Nutrition and Feeding of Wild

Herbivorous Mammals in Captivity

Summer Institute
May 20 to June 8, 1996
Sponsored by
Indian Council of Agricultural Research

Editors
N. N. Pathak, D. N. Kamra
A. K. Garg and N eeta Agarwal

1996
Centre of Advanced Studies in Animal Nutrition
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar - 243 122, India
 ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Kiran Singh Director, I\nRI, Izatnagar

N. N. Pathak Director, CAS & Stunmer Institute
D. N. Kamra Co-Director, Stunmer Institute
A. K. Garg Co-Director, Summer Institute

Transport & Accommodation Committee

D. K. Agrawal
A. Sahoo
Putan Singh
i ')~"i2 r;,? ,
V':"' , rI
Boarding Committee
R. S. Dass
L. C. Chaudhary
A. K. Verma

Registration and Reception Committee

M. Y. Khan
U.R.Mehra
Neeta Agarwal

No responsibility is assumed by the editors for statements and opinio ~ed by authors.
Published by N.N. Pathak on behalf of the Director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, ]zatnagar.

La:::cr Typesetting by : Technoprint C-I013, Patel Nagar, Bareilly

Printed by : Lata Instant Printers, BareiJly
 FOREWORD

Realising the need of specialized training programmes for

updating the knowledge of teachers and research workers in the
State Agricultural Universities and LC.A.R. Institutes, the
provision of organising Summer Institutes was made by the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research long back.
The subjects selected for the Summer Institute are by and
large need based. Recently courses on nutrition and feeding of
wild animals have been introduced in the under graduate and
post-gradu~te curricula of the Veterinary Education in India.
However, there is dearth of ,~eachers and instructors for teaching.
these courses in most of the\ colleges and universities.
The selection of such an important topic, i.e. "Nutrition and
feeding of wild herbivorous mammals in captivity" at this juncture
was highly needed. In developing the syllabus of this course
efforts have been made to make it as far as possible diversified.
For the maintenance of ecological balance and also for the
education of young generation, the wild animals are being
provided protections in zoological parks and wildlife sancturies.
The wild animals conserved in captive environment require
feeding and management in simulated wild conditions which need
skillful application of science. It gives me great pleasure that the
lectures of the course have been compiled and printed in the form
of a book. This will be a lasting document and will be useful for
the teachers, students and research workers of Animal Nutrition,
personnels of zoological gardens and those associated with the
management of wild animals in captive environment.
The organisers deserve appreciation for bringing out this
useful publication before starting the course .

Kiran Singh
Director
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction N. N. Pathak 1
2. Classification and brief characteristics
of wild herbivorous mammals Neeta Agarwal 3
3. Nutrition and feeding of wild small
ruminants A. K. Verma 9
4. Energy utilization in wild mammals M. Y. Khan 11

5. Digestion and metabolism in wild

non-ruminant hqrbivores D. K Agarwal 13
f. Nutrition and feeding of primiltes Neeta Agarwal 15

7. Rumen digestion and metabolism in

blackbuck Neelam Kewalramani 20
y. Nutrition and feeding of elephants A. K Garg 21
9. Nutritional demands of gestation D. K Agrawal 24

10. Comparative nutrient utilization in

wild and domestic ruminants R. S. Dass 27
11. Seasonal stress on nutrient
availability and need of supplementary
feeding P. Singh 30
Nutrition and feeding of wild rodents
and lagomorphs P. Singh 33
13. Metabolic problems m wild
herbivorous mammals S. K. Dwivedi 36
14. A brief note on energy cycle N. N. Pathak 38

Nutrition and feeding of wild and

tamed pseudo-ruminants N. N. Pathak 40
16. Scope of tracer techniques and remote
sensing in the feeding management of
wild animals D. D. Mall 42
17. Rumen microbiology of blackbuck and
other wild animals D. N. Kamra 44
18. Effect of environmental pollution on
natural herbage and water resources
and their impact on wild life S. A. Khan 46
li Feed and water resources and feed
selection on wild and captive
environment Narayan Dutta 49
Effect of water deprivation on
performance of wild herbivorous
mammals Murari Lal 51
21. Nutritional problems in wild
herbivorous mammals M. C. Sharma 53
22. Feeding of yak, mithun, gaur and wild
buffalo N. N. Pathak 56
23. Effect of nutrition on antlers growth ASahoo 58

24. Feeding of exotic wild herbivores

(non-ruminants) kept in Indian zoos N. Haque 62
25. Zoo forestry and nutritional
management Raman Malik 65
26. Nutrition of exotic wild ruminants
kept in Indian zoos A. Sahoo 66
27. Feeding and nutrition of Indian deer U sha R. Mehra 71

28. Nutrition and Feeding of Rhinoceros S. S. Sengar 75

29. Microbial digestion of feed in

non-ruminant herbivorous wild
animals D.N.Kamra 77
30. Digestion and metabolism in wild
ruminants Neeta Agarwal 78
31. Scope of rearing wild herbivores for
food production L. C. Chaudhary 82
32. Feed selection and feeding behaviour
of wild herbivorous ruminants In
natural habitats Kusumakar Sharma 83
List of authors 89
 INTRODUCTION

The term "Wild Life" deals with the animals which are not
yet domesticated and live away from the human habitat. These
wild animals have been cornered to some isolated pockets of
forest scattered in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions,
some hilly parts of central plateau, coastal hills of eastern ghats
and western ghats and some dense equatorial forests in South
India. In previous time, these dense forests were untouched
areas and they provided safe ' unpolluted herbage and high
survival rate. With the advancement of transport man has
intruded thes·e wild life areas. Extensive deforestation and
indiscriminate hunting have caused great ecological imbalance.
These factors have disastrous effect on the wild life and many
wild species are leading towards extinction and are being
grouped under endangered species.
Spread of education to make man understand that the
flora and fauna of the country is an asset for them, their
attitude towards wild life is changing. Now it is a common
man's conception that it is their duty to protect the wild
creatures for which they have to be educated about these
creatures.
To understand the wild life although studies are being
made on various aspects of their habits and biological functions,
but these are mostly designed for research in laboratory
conditions. However, true picture of behaviour can be obtained
only by keeping these animals in a simulated natural
conditions. In order to provide protection to the wild animals, to
maintain ecological balance and education to man, a series of
natural parks and wild life sanctuaries have been established
in different parts of India like Gir for lion, Dudhwa and Corbett
for Barahsingha, several other deer species, tiger and other
large cats, Kaziranga and Manas for Indian rhinoceros, Indian
wild buffalo, gaur and golden langur etc. Under the children
education programme for awareness about the nature, zoos and
-1-
botanical gardens are being established extensively. More
advanced zoos are being established with forests, pool and even
artificial falls wherever necessary.
For the proper maintenance of wild animals in captive
environment, trained personnels are required. Like any other
species feeding of animals is one of the most expensive and
skilled aspect. Due to this reason specialized courses on wild life
feeding and health management have been introduced in the
Universities. To cater this need a comprehensive course on
"Nutrition and Feeding of wild herbivorous mammals in
captivity", is being organised as a Summer Institute.

