-contained
episodes,the mainpoint was to expressfully the primarykey and to reveal
its controloversecondarykeys throughclearrelationships.In thisway,so to
speak,thesumof all thekeysemployed in a pieceappearedlikean imageof the
primarykeyin a stateof activity.15 [myemphasis]

For me, at least,Jenner'ssimileconveysmoretruththanmuchtechnical

descripiionalongsimilarlines,largelybecauseit suggestsa difference between
theintensityof aprimary keyactivated bymodulationandthelesserintensityof
a key not so activated.Compare,for example,this citationfromthe Fifth
Editionof Grove'sDictionary:'Thesamerulesapplyto keyprogressions which
applyto anyharmonic progression.... Thoseprogressions toorfromthetonic
whicharein themselves completeandsatisfactorywithinthekeyfindanequally
satisfactory
counterpart in thewidersphereof modulation . . .,.16 Theideais
plausiblebecauseit is well expressedandpartlytrue. But only partly.The
article'smainexampleof modulation in Baroquemusicis a chartof the key
schemeof the Allemandefromthe FourthFrenchSuite.The analysisshows
(correctly,
I think)thatthemainmodulations arefromEbto Bbto C minorto
Eb.Butis VI-Ia 'completeandsatisfactory' returnto a tonicwithinthe key?
Hardly.Noris thepictureanybetterwhenwe consultthemanytransientand
hinted-atkeysshowninthechart,fortakingthemintoaccountyieldsareturnto
IfromII.l7
Theproblemwiththispartlyvalidapproach
is itsfailuretogivedueweightto

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 299

 CARL SCHACHTER

linear,contrapuntal structure. ThetonicizedCminorin theBachAllemande is

indeedpartof thereturnto I: as Ex.9 shows,it moveswithinV fromBbto D,
andthe D goeson to the tonicEb. The returnto I, then,is not fromVI (C
minor),butfroma prolongedV thatencompasses the tonicizationof VI. The
areagovernedbyV changesitskeyfocusseveraltimes:firstfromBbmajortoC
minor,then throughseveraltonicizedchords(Ab majorand F minor)that
belongbothtoCminorandto Ebmajor,andbeforethefinalcadence,toEb;the
core of these occurrences is a risinglinearprogressionBb (tonicized)- C
(tonicized)-D- Eb.
Becausethekeyareasof theAllemande functionwithina contrapuntal webof
great(buttypically Bachian) complexity, we cannot begin to understand them
without coming to terms with thevoice-leading structure of thepiece.In Ex. 9,
I havetried to illuminate theparts of thisstructure relevant to the subjectof this
essay;I suggestthatthe graphsbe readat firstin the orderpresented,from
background to foreground. Muchof the difficultyposedby the pieceresults
fromthemanytransfers in registerandfrompartto part(e.g. bassto soprano).
Onestructure disguisedby suchtransfers is therisingfourth-progression from
Bbto Eb. Startingwithlevel(b), theexampleshowsthatthislarge-scale linear
progression formsan enlargement of a motivicelementfundamental to the
Allemandeandindeedthe entireSuite.The list of keys(elevenin ten barsof
music!)comes from the Grove article,whose authorhas underlinedthe
important,structuralkeysandhas placedthe transientonesin parentheses.
Note the curiousplacewherea structural returnto Eb is read;as in Tovey's
accountof the E minorPrelude,this comesfromanalysingby key without
considering voiceleadingandchordprolongation.
Schenker's earlywritingsaboutmodulation alsosometimesoverlooklinear
factors,buthe doesnotmakethemistakeof equatingallkeysuccessions with
chord progressions.In his Harmonielehre,he distinguishesamongthree
categoriesof chromaticelaboration: tonicization,wherethereis no senseof
departure fromthetonickey;illusorykeys(Scheintonarten), wherethediatony,
ordiatonicframework (Diatonie),recedesintothebackground butstillexertsa
controlling influence;andtruemodulations, whichdonotreturnto theirpoint
of origin,andwhichremainindependent of anyoverarching diatony.18
Schenker's illusorykeysbehavemoreor lessas the Grovearticleindicates:
theycanberegarded asexpansions (andsometlmes aschromatic equivalents) of
diatonicscalesteps.He citestheC majorpassage in the exposition of the first
movementof Beethoven'sPianoSonata,Op.7 (bs 81-9)and shows- very
convincingly,I think- thatthe V-I of C majorrepresentsan expandedand
chromatically elaborated VI-IIprogression in the locallygoverningkeyof Bb
maor.
Schenker's mainexampleof realmodulation is thedevelopment sectionofthe
samemovement,aboutwhichhe says, 'the keys are real keys, and their
sequenceis:Cminor,Abmajor,F minor,Gminor,Aminor,D minor.Itwould
be illicitto do violenceto thissituationby explainingallthesekeysor partof
themasconsequences of theBbmajordiatonywhichconcludedthefirstpartof

300 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 '),Lwr f TT

ANALYSIS BY KEY

Ex. 9 Bach:FrenchSuiteNo.4, Allemande

b) - cf. (g Ath

(rchy ovcr) (rchy over)

th

S W r-1,¢
1< 1 VI
S S S C

V
I[

-
-

e) 1< jA H'L J i b ;-2 L-,L J

4,htt it rC F ec f>:
(c:l IV
* BS(E) -

(f)

e) (5)

c Ab
^Keys fre m Grt)We,ith Edn, Ve l.S, p.8l()

MUSICANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

301
 CARL SCHACHTER

the movement.'20 Six realkeysin a not verylongdevelopment section!And

Schenkerwasthe one whowasto complainaboutthe 'absurdabundance of
keys'in conventional analysis.But the keys arereallythere,at leaston the
surface,andit required a fundamental changein thewaywethinkaboutmusic
- a changethatSchenkerhimselfwasto bringabout- beforemusicianscould
convincingly relatethekeychangesinsuchpassages toalargertonalcontext.21
WhatSchenkerwaseventuallyto discoverwasthatkey successionsmight
verywell resultfromlinearactivitywithina harmony(or a progression of
harmonies), andthata governingdiatonicstructure,ultimatelyderivedfrom
thetonictriad,couldunifyevensuchheterogeneous elements.Example10is a
middleground sketchof thisdevelopment section.Ratheramazingly, its tonal
corehasa gooddealin commonwiththatof theBachAllemande shownin the
previousexample(compare Ex. 9aandb withEx. lOa).In neitherpieceis that
coreaccessibleto casuallistening.In the Bach,it is embeddedin a complex
tissueof voiceleading;in theBeethoven, it is obscured in simplerfashionbythe
unexpected anddramatic contrastsof key.
EvidentlySchenker didnotrealizethatthefirstfourof his'keys'- C minor,
Abmajor,F minorandGminor- makea group.Indeedallofthemarediatonic
elementsof Cminor,andthoughtheydonotforma clearprogression in thekey
of C minor,theydo leadintoa chord- theaugmented sixthof b.162- thatis
derivedby chromaticized voice-exchange fromtheC minortriad(Ex. lOband
c). (Theappearance of G minorratherthanmajorin b.159tendsto weakenthe
impression of C minorasa key,especiallysincetheG minoritselfbecomesthe
upperthirdof theaugmented sixth.Ofcoursea differentcontinuation to theG
minorareamighthaveeffecteda reevaluation of theentirepassageandaffirmed
in retrospect theinferenceof a C minordiatony.)
WiththeD chordof b.163,wehavearrived(abitprematurely) justonestep
awayfromour goal, EW.Nothingwouldbe easierthanto transformthe D
harmony intoa dominant5of EW,moreorlessasactuallyhappensat theendof
thedevelopment. Butthemusic,asthoughunabletoseethepathdirectlybefore
it, stumblesandgets lost. Insteadof reachingEW,the bassrisesthroughits
enharmonic equivalent,D#, to E. (Themovement hasdisplayeda kindof fatal
weaknessforE - witnesstheC majorepisodein theexposition,aswellasother
passages.)TheA minorthatensuesis seeminglyat thefurthestremovetonally
fromthehomekeyof EW,butit represents in facta stepin the journeyback.
Inflectedto becomea dominant chord,it leadsto D minor,andthistimetheD
is transformed intoa leadingnoteandtakesushome.Thusthe'keys'thatbegin
andendthedevelopment - CminorandD minor- crystallize aroundnotesof a
linearprogression leadingupfromV toI. Theother'keys'serveeithertoextend
theCminorchord(notkey)atthebeginningof thedevelopment orto leadinto
theD minorat theend,savingthesituationaftera 'falsemove'hadseemingly
lost the threadof tonal continuity.This interpretation conformsto the
disposition of thedevelopment in twophases,bs 137-68,withCasthemainbass
note,and169-88,centringon D. (Thesenseof startingagainin b.169speaks
againstinferringa connection fromtheD majorchordof b.165to theD minor

302 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYS1S BY KEY

Ex. 10 Beethoven:PianoSonata,Op.7, I, development

(f) $)$) (i) (i) (i)

.. ,, 3

( - lSb: V I)

V * Keys: v

D - ES
a d I
* fromSchenker,Hannumy
(Englishversion),pp.299-300

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 303

 CARI SCHACHTER

of bs 181ff.)
Unquestionably thetonaldaringofthisdevelopment, whichventuresonkeys
it from
so remotefromthe maintonic,is oneof the factorsthatdifferentiates
otherpiecesthatcontainsimilarvoice-leading - theBachAllemande,
structures
forexample.Schenker's graphingtechniquedoesnotemphasize visuallysuch
differences,and to a casual reader,graphs of the Allemandeand of the
development might look pretty much the same. But anyone reading the
Beethovengraphcorrectly- withearsas wellaseyes- willhesrthedifference
thattheexcursion toA minormakes.Andofcoursetheanalystcouldeasilyrefer
to thekeyplanin a textaccompanying thegraph,or labelsomeof thekeysin
graphsof thelaterlevels,asSchenker sometimes
oftendoes.Criticsof Schenker
wonderat his seemingunconcernfor suchstrikingfeaturesof the musiche
analyses.Trueenough,he oftendoesnot callattentionto them,buttheyare
usuallyfeaturesthatarerighton the surfaceandmucheasierto hearthanthe
middleground structuresthatweldthemintoa unity.

KeyRelstionships
In a verygeneralway the evolutionof musicalstyle in the eighteenthand
nineteenth centuriesincludesasanobviousfeaturea greaterandgreateruseof
large-scale(modulatory) chromaticism, muchas far earliercenturiessaw a
growthintheuseof localchromaticism, froma simplechoicebetweenBSandB
to the extravagances of Gesualdo.Musicianstend to characterizethe
modulatorystyle of a piece or periodby meansof a spatialmetaphor:
modulations are'close'or'distant'. Fewof uswoulddeny,I think,thattheBach
Allemande modulates onlytocloselyrelatedkeys,whereasthemodulatory path
of theBeethovendevelopment encompasses farmoreremoterelationships; the
pieces are not stylisticallyatypicalin this regard.The 'distance'between
successivekeysalsoinfluencesourtimesense,fora keycreatesa feelingof a
moreor less extended'now'- a 'speciouspresent',to use thatunattractive
expression - andkeyrelationships havea lot to do withthewaysthese'nows'
flowoneintotheotherorisolatethemselves.
TheoristsfromKirnbergerto Schoenberghave attemptedto establisha
taxonomyof key relationships without,as far as I can see, agreeingamong
themselves orwiththepracticeof thegreatcomposers. Wecandecide,perhaps,
on a few generalprinciples:a scarcityof commonharmonicand melodic
elementsplacestwo keys into a remoterelation(unlessmitigatedby mode
mixture),the immediatesuccessionof two tonicssoundsdisconnected when
thesetonicsarea majorsecondapart,andso on. Butto combinesuchcriteria
into an elaboratesystemis pointless.Tryingto understand froman abstract
schemahowthemodulations workin a pieceis ratherliketryingto understand
thepowerstructure of a largecorporationfromtheofficialchartsof whoreports
to whom,withouttakinginto accountthe possibilitythat the president's
secretary (whodoublesas his mistress)mightbe a morepowerfulpersonthan