N.N.PATHAK

-2-
 Classification and brief characteristics of wild
herbivorous mammals
Neeta Agarwal
The gr~up of animals having
mammary glands on females for
suckling the young ones is called
mammals. It is most evolved group
of animals on the universe. The
specific characteristics of mammals
are:
1. Presence of hair, skin having
various glands. Body is insu-
lated.
2. They are homoiothermous i.e.
warmblooded.
3. Presence of mammary glands
in females.
4. Except a few ancient forms all
are viviparous.
5. Placenta is found.
6. Teeth are situated on both the
jaws in sockets or alveoli. Teeth
are rarely absent. Tongue is
mobile. Ear is with external ear
or pinnae. The sense of sight,
smell and hearing are · well
developed.
7. Fore limbs and hind limbs are
present. Each foot is with five
toes adoptedfor walking, run-
ning, climbing, flying, burrow-
ing, swimming.
8. Respiration by lungs,
diaphragm is present between
thoracic and abdominal cavity.
Larynx with vocal cords.
9. Heart is four chambered. Red
blood cells without nuclei.
10. Urinary bladder is present for
urine.
-3-
11. Brain is highly developed with
well developed cerebrum and
cerebellum.
12. ' Testes are descended into scro-
,tal sacs in majority of cases.
13. Males have copulatory organ
called penis.
14. Fertilization is internal.
The phylum mammalia is
divided into three classes:
Allotheria-{extinct)
Prototheria-Incl udes primi-
tiVe mammals.
The distinct characteristics are:
1. Mamm.ary glands are withQut
teats and opens directly on the
surface of toe SKin.
2. No external pinna is present.
3. Teeth are present only in
young ones, adult with horny
beaks.
4. The two oviducts open directly
into the cloaca alongwith intes-
tine and urethra as found in
birds.
5. Cloaca is present.
6. Testes abdominal.
7. Uterus or vagina absent.
8. Oviparous e.g. Tachyglossus
(Echidna), spiny ant eater.
,cY Theria
The distinctive characteristics
of class Theria are:
1. Mammary gland with teats
2. External pinna is present
3. Cloaca is absent
4. Testes descend into scrotal sac.
5. Teeth are present in young
ones and adults both.
6. Uterus, vagina present.
7. Viviparous.
It is the largest class of phylum
mammalia and most of the
mammals belong to this class.
Class Theria is further divided
into three sub-classes:
a} Pantotheria - Extinct
b) Metatheria (Order Mar-
supialia)
The distinctive characters are:
1. Young ones are born prema-
turely after a short gestation.
2. After birth young ones are nur-
tured in a pouch called mar-
supium on the abdomen of the
female.
3. Mammary gland open by nip-
ples into the marsupium.
4. There is no allantoic placenta.
5. Monophydont with only one set
of teeth e.g. Marcopus
(Australian Kangaroo), Phas-
colarctus (Australian Teddy
)3ear).
cY' Eutheria (Placentals>-
This is the biggest subclass of
class Theria anainclude most of the
mammals.
Eutherian mammals are
distinct from Prototheria
1. Young ones born in advanced
stage after a long gestation:
2. An allantoic placenta is always
present.
-4 -
3. Marsupial bone or pouch is ab-
sent.
Class Eutheria is further
divided in 16 orders with living
examples. 90rders are extinct.
i) Insectivora e.g. Moles, Shrews
etc. notTound in India.
ii) Dermoptera e.g. flying lemur
iii) C..biroptera e.g. small and large
bats.
Edentata e.g. New world ant-
eaters (Pangolins)
Pholidata e.g. Manis (scaly ant
t~aters)
vi) Cetacea _e.g. Platinista gan-
gelica (Gange's dolphin),
Physeter (sperm whale),
Balaenoptera indica (whale
bonewhale).
vii) Carnivora e.g. Panthera sps.
(lion), Felis (tigers), leopard,
cat, hyaena, mongoose, wolf,
bear, fox, otter, Asian Panda,
seal.
viii) Tubulidentata e.g. Oryteropus.
Herbivores Mammals
ix) L~omorpha-
'?"
1. The size is moderate to small.
2. Incisors two pairs (4 incisors on
upper TaW) ' premolors three
above and two below.
3. Hind limb strongly developed
for jumping.
The order Lagomorpha
comprises of two families
(a) Leporidae
(b) Ochotonidae
(a) Leporidae-Family Leporidae
includes hares and rabbits.
Previously they were placed in
 the genus Lepus. But recently
considering the several dif-
ferences between rabbit and
hare both these mammals are
given separate generic names
Le. Oryctologus for rabbit and
tepus for hare.
-
The major differences heteen
hare and rabbit are :
7 Rabbit is fossorial but hare is
2. ---
nomad. .-
Rabbit can be domestiCated but
hare cannot be as it does not
thrive well in captivity.
3.--- Rabbit is gregarious in nature
while hare is solitary.
4. Wild rabbit is brownish-grey
coloured. Hare is brownish on
the upperside while the ventral
side is white.
5. Rabbit is comparatively
smaller than hare.
6. Pinna of rabbit is comparative-
ly shott and tips are of same
colour as the rest of the pinnae
while in hare~ae are longer
and the tip~black in colour.
7.,/ The distinctive characteristic is
the, rabbits have vertical
grooves on the upper surface of
anterior incisors of the upper
jaw which are completely ab-
sent in hares.
8. At birth rabbits are blind, hair-
less and weak but young ones
of hare are strong and covered
with fur with both the eyes
open.
)). Litter size of rabbits is 5 - 8
and of hare is 2 - 5.
Rabbit shows much wider
range of appetite while hare is
-5-
very selective and would not
even move in pastures which
rabbits have fould.
The Leporidae family has
world-wide distribution. The Indian
sps. are Lepus nigricolis, L.
ruficaudatus, L.dayanus, L.sincoxi,
L.mahadeva, L.rajput, L.cutchensis,
L.singhala (commonly called
'khargosh')
The true rabbit do not occur in
India but closely related Assam
rabbit or Hispid hare (Caprolagus
hispidus) is found along the foot of
the Himl;llayas from Uttar Pradesh.
b) Ochotonidae e.g. Ochotona
roylei (Himalayan mouse hare).
It is some what like guinea pig.
It has rounded ear with no tail.
The hair is exceedingly fine,
straight and glossy. Reddish
brown colour but there is con-
siderable seasonal change in
colour. Their food vary consid-
erably with the season. They
feed on coarse grasses. A cap-
tive specimen ate alpine
flowers, strawberry leaves, ber-
ries, cabbage and carrots.
x) Proboscida-Characteristic of
this order is the presence of
large muscular proboscis which
has nose and upper lip. Denti-
tion is unique, two upper in-
cisors elongated as tusks,
canines are absent, three
premolors are soon shed and
three molars than develop. The
foot changed its posture from
primitive plantigrade or 'sales
to the ground' positon. The heal
and ankle bones were elevated
above the ground. There are
only two species of elephant in
 existence, the Indian (Eliphas
indicus) and the African
(Loxodonta africana). !,n.slian
ele'phant is smaller in -size and
does not has enormous ear as
in African _species. It~ four
Illills in each hind foot but
African has three. The trunk of
Indian elephant ends into a
single lip while in African
species there are two equal size
'lips'.
xi) Rodentia-Mostly small size
herbivorous and terristrial
animals, 5 toes with claws, in-
cisors chisel-like Qf which there
IS a single pair in the upper
jaw, one pair on lower jaw,
~s and anterior premolars
, are absent, therefore a large
gap, called diastema is found in
front of the cheek teeth.
The order Rodentia is further
divided into six families.
(a) Sciuridae-The family includes
sgyirrels_ and marmots.
Amongst rodents they can be
easily recognised by their
slender body, bushy tail, and
arboreal habits. Some of these
acquired the power of sailing
and gliding through the air are
popularly known as flying
squirrels (Papurista plrilijJpen-
sts). Other species are
Hylopetes s~ Funambulus sps.
(rndian squirrels). Ratufa spes.
(giant squirrel). Squirrel love to
eat fruits and nuts from
various trees. They also eat
bark and lumps of gum and
resins coming out from the
trees. They also take insects
and larvae present on the
trees. Mormots can be distin-
·6·
guished from the squirrel from
their stout squat build, short or
moderate tails and very small
ears. Two common mormots
are the Himalayan mormot
(Mormota himalayana) and
long-tailed Marmot (Mormota
caudata). They relish roots,
leaves, grasses and seeds of
various plants.
(b) Muridae-The family muridae
mcludes rats and mice. They
can be recognised amongst
other rodents by their naked
scaly tail, sometimeSspa[§_eJy
clotted with hair. According to
their habit, rats and mice can
be divided- into three groups.
Their food mainly consists of
grains, roots, leaves and gras-
ses.
Group 1
Field rats which are common
pests or crops and cultivation e.g.
Millardia metada, Mus booduga.
Group 2
Wild sps which live in forest
and are more or less arboreal e.g.
Golunda ellioti (Indian bush rat),
Rattus blanfordi (white- tailed wood
rat).
Group 3
Habitual household pests e.g.
Rattus rattus (common house rate).
Bandicota indica (Bandicoot rat).
Mus musculus (house mouse). They
are omnivorous in food habits.
Depends mainly on household left.
over grains.
(c) Gerbillinae-This can be dis-
tinguished from the members
of muridae by their tail which
is clothed with hair and usually
 ends in a tassel e.g. Meriones
hurrianae (Indian Desert Ger-
bille), Tatera indica (Indian
Gerbille). Their food mainly
consists of grains, roots, leaves
and grasses.
(d) Microtinae----eommonly called
as Voles. They are exactly rat
like. They are b.!!!!_owers and
body is well adapted to this
purpose. Body is more or less
cylindrical with short rounded
head, very small pinnae. Tail is
also short, just less than half of
the body size. The teeth are
distinctive and well suited to
the hard diet of coarse grasses
and roots upon which vole lives
e.g. Alticola roylei (Royle's
vole).
(e) ,llliizomyidg_e-Only because of
its projected large incisors they
are included in rodentia, other-
wise they look very much like
moles. The eyes are rudimen-
tary, limbs aresh~th large
craws, tailis short, the body is
cylindrical and not differen-
tiated in head and neck e.g.
Cannomys badius (Bay Bamboo
Rat}. This strange creatures
are especially adapted for sub-
terranean life, found in base of
Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan. They feed on young
grasses, leaves and roots.
(t) Hystricidae-Easily recognised
oy tnelr hair which are
ly intoe
modified more or less complete-
e.g . .Indian por-
cupine ~strix indica} nl"ey
fed on all types of vegetables,
grass fruits and roots. They are
very destructive to the gardens
and cultivated fields.
-7-
xii) Hyracoidea-SmaH, rabbit like
nernvorous animals with four
toes on fore limbs and three on
hind limbs; ears and tails
short, e.g. _Hyrax.
xiii) Sirenia-Iarge aquatic her-
bivorous animals with fore
limbs paddle like, hind limbs
absent, tail with hQrizontal fin ,
-I.llussle blunt, lips fleshy, ears
apsent e.g. Halicore dugong
(~COW).
Ungulates-a group of
mammals is called hoofed animals or
ungulates. Where hooves encase the
toes. On the basis of toes ungulates
are divided into two orders.
Perissodactyla-odd toed ungulates
and Artiodactyla-even toed
ungulates.
xiv) yerissodactyla-They are large-
sized herbivorous animals with
long legs. The order includes two
family.
Family Equidae-it includes
horses, asses and zebras. In all these
animals each foot has a single
complete toe (third one) encased in a
large solid hoof. It is supported by
long 'cannon' bOne. Vestigeal second
ana · fourtIl toes are visible on both
side of cannon bone e.g. Equus
hemionus khur (wild ass), Equus
caballus (horse).
Other family of Perissodactyla
include rhinocero~s. The family
characteristics are massive built, the
thickness and solidity of their bones,
their short stumpy legs each
furnished with three toes. The nasal
bone is enlarged to support the
single horn or double horns. Horn is
formed of horny fibre of the skin e.g.
Rhinoceros unicornis (gainda),
Didermocerus sumatrensis (two
horned rhinoceros).
The odd toed hoofed animals do
not have horns.
xv) Artiodactyla--<:allgd even-toed
hoofed animals. The third and
fourth toes are prominent and
are of equal size. The hooves
which encases them ~ppear
like a single hoof cleft in two.
Second and fifth toe diminish
and first toe disappear com-
pletely. Divided into three
groups.
(a) - Bovidae-Stomach is four
chambered with a biggest
chamber called rumen which
gives the name ruminant to
this group of animals. The spe-
cial feature of true ruminant
are the absence of incisors in
the upper jaw and presence of
true horns. This is the largest
group of Artiodactyla and have
variety of animals e.g. sheep,
goat, cattle, buffalo, gazzelles,
antelopes, etc.
(b) Cervidae-ruminants, differ
from bovidae in structure of
horn. The outer sheath of the
horn can be removed from the
central bony core. This is why
they are also called hollow
horned e.g. deer.
(c) The third group of Artiodactyla
includes pig~ peccaries and
hippopotami. They are dif-
ferent from ruminants, that
their stomach is single cham-
bers.
_'lY!2PadL These are pseudoru-
minants e.g. camel, Llama etc . . ,-
xvi} Primates-it includes highest
evolved mammals. This group
shows affinities with insec-
-8-
ti!.2!!L from which they are
probably arisen. Primarily they
are arboreal, while their return
to land is secondary. Limbs
long, hands and feet enlarged.
Each of five digits is provided
with flattened or cupped nails.
Molars tuberculate; orbit sur-
rounded by bony ring. Nervous
. system and intelligence highest
developed. Primate includes
man, apes, monkeys, lemurs.
Order Primate is further
divided into three sub-classess.
1. . Lemuroide- Characteristic
feature is the second toe is with
claw and others having flat
nails. Have round eye just like
owl with dark brown circles
round it e.g. Lemur, Loris.
2. Tarsioidea-Rat like with long
tail but not prehensile, long
pinnae and large eyes. Second
and third toe possess claws and
rest have nails. e.g. Tarsius..
3. Anthropidea-Head rounded
with large brain, eyes facing
forward, pinnae are small with
edges rolled over, orbit closed
by bones. Opposable thumbs
and first toes, nails are
present. e.g. apes, monkeys,
man (Homo sapiens). The only
ape present in India is
Hylobatus hoolock- (gibbon).
Monkeys.are included in family
Cerc~thecidae, which is further
divided into two sub-families.
1. Cercopithecinae--e.g. macaque
2. Colobinae-e.g. langurs
Macaque can be easily
distinguished from langurs by its
built which is sturdy, squat and
 solid. A langur in contrast is tall,
slim and more cylindrical. Ma&iques -
haVe ~ k pouches which is absent
"In.:="langurs. Tails of langurs are
-Nutrition and feeding of wild smaIl ruminants
A. K. Verma
Introduction
The Himalayan and
trans-Himalayan ranges are the
habitat of some of the rarest species
of wildlife in the world. Beyond the
valley of Kashmir, the land of
verdant meadows and snow-capped
mountains lies in Ladakh, India's
l~gest district. f1S ecosystem is
perhaps the most unique in the
world and its wildlife, the most
abundant in the country. This is the
only region in the world where both
desert and arctic conditions,
seething summers and freezing
winters prevail. Survival in such
conditions and at altitudes from
2500 to 5000 meters, is extremely
difficult for both man and animal.
Small ruminants of these regions
can be broadly classified as wild
sheep, wild goat and goat antelopes.
Some of the important ones are:
Urial or shapu (Ouis orietalis
GmeUiff: Of all species of wild slieep
-the urial is smallest. Its habitat is
above the tree-line, on the steep
grassy hill slopes of Ladakh.
Bhara! or blue sheep (Pseudois
nayaur Hodgson). 'F®-::Bbarins the
~nnects sheep and goats.
The bharal ram is unheard, unlike
the male goat; nor does it have a
goatish smell. Although hunted for
mutton in Ladakh and Bhutan, it is
comparatively very long to that of
macaques. Indian e.g. Macaca
mullatta (bundar), Macaca radiata
(bundar), Presbytis sps. (langurs).
' the most common of all the wild
sheep found in the region. Bharals
are also found in Kumaon, Nepal
and Sikkim.
~(Coprq_ibex Linnaeus):
One of the most handsome wild
mountain goats with long deeply
no~hed sweeping horns, found in
the western Himalayas in Kashmir
and Ladakh. The ibex is hunted for
its wi.llil tender meat, soft wooly
under fur (pasham) and as a trophy.
Markhor (Capra falconeri
Wagner): The Markhor is regarded
as the~of_wil4_g_oat~: It derives
it PerSIan name (mar means snake
and khor eater) from the popular
belief that it relishes snakes. The
markhor has long spiral horns. It
hasuffiterfur and naturally inhabits
regions below the snow-line.
Chiru (Pantheops hodgsoni
Abel): The chiru is a T..fbetan
~ntelope of the great desert tn ilOrth
Tr6et comes down to Ladakh in
summer to graze on the newly
sprouted grass.
Go~ (Nemorhaedus goral
Hardwice'>: The goral is the
s#l1est of the goat antelopes.
' Smaller than even a domestic goat, it
is found in Nepal, Sikkim, Asian,
Kashmir and the western and
eastern Himalayas.
 Grazing or browsing herbivores
intemperate regions must adapt to
seasonal changes in their food
supply. It used to be thought that
the loss of weight during winter,
reflected the decreasing availability
of good food, exacerbated by chilling
weather. However, it has been found
that the body weight of sheep
fluctuates during the year because
the voluntary intake of even a
standard diet offered to appetite is
much higher during summer than
during winter (Kay, 1979).
Choshniak et al. (1981) studied the
capacity of Ibex to cope with adverse
nutritional conditions on feeds of
different quality and compared to
that of other breeds of goats. A low
calorie demand (1135 KJ/da~g
~)on alfalIallaY andlialf this
value on wheat straw was ab.seAred.
Hlgllcfigestibility 68, 60 and 48% on
alfalfa hay, rhodes grass and wheat
straw, respectively and a low
metabolic rate was demonstrated in
these animals. Urea recycling
amounted to 14% the entry rate on
alfalfa hay. On grass and wheat
straw it was 64% and 74%
respectively. As the energy
requirements of mammals are
approximately proportional to the
metabolic body weight i.e. Kg WO· 75
(Kleiber, 1961), small ruminants
need relatively higher amounts of
metabohzab1e energy per unit of
actual body weight. Chappal and
Hodson (1978) observed an energy
expenditure of 0.44 KCiilIkg BWlhr
fot eating in stallfed big horn sheep.
There is little or no information
on the feeding and nutrition of t~ese
wild small ruminants under
captivity since they graze at high
altitude on the mountaneous regions
- 10 -
of Himalayan and trans- Himalayan
ranges where other common
ruminant feeds are not easily
available. During summer, these
animals usually remain about
6500-10,000 feet elevation, in winter
they move to the lower slopes where
they find more food and where the
wind is less fierce, wide variety of
vegetation is utilized by these
specialized grazers. Herbage 'utilized
by these grazers may be divided into
following classes.
Grasses: Members of the family
gramineace (5000 + species)
i) Cool season grasses
ii) Warm season grasses
Legumes: Members of the
family leguminasae (11000 + species)
Forbs-Primarily broad leaf,
non-woody plants.
Browse-Woody plants con-
sumed in some degree by these
ruminants.
The grasses and herbs they
pluck are often covered with dust
and grit in the absence of snow. The
grasses such as Saceharum sp. and
Imperate cylindrica compose the
highest percentage of the diets of
ungulates supplemented by
nutritious flowers and fruits of
various trees. Fruits and tender
leaves of Acacia catechu, Albizzia
lebbele, DaZbergia sissoo, Ficus
glomerata and Mallotous
phillipinensis are the other
important food species being used by
ungulates during winter season
(Dhungel and O,Gara, 1991).
Studies on the feeding and
nutrition of wild small ruminants
under captivity are lacking in our
country. Therefore, there' is an
urgent need of such research in
order to develop practical feeding
References
Chappel, RW. and Hudson, RJ. 1978. Acta.
. Theriol., 23:359-363.
Chashniak, I, Arnon, H .. and Shkolnik, A.,
1984. Can.J.Anim.Sci. (Suppl), 64:160-
162.
.
I
Energy Utilization in Wild Herbivorous Mammals
M. Y. Khan
J I
Herbivores, unlike carnivores,
depend upon feeding stuffs which are
dissimilar with the composition of
body. Their diets mostly consist of
cellulosic rich materials which are
not digested by enzymes secreted by
animals. Hence their alimetary tract
is modified to harbour a large num-
ber of micro-organisms which secrete
enzymes to digest the cellulosic
materials which serve as the major
source of energy for the herbivores.
Limited information is
available for the requirement of
energy to captive wild herbivores,
although Heusner (1990) has
reported that BMR. the rate of heat
production when resting and fasting
(or in some cases, under more
specifically defined basal meta-
bolism) has been measured for at
least 685 species of mammals. As
such requirement of energy for
captive wild herbivores are predicted
on the basis of energy balance
studies conducted on similar
domesticated animals.
Energy requirements for
maintenance is measured by
- 11 -
schedule for the economic
maintenance of these rarest and
profitable wildlife small ruminants.
Dhungel, S.K and O'Gara, B.W., 1981. J.
Wildl. Manage., (Suppl, 119) 55:1-40 .
Kay, RN.B., 1979. ARC Res. Rev., 5:13-15.
Kleiber, M. 1961. The Fire of Life: an intro-
duction to animal energetics, Wiley,
New York .
measuring basal metabolic rat2 in
m.a n or fasting heat production of a
well nourished animal kept in a
favourable environment since the
rate of energy expenditure under
such condition is minimal since the
animal tries to conserve its body
tissues which provide energy in the
absence of availability of energy
from feeds. Brody (1945)
summarized the data of fasting heat
production of a large number of
animals whose adult liveweight
ranged from 20g of mice to about
4000 kg of an elephant. He
demonstrated a linear relationl?hip
between the log BMR with log live
weight of the animJt and the
.r.egre"ssion obtained,~ BMR = log
70.5 + 0.73 log Vi) is famous by the
name (Mouse-Elephant graph) and
has aCclaimed world wide
acceptance, forming the basis for
comparing basal metabolism of
different species of farm animals. It
is this relationship which
established that basal metabolism is
related to metabolic body size, i.e.
liye weight raised to certain power,
WO· 73 . Subsequently the suggestgion
 given by Kleiber (1961) for changing thermoregulatory costs. The_ M.E.
the value of 0.73 to 0.75 has gained intake which keeps the animal in
acceptance with the result the E2nergy- equilibrium under. such
equation, BMR (kcaD = 70 vjJ.75 (kg) conditions is called EMR (eXIstence
is now used to predict the minimum metabolic rate).
expenditure of energy by animals, EMR can be estimated from
although certain species of animals BMR by multiplying the latter by 2
J
p~Qwer (sheep) or higher (cattle)
(Brody, 1945, Blaxter, 1989),
I fasting metabolism than the although Clarke et al. (1977)
interspecies mean value. recommended a factor of 1.5 for the
The maintenance requirements same.
of energy include fasting heat The requirement of energy for
production and energy expended for maintenance serve as the basal
a little of walking in search of food. values and for production it is
As such FHP has to be multiplied estimated by factorial method taking
with a factor depending upon the into various factors like
activity of the animal. There is a lot metabolizability and efficiency of
of diffe!'ence of opinion regarding the utilization of ME for different
factor. It has been suggested that · purposes. Robbins (1983) has
energy balance measured under provided a useful table of
captive conditions provides a better metabolizability values of gross
assessment of energy requirements energy of foods consumed by a wide
nf the animal. It includes energy range of species.
expenditure for limited activity and
References
Blaxter, K.L. 1989. Energy Metabolism in Heusner, A.A. 1990. Basal metabolism and
Animals and Man. Cambridge: body mass in dogs. Abstracts of the
Cambridge University Press. Waltham International Symposium on
Nutrition of Small Companion
Brody, S. 19.J.5. Bioenergetics and Growth. Animals, Davis, Calif., University of
New YOl·k: Reinhold. California, p. 8.
Clarke, H.l~.; Coates, M.E.; Eva, J.K; Ford, Kleiber, M. 1961. The Fire of Life. New York,
D.J.; Milnel', C.K.; O'Donoghue, P .N.; John Wiley & Sons.
Scot!., P .P. and Ward, R.J. 1977. Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and
Dietary Standards for Laboratory Nutrition, New York, Academic Press.
Animals: I'eport of the laboratory
Animals Centre Diets Advisory Com-
mittee. Laboratory Animals 11:1- 28.