304 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

anyof thevice-presidents.
I canthinkof twopiecesin Cminorthatcontainprominent tonicizationsof E
minor:theyarethe firstmovementof Beethoven'sOp.13,andthe C minor
chorus('Denn es wird die Posauneschallen')fromNo. 6 of the German
Requiem. In theBeethoven,the E minorat the beginningof thedevelopment
(b.137)represents a chromatic passingnotefroma firmlyestablishedESmajor
(III)to anF minorchordthatmovesthroughFt to thedominant,G. Innoway
is this'key'thedirectoutgrowth of themovement's C minortonic,althoughit
doesconnecttwoelements(ESandF) thatareprojectedfroma governingC
minordiatony.TheBrahms,on theotherhand,usestheE minor(b.88)asan
expandedIII borrowedfromthe tonic major.It occurswithina I-III-V-I
progression andis farmorestartling thantheEminoroftheBeethoven precisely
becauseof its abruptconfrontation withtheprevailing C minorenvironment,
becauseit occursatthebeginningof thechorus,andbecauseit usurpstheplace
of animportant diatonicharmony(III).Asidefromtheobviousfactthatboth
passages areE minorepisodeswithinCminorpieces,I seenoreasontoadoptan
approach(like Schoenberg's Theoryof Regions)thatwouldregardthemas
equivalent. Thattheoryis interesting andis superior
to muchpreviousthought
aboutmodulation.But it breaksdown, in my opinion,becauseit triesto
systematize themostdiversetonalmaterials andprocedures accordingtoa rigid
schemaof purelyharmonicfunctions,andbecauseit failsto takeintoaccount
the contrapuntal structuresthatcreatethe diversity;howmuchdo we really
learnabouttheseEminorepisodesfromassigning thembothtoClass4 (Indirect
andRemote)of theRegions? 22

'Illusory
Keysof theForeground'
WhenSchenkerwritesaboutmodulation in FreeComposition, he usesa stock
phrase,'illusorykeysof the foreground' (Scheintonarten
desVordergrundes). In
somewaysthetermis anunfortunate one,buttracingitsimplications canyield
valuableinsightsinto Schenker'sthinkingandcanperhapsleadto a clearer
conceptionof modulationin general.Firstof all, 'Tonart'in Germanoften
meanslocalkey as distinctfrom'Tonalitat',a globalconceptin whichtonal
events,includinglocalkeys,relatetothecentreofawholepieceorlargesection.
Englishusagealso distinguishes'key' from 'tonality',but perhapsnot as
consistently.
Aswehaveseen,Schenker wasusingtheterm'Scheintonart' asfar
back as his Hsomonielehre, wherehe definedit as an expandedharmony
subordinateto a framingdiatonicstructure,but intensifiedthroughits
transformation into a seeming'key'.This transformation is effectedthrough
chromaticism, ratherasin Schoenberg's Theoryof Regions.At thetimeof the
Harmonielehre,Schenker's conception of 'diatony',thoughverybroad,didnot
necessarilyencompasswholepieces:in the first movementof Beethoven's
Op.7, for instance,the ES diatonyof the beginningwouldgivewayto a BS
diatonylaterin the exposition;the development,lackingany overarching

MUSIC ANALYS IS 6:3, 1987 305

 CAR I SCHACHTER

diatonicframework,wouldcontainrealmodulationsto self-containedkeys.
Schenker'slaterwritingsoftenretainhis earlierterminology,whosemeaning
shifts with the evolutionof his thought;makinglife easierfor his readersby
explaining these shifts is not his way. Thus his final formulationin Free
Composition includesthe notions of diatony, tonalityand illusorykey. Now,
however,the termsdiatonyand tonalityapplyto wholepieces. The conjunctly
orderedpitches of the majorand minor scales, functioningin relationto the
tonic centre(ratherthanas a mere 'collection'as in some otherconceptionsof
diatonicism), form the materials of diatony; this notion is most clearly
exemplifiedin the pitch contentsof the FundamentalLine, with its motion
directedto the tonic note as goal. It is essentiallythe practiceof counterpoint,
based on a clear distinction between consonance(octave, fifth, third) and
passingdissonancethatorganizesthe line arounda centreratherthanleavingit
a meresuccessionof pitches.23This diatonicstructure,no longerconceivedas
localized,abidesimplicitlythroughoutthe piece, even wherethe musicis most
chromaticor movesinto the most distantkeys, ratherlike the pantheists'God,
who indwellsin everyaspectand phaseof Nature.24
The term 'tonality' is applied to the enriched tonal contents of the
foreground,unified,like the simpleelementsof diatony,throughtheirrelation
to the tonic; these contents may include both local chromaticismand
modulationto illusorykeys.25If diatonypermeatesthe whole piece, then the
'realmodulations'thatSchenkerdiscussesin theHarmonielehre - changesof key
thatcannotbe subsumedundera controllingdiatonicstructure- mustbe non-
existent. All of the keys of the piece, therefore, turn out to be like the
Scheintonarten, or illusorykeys, of the earliertheory;andpreservingthe terms
showshow muchof Schenker'slatertheorywasalreadyimplicitin his earlier.
But if all keys (otherthan the unfoldedtonic of the underlyingdiatony)are
illusory,why botherwith the adjectiveat all? It seems less useful than in the
Harmonielehre, whereonly someof the keys in a pieceareconceivedas illusory.
In addition to preservinghis own earlier terminology,Schenkerprobably
wantedto emphasizethe monotonalityof his latertheory,whichholdsthatin a
deepsenseeachpiececan haveonly one 'real'tonic. The notionthata piececan
be a unifiedstructurein onemainkeyandat the sametimetraverseseveralother
secondarykeys is very hardto expressin terminologythat does not seem self-
contradictory.Schoenberghas a point when he criticizes Schenker'sterm
'tonicization';after all, he says, each key (Tonart)has only one tonic. Yet
Schoenbergdoes moreor less the samethingwhen he uses Romannumeralsto
analysemusicin non-tonicregions.What does 'I' in the SubdominantRegion
mean,if not a localtonic?26
Schenker's referring to 'illusory keys' gives him a way out of this
terminologicaldifficulty, but it is perhapsthe quick and safe ratherthan the
scenic route. By lumpingall 'keys' togetherinto a single category,Schenker
necessarilytreatsthe subjectof modulationin a farless differentiatedwaythan
in the Harmonielehre, which distinguishesbetweentonicizations,illusorykeys
and real modulations.Furthermore,by locatingall 'keys' at the foreground