- 12 -
 Digestion and Metabolism in Wild
Non-Ruminant Herbivores
D. K.
Digestion
Digestion of feeds by animal
depends upon two major factors,
type of digestive system and the
feeding habits of the animals. Thus
there IS difference between
carnivorous and herbivorous animals
and among herbivores, between
ruminants and non-ruminants.
Within a particular class there is
very little likelihood of differe:t:lce
because of the fact that a particular
animal is wild or domesticated.
Determination of digestibility in a
domesticated . animal is
comparatively very simple. A known
amount of feed is offered to the
animal during a set period of time,
which usually ranges from 4 to 10
days. Residue left is recorded to
work out the feed ingested.
Simultaneously faeces voided is also
recorded and broadly speaking, the
part of feed ingested which does not
appear in faeces is termed as
digested feed. Now the problems in
determining digestibility in a wild
animal are multiple. Firstly, the wild
animal is not supposed to be eating
same types of feeds over days.
Similarly the quantity it eats is also
likely to vary from day to day. Thus
to have an accurate estimate of
digestibility, the animal will have to
be kept under captivity and a
particular type of feed will have to be
fed over a period of time. It is very
difficult to say with certainty that
the figures thus obtained will
represent the actual digestibility of
- 13 -
Agra~-al
that animal and to what extent.
Main reason being the assumption
that the basic physiological processes
of digestion are comparable between
free-ranging and captive state. This
assumption has never been tested
adequately.
The marker method of
determining digestibility among
grazing animals has been tried in
wild animals also. But as in domestic
animals, it is difficult to find a
marker which is ideal. For example,
many un digestible plant markers,
which are supposed to be completely
recoverable in faeces do not actually
appear. Added markers such as
chromium are not uniform in their
process of excretion and any
estimate based on them cannot be
cent per cent reliable.
Since all material passed out as
faeces is not of food origin, some of it
being of body origin viz. unused
digestive enzymes, intestinal mucosa
etc., the digestibility calculated
without taking this fact into
consideration is termed apparent
digestibility and is mostly lower tha_!!_
the true digestibility.
In neonates being fed on milk
apparenCprotein'd1gestilJitity is the
hignest with minimum metabolic
loss. The true digestibility of protein
can be estimated by a regression
slope between protein intake and
apparent digestible amount. This
assumes a constant excretion of
metabolic faecal nitrogen. Tannins
and other soluble phenolics or
porteinase inhibitors in some seeds
can reduce protein digestibility.
The apparent digestibility of
plant neutral detergent solubles is a
curvilinear function of their dietary
concentration. NDS of plants and
grasses with minimal inhibitory
secondary plant compounds are
generally uniformly and highly
digestible. Digestibility of NDF
depends upon relative concentration
of structural digestion inhibitors of
lignin, cutin, silica and rate of
passage of digesta in the G.!. tract.
Large non-ruminant herbivores
digest more NDF than small
non-ruminant herbivores.
Metabolism
Losses of urinary and gaseous
energy must be subtracted from
digestible energy to arrive at
metabolizable energy. Excretion of
urinary energy is largely dependent
on diet and increases from grain and
n~ to forage diets because
plant foli~e contains many high
eneigy compounds that although
absorbed, cannot be oxidised. Browse
rations produce the greatest loss of
urinary energy because of the
excretion of absorbed terpenoids,
phenols and etc. Urinary energy
losses also increase with increased
dietary protein. Methane Is-,;he
prfncipal gas accounted for energy
loss. But non-ruminant herbivores
donot produce slgmflcant!imounts of
methane.
Metabolizable energy co-
efficients. in mammals reflect· the
- 14 -
differences in losses of methane and
urinary energy. Thus these are the
~est in rodentS consuming nuts
and grains, intermediate in small
non-ruminant herbivores and the
lowest in ruminants. ME co-efficient
is sometimes corrected to nitrogen
balance because urinary energy is, in
part, dependent on nitrogen
metabolism. In an animal on
negative nitrogen balance due to
inadequate energy intake, a portion
of urinary energy comes from tissue
breakdown. In mammals 7.45 KcaVg
~nitrogen deficit is added in ME.
The work of digestion including
mastication, peristalsis, secretion
and active transport and absorbed
nutrient metabolism produce heat
because of the inefficiency of
metabolic pathways. The net energy
co-efficient is the estimate of
efficiency to which metabolizable
energy can be used in maintenance
and productive processes.
Comparatively lesser studies
have been conducted on protein
utilization efficiency than on energy
utilization efficiency in wild animals.
The efficiency of utilization of
absorbed dietary nitrogen is termed
biological value, same in wild
animals as in domesticated ones.
This varies with protein source and
its amino acid composition, mode of
protein digestion, animal's age and
productive stage, digestible energy
intake relative to energy
requirements, total protein require-
ment and internal physiological
means of conserving absorbed
nitrogen.
 Nutrition and Fe eding of Primates
Neeta Agarwal
Primates is a group of
mammals which includes man also.
This is the highest developed group
of animals amongst mammals. There
is nothing in the bodily structure in
a primate which makes them
superior to other mammals, it is
purely a mental development. The
distinctive characters which we find
in primates are the structure of hand
and feet which are specifically
designed for grasping. As such
primates are admirably adopted to
the particular habits and mode of
life.
Primates include man, apes,
macaques, langurs and lemurs. In
India the only sps. of apes present is
Hoolock (gibbon). Macaques and
langurs are quite common. All these
animals eat leaves, flowers, grain
and fruits, These are their main food
items. Sometimes gibbons steal eggs
of other birds also as a food source.
Langurs a~ure1Lvegetarian but
baboons and macaques · are
omnivourus. They take vegetable
aiet as well as insects, grubs and
spiders. Some even eat lizards and
frogs while one of the tribe has taken
to eating crabs. Lemurs hunt for
their food in darkness. ~ _ and _
monkeys feed only in day time. Some
monkeys, babOons and macaques get
their food on the ground" some
amongst rock and cliffes but
majority of apes and monkeys find
their food on tre_es. Because of their
universal feeding habits, macaques
can obtain food through out the year,
inspite of seasonal changes in its
- 15 -
availability in different part of the
habitat. Lemurs eat like other
animals, thrusting out for their food
with its long snout. Apes and
monkeys pickup their food with their
hands and carry it to the mouth. In
natural habitat they are always
under threat of other animals so
they eat very fast & want to eat
large quantities of food in the
shortest possible time. For this
purpose macaques and baboons have
l~e poUChes in their cheeks where
they can store excess amount of food.
Lemurs do not have such cheek
pouches. They have pouch like
stomach unlike monkeys. Langurs
stomach consists of three separate
~ches or compartments somewhat
like the stomach of the ruminants.
Just like ruminants languur also has
a special compartment of stomach to
receive partly chewed food. Their
stomach is well suited to their
strictly herbivorous food habit.
In natural habitat they fulfill
their requirements themselves, but
in captive conditions one has to take
care to fullfil their requirements by
offering balanced diet. It is being
observed that both human and non
human primates do not require food
of high nutrient density except
perhaps at weaning because the
nutrients demands of growth and
reproduction spread out over time.
While offering the feed to the
primates care must be taken about
the feed offered by the visitors.
Visitors foodstuffs include bread,
biscuits, apples, bananas, grapes,
Table 1. Energy and protein daily allowances for primates
Species and Stage Energy (DE, Proteina g/kg body wt.
Kcal/kg, BW) % calories
Human
Infant 120-60 1Q(6.0)b 2.4 (2.0)
Adult 30-40 8(5.0) 0.8(0.5)
Baboon
Infant <290 12 5.0
Adult 53-72 12 2.0
Chimpanzee
Infant 120-100 12 5.0
Adult 50-60 12 2.0
Rhesus and Cynomolgus
Infant 270-190 12(6.6) 8.0(4.0)
Adult 75-120 12(6.6) 3.0
Cebus
Infant 400-250 13(7.0) 10.0(5.25)
Adult 100-150 13(7.0) 5.0(2.3)
a) High qUlllity pl·otein
bl Values in psmntheses al·e minimal l-equireme nts.

oranges, carrots, melon, plums, informations some outline has been

onions, peas, potatoes, tomatoes etc.
In India, food offered by the visitors
is less in summer than in winters,
sInce number of visitors are less in
summer. It is being observed that in
London zoo primates left 50% of
their offered by the keepers in
summers and considerable amount
in winters also. This is because care
was not taken to reduce that amount
of food offered by the keepers (Bilby
1968).
Requirements of nutrients of
non human primates. The precise
requirements of nutrients for ' non
human primates are not available.
Based on the NRC data
supplemented with further
prepared Table 1. which will be
helpful in formulating diets for
non-human primates in captive
conditions.
Energy and protein requirements
The table clearly indicate that
the smaller and younger species
have greater energy requirements
than their larger counterpart e.g. on
ad lib feeding the infants of smaller
New World Monkeys require 300-500
kcal energy/kg/day as compared to
200-300 kcal by larger old world
monkeys. At the ceasation of growth
both adult Old and New World
monkeys reduce by 30-50% of their
energy requirement.

- 16 -
 Both human and non-human
primates have relatively low
requirements for proteins as a
consequence of slow growth rates,
small milk yield and relatively dilute
milk. While considering the quantity
of protein, care must be taken for
quality of the protein (ratio of amino
acids) which also influences the
protein requirement of the animals.
Distinction should be made between
animals protein which is usually of
"high quality" and plant protein
which can be low in one or more
essential amino acids. Follis et al.
(1957) observed protein deficiency
signs in grivet monkeys when fed
exclusively on maize. Just like
energy, protein requirement per unit
body weight is more in smaller sps.
than the Jarge sps.
Fat and Fatty acid requirements
Though the essential fatty acid
requirement has no yet been
established but essential fatty acid
deficiency does exist in non buman
primates similar to human Le. loss' of
hair, dry scaly skin etc. Non-human
primates can very well adjust to 10%
total dietary fat and also on diets
much higher in fat, as long as their
essential fatty acid requirement is
fullfilled. It appears that like human
1-2% of total caloric requirement
supplied as linoleic acid can prevent
EFA deficiency sign.
Vitamin requirement
Like human, non human
primates also show vitamin
deficiency signs. So vitamin
supplementation is an improtant
part of feed formulation.
The recommended levels per kg
diet are 125(}() I.U., 1250 I.U., 20 -
- 17 -
100 J.U. and 1 mg for vitamin A, D,
E and K, respectively. Recommended
levels of water soluble vitamins (mg
per kg diet) are Ascorbic acid
500-600, Niacin 40-50, Thiamin 4-6,
Riboflavin 8- 10, Pyrioxine 4-6,
Folacin 4-6 and Biotin 0.2.
Requirement for pantothenic acid,
choline, inositol and cyanocobalamin
have not been determined but are
generally supplemented in the diet.
Mineral requirement
Inspite of the vital role of
minerals very few studies have been
conducted on mineral requirement of
non-human primates. Based on the
data of various studies the daily
mineral allowances for non- human
primates as percent of diet are
Sodium 0.22-0.44, Potassium
0.24-1.09, Chloride 0.27-0.62,
Calcium 0.60-0.80, Phosphoruos
0.30-0.40, Magnesium 0.10-0.15. The
recommended allowences of iron,
zinc, iodine and chromium are 100,
20, 2 and 0.5 ppm, respectively.
Requirements for magnesium,
copper;-selemum ana fiuonae.Jiaie
not Deen determined for non:human
primates, but they are assumed to be
required at approximately levels of
20, 2, 0.1 and D.5 ·ppm, respectively.
Water requirement
In natural habitat non-human
primates mostly take vegetable
based diet and thus fulfill their
water requirement. But in captive
conditions when they are fed on
concentrated commercial ration, they
require water supplementation. If
there is no unexpected water loss
due to some abnormal condition,
water requirement depends on the
energy expenditure. Kerr et al (1972)
 Table 2. Major ingredients for nutrient sources in non human primate diets.

Source
Animal source Fish meal, meat meal, dried milk products
Vegetable source Soybean meal, corn gluten meal
Crude fibre Alfa Alfa meal, beet pulp, oat hulls, wheat bran
Crude fat Soybean oil, corn oB, animal fat
Carbohydrates Whole ground wheat, ground corn, ground barley,
wheat middlings

have demonstrated for most of the
primates water requirement as 1 ml
water per kcal of gorss energy/day.
Rhesus monkey tea a coziiiiiei=Clal
diet_, require 80 ml waterlkg
B.W.lday (Feldmahn et al 1960). The
water requirement increases in
smaller, younger animals, during
lactation or Increased environmental
temperature and increased fluid loss
(vomiting and diarrhea).
Feed formulation
Diet for non-human primates
should include one or two
ingredients as a major source of each
nutrient class supplemented with
mineral and vitamin. Few major
sources are presented in Table 2.
Diets manufactured at
National Institue of Health shows
mean percent nutrient
concentrations as crude rotein
11 80, crude fibre 2.61, ash (max.)
--
5.27, NFE (min.) 60.77, Calcium 0.95
/ and Phosphorus 0.53.
Morin et al (1978) tested diets
having graded levels of crude fibre
on non-human primates (rhesus
monkey) in quarantine Table 3. One
group fed on commercial diet (2.2%
dietary crude fibre) was also taken.
It was found that the morbidity
rate was highest in group fed 2.2%
dietary crude fibre and lowest in
animals fed 7% dietary curde fibre.
Recovery period was lowest in 7%
group. The authors were of the
opinion that the diet with 7% dietary
crude fibre can fulfill the
requirement of non-human primates.
Feed may be prepared in four
ways. (a) extruded diet, (b) baked
diet, (c) as meal and (d) liquid diet.
It is quite difficult to maintain
captive wild animals on liquid diet or
on meal. Offering extruded or baked
diet is quite practical. Barnard et al
(1979) conducted series of metabolic
trials on Rhesus (Macaca mulatta)
monkeys offering extruded and
baked diets and found that both the
diets were comparable as far as
digestibility is concerned .
Feeding schedules
Very few experiments have
been conducted to standardize the
feeding schedule of non-human
primates in captive conditions. For
rhesus monkey two meals or 8 h
feeding per day gives moderate
growth. Feed intake increases if feed
is available to the animal for a
longer time.

- 18 -
 Table 3. Experimental open formula baked diets for non-huma.
, "lnd dry
Ingredients Percent dietary crude fibre ~"n
2.4 7.0 9.8
/ -iheat flour 50.00 '39.00 28.00
Wheat middlings 6.30 4.75 3.50
Wheat bran 4.20 3.50 3.00
Alfa Alfa meal (17% protein) 2.~5 6.25 10.00
Oat hulss 1.00 10.00 19.00
Soybean meal (48% protein) 7.50 7.50 7.50
Skim milk (dried) 2.75 2.70 2.70
Fish Meal (60% protein) 4.00 4.50 5.00
Brewer's dried yeast 2.50 2.50 2.50
Sugar 3.00 3.00 3.00
Corn starch 8.40 8.60 8.40
Soybean oil 3.70 3.60 3.50
Calcium Carbonate 1.70 1.50 1.30
Monosodium Phosphate 0.40 0.50 0.50
Salt 0.30 0.30 0.30
Mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Vitamin premix 1.00 1.00 1.00

References
Bilby, L.W. (1968) S)mp. Zoo!. Soc. Lond. No.
21 :6:1-75.
Follis, R.H. (1957) Pr·oc. Soc. Exp. Bio!. Med.
96:523-528.
NRC (1978) requirements of non-human
primates. National Academy of Scien-
ces, Washington, D.C. 1978.
KhelT, G.R. (1972) Physiol. Rev. 52:415-467.
F eldmahn, A.L., Smith, W.K., and Leventhal,
C.M. (1960l Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.
85:828-841.
Morin, M.L., Renquist, D.M., Knapka , J ., and
Judge, F.J. (1978) Lab. An. Sci . 28:405.
Nicolosi, Robert J ., Hunt Ronald D. In •
Primates in Nutritional Research"
(K.C. Hayes ed.) Academic Press, New
York.