306 MUSIC ANALYSlS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

('illusorykeysof the foreground', keysas 'higherunitiesin the foreground',

etc.), Schenker minimizes possibly valid distinctionsbetweenlarge-scale,
structural modulations andsmaller,localones.
Surelythedominant keyin thesecondhalfof a sonataexposition,saytheBS
majorin Beethoven'sOp.7, has a differentstructuralmeaningfrom the
transient'keys'of thedevelopment; andthatdifference is obscuredratherthan
illuminated by callingthemall'illusorykeysof theforeground'. TheBSmajor
of the expositionis the matrixwithinwhich a highlyramifiedstructure
develops:a subordinate diatonyin theformof anupper-voice fifth-progression
descending from2 (supported bya fullharmonic cadence),andevenanillusory
keydependent upona framingBSmajor- theC majorpassagediscussedin the
Harmonielehre. Despitesomeobviousshortcomings, Schenker's earliertheory
gavea clearerpictureof thisaspectof harmonic structure thanFreeComposition
does.I do notseeon whatbasisthelaterSchenker locatesstructural keys(like
the dominantareain a sonataexposition)in the foreground, whenhe assigns
thefifthprogression from2 to theveryfirstlevelof middleground andacknow-
ledgesthatthisupperline,togetherwithitscadential bass,formsanUrsatz-like
structure transferred to a laterlevel.27
Whenis a 'key'a key?Thisquestionhasno definiteanswer,andthewildly
varyingapproaches of differentanalyststo the samepieceindicatejusthow
slipperytheconceptof keyis. Ina notuninteresting articleabouttheAndante
con moto from Beethoven's. G majorConcerto,Klaus Kornerreads a
modulation to A minorin thefirstsolopassage,andhe derivesconsequences
fromthat'modulation' (bs7-8),whichconsistsof oneapplied5chordandoneA
minortriad.28 Writingaboutthe samemovementwithgreaterinsightintoits
harmonic structure, CharlesRosenstatesthatit hardlyevergetsawayfromthe
tonicandthat,exceptforonebriefmodulation to D major,it is conceivedasan
expandedE minorchord.29
UsingSchenker'stheoryof levels(butnot his consigningall 'keys'to the
foreground), onecanat leastbeginto seethedistancefromthebackground at
whichthe impression of a new, temporary diatony begins to emerge. Surely
those'keys'thatprAolong extensively a noteof the Fundamental Line(likethe
composing-out of 2 overV in a sonataexposition),thosethatcomposeout a
structural neighbournote(frequentin ABAandrondoforms)andthosethat
emergeduringa stretchoftheUrlinie(notably5-4-3overIIIinminor)represent
important shapingelements;indeedwhenthecomposing-out processleadsto
an Ursatz-like progression in the subordinate 'key',the modulation canhelp
bringabouta relatively self-contained formalsection.Inallsuchcases,I think,
oneis perfectlyjustifiedin speakingof structural modulations andin viewing
the keysenseas arisingat a levelconsiderably priorto theforeground. In my
viewSchenker weakenshistreatment offormbyhisunwillingness toregardany
keychangeas morethananepiphenomenon.
Betweentheselargestructural keychangesandthefleetingtonicizations that
someauthorscallmodulations, thereis a vastrangeof possibilities. Thatrange
doesnotlenditselfto exactdemarcations, so thatit is impossibleto prove,for

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 307

 CCARI SCHACHTER

example,that the first solo in the second movementof the BeethovenFourth

Concertodoes notcontaina modulationto A minor. Still, one can feel (and I
certainlydo) thatreadingnew keysat suchplacesis destructiveof goodanalysis
in that it isolatesdetailsandblurssignificantdifferences.Schenkeris certainly
right in criticizing analyses that contain an 'absurd abundanceof keys',
impossiblethough it is to determinejust where an abundancebegins to be
absurd.
Betweenbrief tonicizationsand large-scale,generouslyramified'keys', one
might distinguisha few importantcategories.There are 'keys', for example,
withfull harmoniccadences,but withoutmelodicclosure.Thereareothersthat
havean initial'tonic'but thatend witha dividingdominantharmony.Thereare
still others that lead throughwhat Schenkercalls an 'auxiliarycadence'to a
closingtonic;often theselackan openingtonic.
Amongthe mostcuriouscasesarethose'keys'whosetonicsneverarrive,asin
the Schubertexcerpt of Ex. 6; these, if any, are 'illusorykeys of the fore-
ground'.Sometimes,however,such'keys'canplayquitea significantrolein the
designof a piece. In the first movementof Mendelssohn'sStringQuartetin E
minor(Op. 44, No. 2), the secondpartof the expositionis in a Gmajor(III)that
follows 14 bars(!) of what seems to be a prolongedV of B minor, so that the
initialimpressionis V-VI in thatkey. Relateddeceptivecadencesoccurat two
significantjunctureslateron in the movement,beforethe recapitulationandin
the coda;these, however,arefollowedeventuallyby the appearanceof the tonic
initially expected (both times the main E minor tonic of the movement),
producinga veryspecialsenseof large-scaleresolution.30

A SampleAnalysis
Cherubino'sArietta'Voiche sapete',fromAct 2 of Le nozzedi Figaro,provides
an appropriatefinal examplefor this study. The second section of its ABA
designcontrastsvery little in rhythmand texturewith the simplefirst seciion
and its modified da capo; the representationin the orchestraof Susanna's
accompanyingguitarrequiresa certainuniformity.Tonally, however,the two
seciions could hardly differ more, for the second, after a straightforward
beginningin the dominantkey, movessuddenlyinto areaswhoseconnectionto
eachotherand to the BWdiatonyof the wholeis difficultto understand.
The problemcentreson bs 37-52, which containa fully tonicizedAWmajor
(37-44) includinga ca(lentialbass and melodicclosureon AW. Followingthe
phrasein AWis a modulatorypartthatculminatesin a G minorcadence(b.52);
the relationof this G minorto whatprecedesandfollowsit is farfromobvious.
The problematicnatureof this passagedid not escapethe noticeof Schoenberg,
who discussesthe ariabrieflyin ChapterIX of Structural
Functions.Schoenberg
readsthe AWas WMD (dominantof the flat mediant)andpointsto Beethoven's
use of the same regionin the openingthemesof his Piano Sonatas,Opp. 31,
No. 1 and 53. Becausethe regionis so uncharacteristic
of Mozart,and because