- 19 -
 Rwnen digestion and metabolism in Blackbuck
Neelam Kewalramani
Blackbuck (Anti lope cervicapra)
is a ruminant animal which belongs
to family Bovidae, which includes
antilopes, goat-antilopes, musk oxen,
goat, sheep, cattle and buffalo. These
animals characterstically have horns
which grow over a bony core and are
never shed.
Like other ruminants, the
stomach of the blackbuck is divided
into four compartments i.e. rumen,
reticulum, omasum and abomasum.
The first two comparatments often
referred together as rumino-
reticulum is a smaller proportion of
the body weight as compared to
cattle and buffalo and comprises 80%
of the total stomach tissue weitht.
Voluntary feed intake : The
mean DM intake is reported to be
greater during summer season as
compared to winter season (Stafford
et al., 1995) but a higher intake in
voluntary feed intake has not been
observed to be accompanied by an
increase in forestomach motility.
Blackbuck can consume 2.2 and 3.5
kg DMilOO kg Body wt. fed on oats
and berseem (Pathak et al., 1992)
and on maize fodder, the intake is
2.25 kg/lOO kg Body wt. (Pathak et
al., 1992).
Rumen Eco-System The
rumen pH varies between 6.33 to
7.50; specific gravity, 1.017 ± 0.01 to
1.027 ± 0.009 on various feeding
regimes. Three types of ru~en
microorganisms are prevalent in' the
rumen; bacteria, protozoa, (Kamra et
a/., 1991) and fungi (Fonty et al.,
1989). In blackbuck, the major
- 20 -
protozoa present are of two types
Isotricha and Dasytricha. On feeding
oats or berseem, there is an abrupt
increase in the population of
holotrichs, especially the dasytricha
(Kamra et aZ., 1991). Although the
holotrichs form only a small fraction
(14.43 to 16.63%) of the total
protozoal population, their share in
the protozoa cell mass is significant
(40.51 to 42.39%). The number of
protozoa varies between 142.0 ± 12.8
to 179.3 ± 69.8 x 104/ml of rumen
liquor.
The activities of the fibre
degrading enzymes i.e. carbo-
xymethylcellulase and xylanase
depends upon the fibre content of the
diet as well as the protein content of
the diet which leads to the
mUltiplication of cellulolytic bacteria.
The activities of carboxymethyl-
cellulase and xylanase were higher
in blackbuck on oats feeding due to
higher concentration of hemi-
cellulose in oats as compared to
berseem (Agarwal et al., 1993)
whereas in maize fodder the
activities were lower due to the low
protein content of the maize
(Kewalramani et al., 1992).
The concentration of VFA
present in the rumen liquor of
blackbuck increased up to 8 hrs.
after feeding and reached up to 6.92
meq/100 ml SRL on feeding maize
fodder (Kewalramani et al., 1992).
Most of the VFA are absorbed
directly from the rumen, reticulum
and omasum. Small amounts may
pass to abomasum and SI from
where they are absorbed. The pH of
the rumen greatly affects the
absorption of VFA. An increase in
pH of 7.0 - 7.5 leads to decreased
VFA absorption rates.
Protein digestion and
metabolism : The rumen microbes of
blackbuck produce proteolytic
enzymes which hydrolyze the dietary
proteins to peptides and amino acids
which are further deaminated to
carbon dio:lj:ide, ammonia and
organic acids.
Feeding of blackbuck in captive
environemnt would be similar to
domestic bovines except that black
bucks are reluctant to consume
References
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N ., Sawal, R.K.,
Kamra, D.N. and Pathak, N.N. (1993)
lndilln J. Anim. Nut.·. 10,53.
Fonty, G., Breton, A., Fe.,·e, M., Citron, A.,
Heb.·aud, M. and Gouet, Ph. (1989) IN
proceedings of a satellite symposium of
7th international symposium on
ruminant physiology, Hakone, Japan.
Krum'a, D.N., Sawal, R.K., Pathak, N.N.,
Kewalramani, N. and Agarwal, N.
(199!) Letters in App!. Microbiol. 13,
165.
Nutrition and Feeding of Elephants
A. K. Garg
Elephants are the largest
terrestrial mammals presently
inhabiting the earth. They are
classified in the super order
Near-Ungulates (Paemungulata)
being herbivores hoofed animals
with elastic soles and in the order
Proboscidae due to presence of a
large trunk or proboscis. Once
distributed throughout the world
- 21 -
adequate amount of coarse and dry
fodders. During favourable season
i.e. humid, rainy season and winter
the quality and quantity of green
fodders are quite satisfactory and
black bucks are able to consume their
requirement of protein and energy
on ad libitum feeding. However,
mineral and salt licks should be
provided separately. In dry season a
composit concentrate mixture
containing about 20 to 22% crude
protein and less than 10% crude
fibre should be fed at the rate of
1.5% of the body weight along with
available fodder. Running drinking
water should be freely available to
the animals.
Kewalramani, N., Sawal, R.K., Kamra, D.N.,
Agarwal, N. and Pathak, N.N. (1992)
Int. J. Anim. Sci. 7,219.
Pathak, N.N., Kewalrrunani, N. and Kamra,
D.N. (1992) Small Ruminant Research
8,265.
Stafford, K.J., Reid, C.S.W., Barry, T.N., Sut-
tie, J.M. (1995) Nutrition Abstract and
Review 6.5, 174.
with many species, now they exist
only in Asia and Mrica with only two
genera and each with only one
species. Their number is still
reducing day by day both in wild and
captivity. Ordinarily the age of
elephant reaches upto 60-75 years in
the wild conditions, however, they
hardly reach to this age in captivity.
The major cause of low life
 expectancy in captivity has been
attributed to wrong type and quality
of fodder given to these animals. In
many cases feeding of elephants in
zoos and circuses is very miserable.
. Sometimes there is over feeding
leading to obesity. Heavier elephants
are more prone to problems of toe,
nails and soles and deformities,
leading to early natural death or
euthanasia.
Habitat & Foraging Behavior:
Asian elephants inhabit many
biomes, including rain forests, grass
jungles and dry forests. They are
even found in Himalayan snow
zones. Due to their huge size and
strength and their all purpose trunk,
they have access to practically every
plant food right from the floor to
moderate heights of trees. They rip
the bark off the trees and can even
uproot them. They are able to detect
water sources from long distance.
Feeding Behaviour:
Elephants are mixed feeder
preferring grasses yet consuming
leaves, branches and bark of trees.
Water is an important part of their
diet. The peak feeding hours are in
early morning and late afternoons.
Elephants spent most of the day
preparing and eating their food as
they have to consume large
quantities of food mainly for two
reasons:
(i) Their large size - an adult
weighs upto 4000-5000 kg.
(ii) Poor feed utilization.
AdJJlts are reported to spend
I J.&2O.._lu:S ..dairy in feeding acti'vity.
t ':_Thex sle~ j_ust for 2-4 hours. They
frequently go for drinking water
- 22 -
during most of the night and mid
day.
Calf rearing in wild:
The new born calf measures
about 1M and weighs about 100 kg.
It can stand up after 5 minutes and
walk after 1 hour of birth. It suckles
with its mouth. They also consume
some solid food shortly after birth.
As young calves are not able to
masticate their solid food, older
members help them by cutting the
food into small pieces. They even
snatch half chewed food from the
mouth of the adults (Grazime, 1979).
Suckling takes place till young one is
4-6 months old.
Feeding of elephants in
captivity:
In India, there are various
systems of keeping elephants in
captivity. They are:
(i) Intensive system
(ii) Extensive system
(iii) Zoos/Circuses
(0 Intensive system: Where the
elephants are kept more or less
individually e.g. by private
owners (temples, big landlords,
investors) or war and state
elephants. In this system,
elephants are fed exclusively
on prepared fodder.
(ii) Extensive system: It includes
the working elephants main-
tained in the jungle villages. In
this system, the animals are
left in nearby forest for their
food during the period of rest.
In some places supplemental
feeding consisting of millet,
rice, copra, sugar cane and salt
is also practiced.
Feeding schedule of elephants , of feed materiaL is gestation
in Kanha National Park \, scientific basis for
Following is the prescribed diet of these animals. m, 1972).
for elephants (Saxena, 1991) Feeding Schedule rate of
(i) Working diet - (No~ember - (a) In Delhi Zoo ut to
June). ~wer
Sugar cane/Green fodder 20,-
a) Wheat (in the form of Dry fodder 15 k.,
baked roti) or rice (as
boiled balls) - 9 kg. Tree fodder 60 kg
b) Gur 500 g (b) In Kanpur Zoo
c) Salt 200 g Sugar cane/Green fodder 150 kg
(ii) Rest diet - (JuJy _: Qctober). Wheat flour 40 kg
a) Wheat/rice 5 kg Gur (in winter) 500 g
b) Gur 300 g F~eding and Nutritional
Studies in Elephants
c) Salt 100 g
Feeding and nutritional studies
If work is taken during
in elephants are very less. The
off-season, the elephant is given full
earliest reported work on elephants
working diet. Feeding is done at
appears to be by Benedict (1938) on
about 4-5 P.M. after they return
the basal metabolism. They observed
from field work. They are also given
that basal metabolism of elephants
water. After feeding, the elephants
of 3833 and 1360 Kg mean body
are left free for grazing and rest for
weights were 30924 and_ 16020
whole night.
Ca1Jday. On the basis of large
Addition of tamarind (200 g) number of data right from elephants
and Gram (1 kg) keeps better health. to rats, these workers proved that
Feeding of 5-6 coconuts to the basal metabolism is a function of
mother just after calving is reported metabolic body size and not the body
to make milk clear and fast weight. ------
regaining of strength.
Roehrs et al. (1989) compared
Feeding of calves the digestibility of Timothy in
a) Rice 2.5 kg summer and winter in two female
African elephants and reported that
b) Gur 500 g digestibility of dry matter (DM),
c) Tamarind 100 g crude proteIn (cp), ADF and gross
- / energy were higher in summers at
d) Salt 100 g
39, 45, 36 and 43% as compared to ..)-
e) Gram whole 500 g 35, 30, 24 and 32%, respectively in
(iii) Zoo and Circuses: Feeding of winter season. The dry matter
elephants in zoos and circuses, intake ranged from 1.4 to 1.6% of
in many cases, is very body weight. These figures showlllat
miserable. It is largely based 60-65% of the swallowed food leaves
on experience and availability the body undigested.
- 23 -
 Clemens & Maloiy (1983) material leads to negative
studied the digestibility of different digestibility values for these sites.
nutrients (DM, energy, CP, CF, Net appearance of VFAs (Acetate,
NFE, EE, ce.ll wall, cellulose and Butyrate and Propionate) in the
hemicellulose) in three adult caecal and colon segments indicated
elephants in different parts of the presence of well developed
gastrointestinal tract. They also fermentation process in these
studied the anatomical features of segments. Concentration of TVFAs
G.!. tract. Poor digestibility of dry was highest (80 m mol elL) jn .
matter in the elephants was caecum. whicn rediJceain colon
attributed to consumption of high segment indicating efficient
fibre diet (Le. branches, bark) and absorption of VFAs therein. The
geophagia which was evident by the proportion of different VFAs Was
presence of large quantities of earth about lO:15:1S-for acetic, propionic &
and gravel within the caecum and butyric acids.
colon. The accumulation of such
Refet'ences
Benedict, F.W. (1938) Vital Energetics, a Grzime Kh.c.B, (1975). Animal Encyclopedia-
study in comparative basal metabo- Mammals, Vol. 12 (Ed). Van Nostrand
lism. Carnegie Institute, Washington Reinhold Co., N.York, p. 657.
Pub. 503 p. 175-6 in "Bioenergetics and Roehrs, J .M., Brockway, C.R., Ross D.V.,
Growth" (S. Brody, 1964) Hather Pub. Reichar, T.A. and Ullrey, D.E. (1989).
Co. Inc., New York. pp. 352-403. Digestibility of Timothy hay in African
Clemens, E.T. and G.M.O.Maloiy (1983). elephants. Zoo!. Bio!.8(4):331-351.
Nutrient digestibility and gastrointes- Saxena, A. (1991) Management of Elephant
tinal electrolyte flux in the elephant Camps and Elephant Care. The Indian
and rhino ceros. Compo Biochem. Foresters 117(10):926-934.
Physiol. 75A(4): 653-658

Nutritional Demands of Gestation

D.K. Agarwal

Highest demands of period is over. It has been observed

reproduction are made on the female.
Development of testicles and
production of semen do not cost
significantly. Similarly growth of
ovary or oviduct in females has not
been given much attention in
mammals. Nutritional requirements
in females depend upon the nutrients
retained by the gravid uterus ~nd
enlarged mammary glands. . For estimation of energy cost of
Most of the foetal growth takes
place after 50-60% of gestation
that gestation period and birth
weights are dependent on maternal
metabolic weight. The embryonic
and neonatal compositions differ
significantly e.g. with development,
water content of foetus decreases
whereas protein, fat or mineral
content increases. Composition of
neonates differs with species.
gestation, following information is
used:

- 24 -
1. Relationship of birth weight
and maternal weight.
2. Regression of maternal weight
to gestation period.
3. Composition and growth char-
acteristics of gravid uterus.
4. Estimation of oxygen consump-
tion of gravid uterus per
kilogram of tissue.
For ungulates such values are
available viz.
1. Maternal weight to birth
weight and gestation period
regressions.
2. Composition and growth char-
acteristics of the gravid uterus
in white tailed deer.
3. The oxygen consumption of
gravid uterus including foetus.
For ungulates weighing 10 kg
or more, maintenance energy
expenditure of the gravid uterus
becomes relatively asymptotic at 85%
of the total cost. Thus it is evident
that the maintenance requirement of
the gravid uterus is the major cost of
gestation for virtually all mammals.
Payne and Wheeler (1967) have
suggested that the cost and stress of
gestation in large mammals is felt
less because of relatively smaller
neonate and longer gestation period.
According to them, the productive
cost of offspring synthesis, as an
increment of basal metabolic rate
(0.56 and 0.60) is less in the larger
species. In ungulates average foetal
weight and gestation periods are
functions of maternal weight raised
to the 0.79 and 0.19 powers,
respectively.
Y = 0.89 xO. 79 where Y is birth
weight and x is maternal weight.
(Robins and Robins, 1979).
- 25 -
Y = 29.6 xO. 10 where Y is gestation
period and x is
maternal weight (Kihlstrom, 1972).
Therefore, the crude rate of
offspring synthesis works out to
maternal weight to the 0.60 power
(xO.70 . xO.19 = x 0.60).
When total cost Le.
maintenance and production of
gravid uterus to the gestation period
is taken into account, it is closer to
maternal metabolic body weight
(xO. 96 . xO.19 = xO. 77 ). But the
relatively lower daily productive
costs of larger species are counter
balanced by the increasing
maintenance costs during the longer
gestation periods. Therefore, the
time dependent cost of gestation as a
per centage of BMR peaks just prior
to parturition at 44% and is not
affected by the weight of ungulate.
During gestation protein in
gravid uterus and mammary glands
accumulates curvilinearly. Thus in
white tailed deer protein content of
uterus increased from 15.3g at
conception to 1430g at full term in
the experiment of Robins and Moen
(1975). Protein accumulation in
gravid uterus can be predicted Y =
0.186 (0.89 WO· 79) or Y = 0.17 WO· 79
where Y is in g, W is maternal
weight in g and 0.89 WO· 79 is the
relationship between maternal
weight and foetal weight (loc.cit.). In
larger species protein is accumulated
at a decreasing rate per kilogram of
foetus produced because of longer
gestation period.
The mammary gland begins
enlarging after approximately two
third of the gestation period is over.
On the assumption that on an
average protein accumulates in
mammary gland at the rate of
35g/kg of foetus, the total protein
requirement of mammary gland
development during gestation in
ungulates is ~redicted by Y(g) =
0.035(0.89WO· 7 ), or Y = 0.03WO· 79 ,
where W is maternal weight in g.
Thus total protein requirement for
pregnancy in ungplates works out to
0.17WO·7!T+0.03WO·79 = 0.20 WgO. 79 .
Maintenance cost of the gravid
uterus can only be speculated. If
EUN losses attributable to gravid
uterus are 1.5 mg NIK Cal of
maintenance, the total protein cost
(g) of maintenance works out to
0.006WO· 99 where W is maternal
weight in grams. Thus total protein
cost of uterus and mammary gland
during gestation works out to
0.1501W,·84. This being lesser per
unit of gestation for larger animals
with long gestation period. Similarly,
the reproductive protein cost
increases the total maternal
endogenous requirement (as a per
centage of EUN excretion) from 55%
References
Kihlstrom, J.E. 1972. Period of gestation and
body weight in some placental mam-
mals. Corn. Biochem. Physiol., 43A:673-
679.
Payne, P.R. and Wheeler, E.F. 1967. Com-
parative nutrition in pregnancy. Na-
ture, 215:1134-1136.
Robins, C.T. 1983. Wild life feeding and Nutri·
tion Academic Press, New York, p. 172-
180.
- 26 -
in a 10 kg female ungulate to 35% in
a 1000 kg female animal.
Mineral requirement also
increases curvilinearly as foetal
mass enlarges and ossification of
bones takes place. But for minerals
there is no maintenance requirement
of foetus because of recycling from
maternal to foetal circulation. Thus
the reproductive requirement of
minerals is limited to the quantity
retained by foetus and the larger
animals with longer gestation period
and relatively smaller foetus will
experience a relatively smaller
increased daily mineral requirement
than with the smaller species.
It is thus seen that the
pregnant females can benefit by
lengthening the gestation period if
protein or minerals are limiting but
not if energy is limiting. However,
females usually ingest nutrients
more than gestation cost to
accumulate in reserve to be
mobilized during lactation as
lactation is more costly than
gestation.
Robins, C.T. and Moen, A.N. 1975. Uterine
composition and growth in pregnant
white tailed deer. J. WildI.Manage.,
39:684-691.
Robins, C.T. and Robins, B.L. 1979. Fetal and
neonatal growth patterns and maternal
reproductive effort in ungulates and
subungulates. Am. Nat., 114:101-116.
 Comparative Nutrient Utilization in Wild and
Domestic Ruminants
R. S. Dass
All the ruminants, wild or
domestic, are herbivorus in nature.
In popular parlance, the ruminants
have been given credit for having
four stomachs. In reality they have
but one, which is divided into several
compartments depending upon the
species. The true · ruminants,
including sheep, cattle, goats, deer
and antelope, have four
compartments. Tylopods, which are
comprised of camels, llamas and
related species, are often considered
pseudo-ruminants and have· a three
compartment stomach, the omasum
being absent. The captive herbivore
is unlikely to be fed solely on
synthetic nutrients, at the best it
may be given foods eaten by
domestic ruminants and that may be
largely unfamiliar to the animal on
free range. This may affect
utilization of such foods in captive
wild ruminants when compared with
the domestic ruminants.
Rumen microflora: Ruminants
have been gifted with a large
number of bacteria, protozoa and
fungi in their rumen, to make
efficient use of cellulose and
hemicellulose, the most abundant
carbonaceous material on the earth.
Rumen microflora of the domestic
ruminant is well known, but little
work has been done to establish the
bacterial and protozoal species
present in wild ruminants. Hobson et
al. (1976) compared the population of
microbes found in the rumen of
sheep, red deer and reindeer in
- 27 -
Scotland. The animals were all
grazing hill pastures but consumed
rather different forages. The various
bacteria differed considerably in
relative importance between the
three animals but the list of species
present was much the same,
resembling that found in farm
animals. However, quite different
population of cilliate protozoa were
present. Rumen fluid in mule deer
and elk contained 17 x 109 to 67 x
109 bactgeria/ml of rumen fluid.
Similar values have been observed in
cattle and buffalo. Kamra et al.
(1991) studied the effect of feeding
two different fodders (oat green and
berseem green) on the number of
protozoa in the rumen of black buck
(Antilope cervicapra). The average
number of total protozoa, total
Holotrichs and total Spitrotrichs in
rumen liquor were more in
blackbucks fed on green berseem
than green oats. The average
number of total protozoa/ml of SRL
in blackbucks were similar to other
domestic ruminants.
Rumen volume and rate of
passage: Kay and Goodal (1976)
observed that red deer (Ceruus
elaphus) showed lower digestibility
and shorter mean retention time
(MRT) than sheep and that MRT
showed a tendency to decline with
increasing DM intake. MRT of the
particulate phase marker (103Ru)
Phenanthroline for deer and sheep
were 32.5 and 53.2 h when fed on
Agrostis festuca. Similar MRT has
been observed in Japanese Sikka
deer and sheep fed on lucerne hay.
Detailed mechanism for the shorter
MRT in deer is not known. It is
reported that MRT in the stomach of
deer is 60 per cent of the total MRT
and that forestomach motility
pattern in deer does not seem to
differ substantially from those in
cattle. MRT has also been observed
to be different in different seasons in
red deer i.e. 29.2 and 34.8 h for
winter and summer, respectively. As
total rumen volume (Le. capacity) is
unlikely to change in different
seasons, this may be a · digestive
adaptation that deer have evolved to
increase rumen MRT (and hence
time for microbial attack) under
conditions when voluntary feed
intake (VFI) increases in summer,
thus ensuring that apparent
digestibility does not decline with
the increase in VFI. It has been
observed that rumen liquor
fractional outflow rate (FOR) i.e.
lIMRT was faster for red deer (16
per cent/h) than for sheep and goat
(10 per cent/h) and this occurred in
both summer and winter.
Rumen fermentation pattern :
Rumen fermentation pattern in
ruminants is dictated by the nature
of diet fed to these animals. Diets
with a high ratio of readily
fermentable structural carbohy-
drates normally produce rumen
fermentation with a lower
acetate:propionate ratio as reported
by Freudenberger et ~t. (1994) when
they . compared red clover with
perennial rye grass fed to deer.
However~ the reverse trend was
observed by Hoskin et at. (1995) in
deer fed with chikory, a feed having
- 28 -
higher ratio of readily fermentable
structural carbohydrates than rye
grass, yet producing a fermentation
with a higher acetate. The relative
molar proportion of VFAs in rumen
liquor are influenced by the rumen
liquid dilution rate, rumen protozoa
and pH. A higher liquid dilution rate
caused by intraruminal infusion of
artificial salva was found to increase
the acetate:propionate ratio. Acetate
and n-butyrate are the principal
fermentation products in the chikory
fed deer. Higher absorption of
acetate from the rumen relative to
propionate may lower the efficiency
of utilization of absorbed energy.
Ruminal pH and concentrations of
TVFAs and ammonia were closely
similar in sheep and deer hinds fed
on fixed ration of grass hay.
Dry matter digestibility:
Digestibility of DM in ruminants, up
to some extent depends upon MRT in
the rumen, apart from the nature of
diet. More the retention time, more
is the DM digestibility and vice
versa. Maloiy et al. (1978) compared
the digestibility of DM in deer and
sheep fed on high and low level of
nitrogen in the diet at two levels of
water intake. The digestibility of DM
was significantly (P<O.Ol) more in
sheep as compared to deer
irrespective of level of nitrogen
intake, but slightly more on the high
water regimen. It has been observed
that despite the similarity in the
ruminal digestive process, red deer
digest the DM of fibrous diets about
5 per cent less than sheep. The
paradox is probably explained by the
more rapid passage of food through
the digestive tract that is usually
found in deer, for this will give less
time for digestion of more refractory
fibrous components of the diet.
Level of feed intake also affects
the DM digestibility in ruminants.
DM . digestibility was compared in
Japanese sikka deer and sheep fed
lucerne hay at three levels of intake.
The digestibility of DM was alike in
sheep and deer at low level and
medium level of intake of lucerne
hay, but it was significantly more in
sheep than deer at higher level of
i~take. However , no ' significant
difference in DM digestibility
between red deer and sheep were
observed when pelleted and more
digestible diets were given,
pre..sumably because digestion was
more nearly completed, even with
the shorter retention time, typical of
deer. . more allantoin and uric acid in their
Crude protein digestibility: The