308
MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987
 S r ! ffi

ANALYSIS BY KEY

the returnto the tonic is so long and roundabout,Schoenbergventuresthe

astonishinghypothesisthat the ariais a subtle Musicalffoke:Cherubino,the
authorof the poem,is alsothe composer,andwiththisextravagantmodulation,
Mozart is hinting at his professionalincompetence.The region to which
Schoenbergassignsthe AWmajor- the flat mediant'sdominant- is also, he
explains, the subdominantof the subdominant.3lSiegmund Levarie, who
also analyses'Voi che sapete', oVtsfor the latterfunctionin a readingbased
on the systemof Hugo Riemann.2
In my view the Ab majoris neitherV of bIII nor IV of IV. In any case, the
functionof a key areacan only be understoodin relationto contextandnot on
the basisof someabstractschema.As a steptowardunderstandingthis passage,
let us look at its broadesttonal context, which is blessedlyclear. Example11
shows the first middlegroundlevel; the analysisderivesthe aria'sthree-part
form from interruption,with the B section a prolongationof the dividingV.
Schenker'swell-knownanalysisof the second song fromDichterliebe shows a
similarrelationbetweeninterruptedstructureandABAform, only in 'Voi che
sapete'the V of the B sectiontakeson a seventhto preparethe tonicharmonyof
the reprise.
Ex. 11 Mozart:Le Nozzedi Figaro,Act II, 'Voi che sapete'

.R i II -R r i

r Li 0 ; -- -'|- iX-4 X,-

Fornl:AI B A.

p r\o,sr-a11 Is+°wf
l '- X X th V i

It is in the B sectionthatMozartsets mostof the poem- twelveof its fourteen

lines. He composes them as three groups of four lines each, and he
individualizeseach of the groups through a specific feature of its musical
setting.The firstgroup(bs 21-36)establishesthe dominantkey quite securely,
but avoids closure in that each of its eight-bar phrases cadences on the
dominant, C. The second group (bs 37-52) embarks upon a modulatory
adventure;its two eight-bargroupsend with perfectcadences,the first in AW
andthe secondin G minor.In betweenis anotherfull V-Iprogression,thistime
in C minor(bs 48-9),butits cadentialeffectis weakenedby rhythm:theC minor
goalfallsat the beginningof a four-barunit and becomesa subdominantin the
approachingcadencein G minor.The intensethirdgroup(bs 53-61),gradually

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 309

 CARL SCHACHTER

rising to a climax and quickly falling away, is the

innocent sexuality of the poem is given ratherexplicit shortest;the ostensibly
(Cherubinosurelyknew rathermorethanhe waslettingon). musical expression
lines of text (allof whichhaveheretoforeoccupied In this group,the
four bars) are set in a kindof
stretto and f1lltwo, two, two and three bars. From
structure, the first group stabilizes the dominantkey the perspective of tonal
modulatoryand developmental,and the thirdis a area, the second is
tonickey long beforethe reprisebringsbacka retransition that evokes the
structuraltonicharmony.
Examples12, 13and 14attemptto showhowthissequence
thearia'slargertonalstructure;eachdealswith a of eventsrelatesto
tonal plan. Example 15 will combine these views single phase of the B section's
into a comprehensive
middlegroundsketchof the section.As Ex. 12 indicates,the
majoris not quiteunprepared,forit followsthe brief appearanceof AW
coloursthe cadenceof bs 35-6 (andpaintsthe words'ch mixture with F minorthat
view,the successionof 'tonics'F major/minor(bs 'ora e martir'). In my
andC minor (b.49) arpeggiatesthe F triadin its 21-36), AW major (bs 37-44)
minor
Schoenberghad things exactlybackwardswhen he calledform; if I am right,
theflatmediant.Whereis the DWmajorto whichthis Ab the dominantof
befar preferableto call AWthe flat mediantof the AWrelatesasa V?It would
doesin fact crystallizearoundthe loweredthirdof adominant,for the key area
however, brokenF chord.The AW,
is not a scalestepin the keyof F, forthe impression
todisappearat b.36.34It is the chordof F minor, of F as tonicbegins
thebasis for this strain, ratherlike a sonata and not the key, thatprovides
development
harmony continuesto direct the musicalmotion after the where dominant
f1nishedfor good. To thinkof the Ab majoras IV of IV dominantkey has
alsoseems wrongto me: Eb as a tonic occurs (Levarie's explanation)
nowherein the Arietta.(In my
experience, IV of IV, though common enough as a chord, is
encountered as a key exceptin veryfleetingtonicizations.) seldom to be

Ex.12 Mozart:Le Nozzedi Figaro,Act II, 'Voi che

sapete',bs 35-49

F-b t5ectmes

x, Ci;te _:ryS
(=v,

310
MUSICANA LYSIS 6: 3, 1987
 b > S_f S 5-h S

ANALYSIS BY KEY

Example13showshowtheprolongedF chordof Ex. 12is continued.If we

thinkof the largebassmotionF - (AW ) - C as an unfoldedfifth, the D that
followstheC wouldrepresent a sixth.That D, in turn,leadsto theG minorby
themotionof a descending fifth. To sum up, the basslinethatspansthef1rst
two of this section'sthree inner groupings constitutesthe unfoldingor
of the
horizontalization contrapuntal progression 5-6-5(F-C,F-D, G-D).
Ex. 13Mozart:Le Nozzedi Figaro,ActII, 'Voichesapete',bs 35-52

(g)(R @ ? '

Ap4Hl ' ,-?

r s 1l - 1 ;j; c omC >Xj ; becOmes n
l-'9P:rEf's6b:-')> r C rtv f>>t
13i3SS
[llltOl(lillZ P ( [) (,

Afterthe G minorcadence,the vocalline movesto its clax on eS2,

by a doublingat thehigheroctavein theflute(bs58-9).Thereis an
intensified
apparent discrepancy betweenthemelodyandtheharmony here.Themelody
notehasa highersyntacticvaluethanthebriefC minorchordthatsupportsit;
eS2 prepares theseventhovertheprolonged V shownin Ex. 11,whereastheC
minorhasno suchlarge-scale function.Thissyntacticvalueis reflectedin the
sonicemphasisMozartaccordstheeW 2 astheeventthatcapsanextended phase
of increasinfintensity.Functioningwithina largercontext (from b.52), the
climacticeS relatesobliquelyto thelasthigh-level bassnote,the G of b.52; the
reappearance of Gin b.58helpstoclarifythisconnection. Sincethevocal line in
thesebarsunfoldsa fourthbSl eS2, the passage as a wholeprojectsan ES sixth
chord(Ginbass,BbandESin soprano). Understood thisway,bs 52-8continue
the earlier5-6-5 alternation with another sixth, G-EW, an intervalof the
middleground not present
literally on thesurface but plied bycontext
clearly
(Ex.14).Inb.60,theGtransfers fromthebassintoanupperpart(oboedoubled
bytheviolins),whereit continuesuptoA andthenonto BSin thereprise.The
linearstructurethatgovernsthe planof modulationis thusa risingfourth-
progression relatedtothosefoundintheBachAllemande andBeethoven Sonata
discussedearlier(Exs9 and10).In additionto theobviousdifferences in key
succession,theMozartalsodiffersin thatthebassaddstherootof V belowthe
risinglinearprogression toallowa strongharmonic intothereprise.
resolution
Example15presentsthreemiddleground viewsof theB section.Fromit we
cansee howa repeateddetail- the use of the enharmonic note-pairC,tt/DS

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 311

 CARL SCHACHTER

formsa commonelementthat persiststhroughthe manychangesin tonal

Ex. 14Mozart:LeNozzediFigaro,ActII, 'Voichesapete',bs 52-62

Sce S i S @ @ S @ S

A+S -#-SD,"
#:motion from '.;!r.
hecomes inner voice / J

/ lower 6ths / / b > ^ n h >Xgf-

' ' h r r
a foreground
orientationS, graph(or a glanceat the score)wouldshowmore
instances.3Oneinsufficiently acknowledged aspectof modulation is thewaya
composition'stonal plan might allow for the untransposed repetitionof
characteristicpitchconfigurations (like the C,"-Dand DS-Chere)through
changesof key.36Fromlevel(c)wecanalsobeginto viewtherelationbetween
tonal structureand text setting.The ratherSchubertian move to AW,for
example,with its suddenjumpdown a third and unexpectedchromatic
inflection,occursjustasCherubino describeshowhefeelsnowcold,a moment
laterhot, and then cold again.Quotingthe A section'scadentialtag in the
remotekeyof ASgivesa falseairof stabilityto thisprecarious harmonic region
andseemsto fix Cherubino in his predicament. Andthe long preparation for
C minor,whicharrivesonly to lose itselfin the coming G minor cadence,
paintshisseekinganunknowngood,farfromwherehe is.37
Moreremarkable thananyof thesebeautifuldetailsis the relationbetween
the Ariettaas a wholeand the dramaticsituation.Levarie,who has many
valuablethingsto sayaboutthe text setting,suggeststhatthe poemwithits
fourteenlineshintsat thatcourtliestpoeticgenre,the sonnet;of coursehe is
quickto addthatneitherda Ponte'srhymeschemenorMozart'sABAdesign
reallysupportsthisinference.38 I amnotconvincedthatthefourteenlinesadd
upto a sonnetin anysignificant way,butthecontextof Levarie's idea- thatthe
ariaexpressesa tensionbetweenan 'abandonment to free fancy'and the
'decorum' of thesocialsetting- seemsright.Thearia'sconfiguration asawhole
- a wildlymodulatory middlesectioncontainedwithintheframeof tworather
placidsectionsin the tonic- is emblematicof its singer,whoseadolescent
turbulencemakeshim a compulsiveflirtandgets him into one scrapeafter
another,butnevercauseshimto losehissuavityandcharm.Thesong,likethe
singer,reflectstheelegantbutdisordered societythatformstheopera'smilieu;
likea tinywindowstrategically placed,thislittleariaopensouton someof the
mostimportant dramaticissuesof theopera.

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

312
 ANALYSIS BY KEY

Ex. 15 Mozart:Le Nozzedt Ftgaro,Act II, 'Voiche sapete',middleground

graph
11 .R

L
' h ' h

m:
>

i)$
Ath prog.

V' 7 X

v ll

-! ;tishe i'>=-
w; v 4uD-

foreground
\b 'keys'

g, -- BS v

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 313

 CARL SCHACHTER

Myderivation of thearia'scomplextonalityfromanunderlying BWdiatony

illustratesthe differencebetweenSchenker's approachandothermonotonal
theories,notablySchoenberg's. Schenker's notionof Auskomponierung allows
himto findmeaningful largercontextsforchords(includingtonicizedchords)
thatarenotunderthecontrolof animmediately perceptiblelocaltonic.Hecan
do thisbecausehe recognizes counterpoint asa shapingforcein composition, a
forcethatcangiveriseto successions of chordsand,indeed,to 'keys'.Giving
counterpoint its duealsoallowsSchenker to recognizethevastlydifferentroles
that the same'region'can playin differentcontexts:e.g., bVIIin whatis
essentiallya tonicprolongation at thebeginningof Beethoven's Op.53andthe
ASmajoraspartof anunfoldedV in 'Voichesapete'.
I hopethatI haveshownconvincingly thatMozart'sreturnto Bb is notthe
intentionally (thoughsubtly)botchedprocessthatSchoenberg seemsto have
thoughtit was.Thatreturnis notreallyfromAW, as Schoenberg suggests;the
Ab is partof a largerF harmony(V) whichshedsits tonicstabilitywithout
ceasingto directthe progression of chordsand'keys'.Theprolongation of V
goesthroughthreephases:tonicizingF (bs21-36),unfoldingit in minorform
(whencetheAb)beforeleadingit to G (bs 37-52),andbringingtheG up to A
counterpointed belowby the returnto an F that is now unequivocally a
dominant(bs53-61).
Schenker'sapproachcan lead to an understanding of how the seemingly
unrelated 'keys'of thearia'sB sectionformanintegrated whole;in thisregardit
is muchmoresuccessful,I think,eventhanSchoenberg's TheoryofRegions,to
saynothingof analyticmethodsthatsimplyproducea stringof keys.At the
sametimeonemustremember thattheintegrative powersof thearpeggiated F
chordandof thelinearprogression F - G- A - BS assertthemselves againsta
strongcentrifugal counterforce thatsetsup quasi-independent keycentresat
laterlevels. To concentrateon background continuityto the exclusionof
foreground disruptions is to producea skewedpictureof a pieceor passage.
Example16 showsa possiblemiddleground structureverysimilarto the B
sectionof 'Voi che sapete'but with almostnone of its richlychromatic
elaboration. Despitetheunderlying similarity, howdifferentit is!
Ex. 16

! ffiWS_
9W1 r r >>
S h -- 5 - 6 6
(unfolded) °s

V 7

314 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

A reasonablycomprehensive and faithfulan-alysis,then, will balance

moment-by-moment and globalperspeciivesby showingthe connections
among foregroundtonicizations,large modulationsbelonging to the
middleground andinclusivebackground structure.Thisprocedure willbeinno
waycontradictory approach,
to thespiritof Schenker's even though it maygive
moreattentiontothefluctuations oftheforeground than hedid, especiallyinhis
laterwritings.Goodanalystsshouldbeablewith littledifficultyto to
assimilate
theirinterpretaiionsan acknowledgement of the expressive and form-making
potentialof key change.The problemsof coherenceand continuitythat
Schenkerwasthefirstto solve- oftenindeedthe firstto pose- will, I think,
continueto be farmoreintractable.

NOTES

1. HeinrichSchenker,Free Composition, trans. and ed. Ernst Oster (New York:

Longman, 1979), p.9. There seems to be a misprintin the Englishedition:the
word'foreground'nearthe endofthe firstsentenceshouldread'background',asin
my citation.
2. HeinrichSchenker,Harmonielehre (Vienna:Universal,1906),pp. 162-73.Issued
in abridgedEnglishtranslation,ed. OswaldJonas,trans.ElizabethMannBorgese
asHarmony(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,1954),pp.126-9.
3. Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, A GenerativeTheoryof Tonal Music
(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT, 1983),p.295.
4. J.S. Bach, Forty-EightPreludesand Fugues,Book I, ed. Donald FrancisTovey
(London:AssociatedBoard,1924),p.85.
5. HeinrichSchenker,'Joh.S. Bach:SechsSonatenfurVioline;SonataIII, Largo'in
Das Meisterwerk in derMusik, 3 vols (Munich:Drei Masken,1925, 1926, 1930;
reissuedin reducedfacsimile,Hildesheim:Olms, 1974),Vol. 1, p.61. Reprintedas
'The Largoof J.S. Bach'sSonataNo. 3 for UnaccompaniedViolin', trans.John
Rothgeb,TheMusicForum,Vol. 4 (1976),pp.142-3.
6. This is anideathatseemsto be gainingcurrency.SeeCharlesRosen,SonataFonns
(New York:Norton, 1980),pp.295-6,andJeffreyKallberg,'Chopin'sLastStyle',
3'ournalof the AmericanMfisicologicalSociety,Vol. 38, No. 2 (Summer 1985),
p.274. In an excellentrecentarticleDavid Lewin has arguedcogentlyaboutthe
dubiousvalueof 'solving'theoreticalproblemsby inventingnew termsor slanting
existing ones to make the problems disappear: see 'Music Theory,
Phenomenology,and Modes of Perception',Music Perception,Vol. 3, No. 4
(Summer1986),pp.327-92.
7. Rosen,SonataForms,p.251.
8. Ibid., p.255.
9. Ibid., p.258.
10. This interpretationof Op.79 is Ernst Oster's. See his note on sonataform in
Schenker,FreeComposition, p.l39. In Op.79, the expandedVI is expressedas a
majorchord(E major)andit appearsat the beginningof the development.

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 315

 CARI SCHACHTER

11. David Beach, 'A RecurringPatternin Mozart'sMusic',ffournalof MusicTheory,

Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring1983),pp. l -29.
12. Heinrich Schenker, 'Die Kunst der Improvisation',in Das Meisterwerk in der
Musik,Vol. 1, p. l 5. For Schenker,Bach's formulationwas in keepingwith his own
conceptionof keys as prolonged'scalestepsof the tonality'(Tonarten alsStufender
Tonalitat),a conceptionrevealedin manyof the graphsof Das Meisterwerk. The
Bachcitationis fromCarlPhilippEmmanuelBach,EssayontheTrueArtofPlaying
KeyboardInstruments, trans. and ed. WilliamJ. Mitchell (New York: Norton,
1949),pp.440-5.
13. Jean-PhilippeRameau,Treatiseon Harmony,trans. Philip Gossett(New York:
Dover, 1971), pp.267-9. In the originaledition, Traitede l'harmonie reduitea ses
principesnaturels(Paris:Ballard,1722), reprintedin facsimileas Vol. 1 of Jean-
PhilippeRameau,CompleteTheoretical Writings,ed. ErwinR. Jacobi(American
InstituteofMusicology,1967),pp.248-51.
14. JohannPhilipp Kirnberger,TheArt of StrictMusicalComposition, trans. David
Beach and JurgenThym (New Haven: Yale, 1982), pp.l21-37; the table with
Romannumeralsis on p. l 24. This publicationincludesVol. I andPartI of Vol. II
of Kirnberger'sDie Kunstdes reinenSatzes in der Musik, 2 vols (Berlin and
Konigsberg,1771-9;photographicfacsimilebound in one volume, Hildesheim:
Olms, 1968),pp.103-20.The tablewith Romannumeralsis on p.106.
15. GustavJenner, 3ohannesBrahmsals Mensch,Lehrerund Kunstler:Studienund
Erlebnisse(Marburgin Hessen:Elwert,1905),p.38.
16. H.K. Andrews,'Modulation',in Grove'sDictionaryof MusicandMusicians,5th
edn, ed. EricBlom(London:Macmillan,1954),Vol. 5, p.807.
17. Ibid., p.810.
18. Schenker,Harmonielehre, pp.396-9;Englishtranslation,pp.299-300.The English
versiontranslates'Diatonie'as 'diatonicsystem'and'Scheintonarten' as 'simulated
keys';the divergenttranslationsin my text conformto Oster'sterminology in Free
Composition.
19. Ibid., pp.391-4(Germanedition);pp.295-8(Englishedition).
20. Ibid., p.397 (Germanedition);pp.299-300(Englishedition).
21. Tovey readsexactlythe samekey succession:see his A Companion to Beethoven's
PianoforteSonatas(London:AssociatedBoard,1931),pp.36-7.
22. See Arnold Schoenberg,StructuralFunctionsof Harmony,rev. edn (New York:
Norton, 1969),pp.20, 68 and 75. Incidentally,SchoenbergregardsdiatonicII in
major(whichhe calls dorian)as belongingto the sameclassof regionsas these E
minorpassagesin C minorand as moredistantfrom the tonic than, say, bIII in
major.But arenot bothE minorpassagesfarless normalthanthe tonicizationof II
in Beethoven'sFirst Symphony,I, bs 19-23,or anyof the numerousarrivalson II
after the double bar in Bach's suite movements(e.g., Fourth French Suite,
Sarabande,bs 13-16)?Schoenberg'sclassificationof the distancesfromthe tonicof
the variousregionssometimesseemscounterintuitiveand not in accordancewith
historicalevidence, but I doubt that any other systematicaccountof 'distance'
wouldbe muchof an improvement.
23. Schenker,FreeComposition, pp.ll-12. Of coursethe octaveline would yield the

316 MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

 ANALYSIS BY KEY

completestliteralexpressionof an underlyingdiatonicstructure,but the whole

structurecanbe inferredfromthe linesstartingon 5 or 3.
24. The 'Erlauterungen' thatSchenkerpublishedin the lasttwo issuesof DerTonwille
andin the firsttwo volumesof DasMeisterwerk in derMusikillustratethe notionof
diatonyin connectionwitha notyet definitiveexplanationofthe Urlinie.SeeFig.3,
which showsan ascendingFundamentalLine throughthe octave,organizedinto
three 'tone-spaces':1-3, 3-5, 5-8. A glanceat this diagramwill help to elucidate
Schenker'scommentsin FreeComposition. See 'Erlauterungen',Der Tonwille,IV.
Jahrgang,Heft 2/3 (Vienna:Tonwille, 1924),p.49.
25. In a valuablerecentarticle,MatthewBrownhasshownthatSchenker'sconception
of tonality is fully chromatic,and that chromaticelementsbegin to appearat
relativelyhigh middlegroundlevels: see 'The Diatonic and the Chromaticin
Schenker'sTheoryof HarmonicRelations',ZournalofMusic Theory,Vol. 30, No. l
(Spring1986),pp.1-33.
26. Schoenberg, Harmonielehre,4th edn (Vienna: Universal, 1922), pp.213-14.
Schenker,of course,madeit quiteclearthathis tonicizedharmonieswerenot real
tonics.
27. Schenker,FreeComposition, p. 134.WhenSchenkerstatesthatthe prolongationof
2 overV in an exposition'will naturallyinvolvechromatics',he meansthatit will
becomean 'illusorykey'.
28. Klaus Korner, 'Formen musikalischerAussage im zweiten Satz des G-Dur-
Klavierkonzertesvon Beethoven',Beethoven-ahrbuch,ed. Hans Schmidt and
MartinStaehelin,Vol. 9 (1973177),p.208.
29. CharlesRosen, TheClassicalStyle(New York:Viking, 1971),p.392.
30. The literaturecontainsevenmoreunusualexamplesof key treatment;oneof them,
Variation21 fromBrahrls'sVariations ona ThemeofHandel,formsthe subjectof a
particularly fascinatingdiscussionby Schenkerin DerTonwille,IV. Jahrgang,Heft
2/3 (Vienna:Tonwille, 1924),pp.25-6. This variationis in G minorandis the only
one to departfromthe Bb tonalityof the pieceasa whole.Embeddedin thetexture,
however,is whatamountsto almosta quotationof the Theme'supperline. Every
one of the mainnotesis presentin the variation,most of themoccurringas grace-
notes.The remarkablethingis thatthis 'quotation'maintainsexactlythe pitchesof
the Bb Theme;they are not transposedinto theirG minorequivalents.Schenker
readsthe variationin thekey of G minor,buthe showsthenotesof its Fundamental
Line in the Bb majorfromwhichtheyoriginate;as he says,the variation'oscillates
betweentwo worlds'.
31. Schoenberg,Structural Functionsof Harmony,p.69. Schoenberg'sactualwordsare
these:'Thedifficultyof findinga secondillustrationof thiskindcoupledwithsome
other circumstances(for instance, the long roundaboutreturn to the tonic),
suggeststhe followinghypothesis:the page, Cherubino,accompanieshimself[not
so!] and is alsothe authorof the poem. Has he not also composedthe music?Did
not Mozart by such extravagantfeatures hint at Cherubino'sprofessional
imperfections?' Aproposof the difficultyof findingotherinstancesof this 'region',
the Andantinoof Mozart'sPiano Concerto,K.449, a movementin Bb major,
containsa large-scaleprolongationof Ab major(bs 52-9);the hometonicdoesnot

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987 317

 CARL SCHACHTER

reappearuntil b. 80. The finaleof the sameconcerto(in Eb major)has a briefbut

striking passagein Db minor (bs 258-61). And bs 59-65 of the F majorsong
'Abendempfindung' tonicizeEb major.Do thesefeaturesalsohintat 'professional
imperfections' ?
32. SiegmundLevarie,Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro (Chicago:Universityof Chicago,
1952;reprintedin facsimile,New York:Da Capo, 1977),p.82.
33. Schenker,Free Composition,Fig. 22b.
34. A moreneutraldesignationof the Ab region,for exampleas Subtonic(or bVII),
would have been far better. This readingwould be perfectlycompatiblewith
Schoenberg'sapproach;he infersa minorSubtonic(F minorwithinG major)in his
analysisof the developmentsectionfromthe firstmovementof Haydn'sSymphony
No. 94. SeeStructuralFunctions,pp.147-9.
35. Levarie'sanalysisof the ariacontainsperceptivecommentsaboutthe connections
betweenlocal chromaticismand modulatoryplan, includingan emphasison the
importanceof the enharmonicpairCX/Db . Seeespeciallypp.83-5.
36. See my article'Beethoven'sSketchesfor the First Movementof Op.14, No. 1: A
Studyin Design',3'ournalof Music Theory,Vol. 26, No. 1 (Spring1982),pp.1-21.
37. Becausethey do not relateto the treatmentof modulation,I shallnot discussthe
manymadrigalisms,for exampleon 'diletto','martir',etc.
38. Levarie,Figaro, p.81.

MUSIC ANALYSIS 6:3, 1987

318