experiments of Simpson et al. (1978)
indicated that red deer calves can
digest and utilize protein of their
diet as efficiently as lambs. The
adult hind also digest the crude
protein of the diet and it's kidneys
excrete or conserve urea in a similar
manner to sheep. Digestibility of
crude protein when compared in red
deer and sheep fed on same level of
nitrogen intake was more in sheep
as compared to deer. Apparent
protein digestibility ranged from
-99.9 per cent for maple leaves to 88
per cent for fresh spring wheat
herbage in elk. True protein
digestibility, which is an estimate of
the per centages of the forages
protein ingested that is actually
absorbed, was 98 per cent for elk.
The true protein digestibility for elk
is higher than the 84.4-95.7 per cent
- 29 -
for white tailed deer Wdocoieleus
virginiil(l.us) and 96.0 per cent for
red deer' (Cervus elaphus). Although
many of 'values calculated for true
nitrogen digestibility for domestic
ruminants are slightly lower than
values for wild ruminants, the
difference may be due to varying
metabolic faecal losses, to
experimental procedures or to
quality and condition of feeds rather
than species difference in efficiency
of nitrogen use.
A significant important point
was noted in sheep which excreted
approximately 50 per cent less
nucleic acids in their faeces than the
deer, but the amount was related to
the amount of food consumed and to
the excretion of faecal nitrogen, as a
result the sheep excrete relatively
urine. It seems that microbial
nucleic acids from which these
products largely arise, must be
metabolized in rather a different
manner in the two species after
leaving the rumen (Razzaque et al.
1980).
Fibre digestibility: Red deer
appeared to digest cellulose less well
than the sheep, which may be due to
lower retention time of the feed in
the rumen. Wapiti has been reported
to digest almost twice as much ADF
as do white tailed deer. This
difference may be related to the
anatomy of the digestive tract.
Wapiti are reported to be less
selective feeders and better able to
digest fibre than species of
Odocoielus. The digestibility of ADF
reduced from 43 to 28 per cent in
Wapiti when the environmental
temperature decreased from 3°c to
-12°c. Similar decrease in ADF
digestibility was observed in sheep
under similar experimental
conditions.
Nutrient balance: Not much
work has been done to study the
balance of nutrients in wild animals
kept under captivity. Nitrogen
retention of deer on summer
restricted feeding was intermediate
and significantly different from
winter ad lib fed deer when
expressedlKg W· 75 or per 100g dry
matter intake. Total nitrogen
economy of the ruminant is affected
by several variables. In addition to
the efficiency of nitrogen absorption
References
Freudenberger, D.O., Burne, C.J., Toyokawa,
K and BaiTY, T.N. (1994). J. Agric. Sci.
(Camb) 122:115-120.
Hobson, P.N., Mann, S.O. and Summers, R
(1976). Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh B 75: 171-1SO.
Hoskin, S.O., Stafford, K.J. and Barry, T.N.
(1995). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb) 124:289-
295.
Kamra, D.N., Sawal, RK., Pathak, N.N.,
Kewalramani, Neelarn and Agarwal, N.
(1991). Letters in Applied Microbiology
13:165.
Seasonal stress on nutrient availability and need
of Supplementary Feeding
P. Singh
Wild ruminants (Muskoxen,
Cervidae, etc.) show strong seasonal
cycles of growth, appetite and energy
metabolism. Their diet is generally
dominated by grasses and sedges.
High quality forage is only available
in summer and access to nearly all
forage may be severely restricted by
- 30 -
and it's use, energy intake is an
important consideration because
animals catabolize dietary and body
fats and proteins to meet energy
requirement, when dietary energy is
deficient. Additionally, animals
consuming protein in excess of their
requirement, but deficient in energy,
may not retain dietary nitrogen as
efficiently, because sufficient carbon
substrates would not be availabale
for microbial amino acid synthesis.
Nitrogen retention is also affected by
urea recycling rate. The amount of
urea recycled (glKg W' 7ey) are
comparable in elk, white tailed deer,
cattle and sheep.
Kay, RN.R and Goodall, E.D. (1976).
Proceedings of Nutrition Soc., 35:98A.
Maloiy, G.M.O., Kay, RN.B., Goodall, E.D.
and Topps, J.H. (1970). Britist J. Nutr.,
24:843-855.
Razzaque, M.A., Topps, J.H., Goodall, E.D.
and Kay, RN.B. (1973). Proceedings of
the Nutrition Society, 32:95A.
Simpson, A.M., Webster, A.J.F., Smith, J.B.
and Simpson, C.A. (1978). Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology 59 A:95-
99.
snow for 8-10 months annually.
However, what is unusual about
Wapiti (Cerrus elaphus) is the
exceptionally higher summer values
rather than low winter values which
are close interspecific mean.
Moreover, recent studies on seasonal
fasting metabolic rates measured
under carefully standardized
conditions in reindeer, white tailed
deer and wapiti question whether
metabolic rates and hence
requirements alter from winter to
summer. One of the problems with
earlier work was that the
researchers measured energy expen-
diture rather than requirements.
The maintenance requirements can
be detennined directly by assessing
the amount of feed required to
maintain body energy throughout
the year.
The ability of muskoxen to
subsist on sparse winter forage is
essential to their survival and
reproduction but relatively a little is
known of their digestive
characteristics and nutritional
requirements. The digestibility of
diets fed to captive muskoxen in
Alask was 62-65% and an estimated
dry matter digestibility in free range
muskoxen in Deron Island was 65%
in early winter and at least 75% in
summer. In young muskoxen
voluntary intake in winter was
relatively low at 38gd- l KgO. 75 .
Digestibility and Energy Intake:
Over all diet quality was
similar in March and July, although
CP and most fibre and lignin
fractions were slightly higher in
March. Apparent OM digestibility
was significantly greater in March
(73.8%) than in July (60.8%) an_d
similarly CP and most fibre fractions
were more digestible during the
winter. Lignin digestibility was
found to be 3.9% in July as compared
to 47.9% in March. Moreover,
muskoxen consumed 12.6% more
DM in July than in March (44.6 vs
39 gd-l Kg:.o.75) but owing to lower
- 31 -
digestibility in July estimated
maintenance ME intake was similar.
Apparent ME requirements for live
weight gain ranged from 25-33 KJ
g-l in winter to 40-43 KJ g"l in
spring and summer but these values
were not significantly different. The
voluntary DMI enhanced from
winter to spring concomittantly with
availability of natural pasture. The
decline of forage intake in summer
probably was due to the logistics of
foraging rather than appetite.
Digestibilities of spring pasture
forage were the highest among all
seasons. Higher digestibility of
spring pasture forage contributed to
the highest rate of live weight gain.
Surprisingly, the increase in level of
intake (2-3 fold) did not depress
digestibility of standard pelleted
diets . ./
Effects ~ seasons on body
weig!if, digestion and energy
requirements:
Photo period and melatonin
have been found to affect the food
intake in most of the seasonal
ungulates. Moreover, growth and
digestive functions are influenced by
the food intake. The increased food
intake and reduced retention in
summer have been recorded.
Similarly decreased retention and
reduced digestibility in summer on
standard diet was found in soay
sheep. Wild muskoxen would
normally have access to highly
digestible green forage in mid
summer and increased intake and
decreased retention of forage might
then be expected.
Although body weight and feed
intake of non-breeding muskoxen
were less clearly seasonal than in
 breeding females, they showed some
evidence of photoperiodic effect. Both
breeding and non- breeding
muskoxen tended to lose weight in
late winter and spring, and to regain
it during autumn and early winter.
Whether BMR of wild ruminants in
arctic and temperate environments
change with season is not entirely
clear. Possible seasonal effects are
often confounded by enhanced intake
and an associated increase in energy
metabolism in summer.
Maintenance energy requirements of
muskoxen determined were similar
in winter and summer, but
estimated as 26% higher in summer
than in winter. The apparent
contradiction may reflect different
patterns of feeding. Muskox cows
showed a weight· surge in the
autumn and castrated muskoxen in
Palmer, Alaska gain and lose weight
in similar seasonal manner.
Moreover, wild muskoxen generally
have a more compressed period of
compensatory weight gain in
autumn and winter weight losses
usually gain earlier.
A lower level of nutrition may
result in substantially reduced
weights of liver and vital tissues in.
sheep, and an associated decrease in
oxygen intake. Several weeks of
maintenance feeding may be
essential to eliminate the shorter
and longer term effects of altered
food intake on metabolic rates.
Although muskoxen show
many of the attributes of grazers,
they can be quite selective in their
feeding in the wild and in captivity.
The penned animals never ate all
the hay offered, even when offered
less than they normally consumed,
- 32 -
and despite their wide muzzles
which were adept at taking the
leafier portions of hay and rejecting
larger stems. These results suggest
that muskoxen are quite selective in
their natural foraging. Such type of
selection may contribute
substantially to increasing the
digestibility of low quality diets.
Maintenance requirements of
muskoxen are relatively low in
winter compared with those of most
ruminants. ME and DM intake of
these animals are 0.425 MJlkgo. 75
and 38 g/d/kgO.75 respectively.
Fasting metabolic rates of muskoxen
are similar to those of domestic
sheep which are relatively low
compared with cattle and most
cervids.
Seasons are having great
impact on the nutrition and feeding
of animals as their nutrients
requirements and feed intakes are
altered. Moreover, seasons do alter
the chemical composition and
nutritive value of feeds and fodders
thus their palatability as well as
nutrients availability to the animals
are solely dependant on seasons.
It is pertinent to assess the
difference between the requirements
of animal and the supply of nutrients
through feeds/fodders. Under
seasonal stresses (heat/cold) when
animals are not able to consume full
quota of dry matter from feed-stuffs,
then supplementation of suitable
amount of nutrients, which are
otherwise lacking due to inadequate
intake of dry matter or poor quality
of forage, is essentially required to
be fed to the animals so that the no
deficiency of particular nutrients
could arise.
 In tropical countries during day time only. By adopting such
summer months (May-July) feed managemental practices we can
consumption is drastically reduced, reduce the seasonal stresses upto
so far the sustaining animal large extent.
production it is imperative to provide Finally, it may be deduced that
supplementary nutrients for the suitable combination of
maintaining the production. In nutritional and managemental
summer, animals are allowed to practices can render a way to get rid
graze the pasture in night hours for off seasonal stresses to a certain
reducing the day heat stress extent without much affecting
conversely in severe cold animals are animal production.
allowed to graze the pasture during
Further readings:
Adamczewski, J.Z., Chaplin, P.K., Schaefer, Oakes, E.J., Harmson, R. and Eberl, C. (1992)
J.A. and Flood, P.F. (1994). Canadian Canadian J. Zoo!', 70:605-616.
J. Anim. Sci. 74:305-313.
Jiang, Z. and Hudson, R.J. (1994). J.Ronge.
Manage. 47:127-132.

Nutrition and feeding of wild rodents

and lagomorphs
P. Singh

Rodentia is the largest order of herbivorus but some of them are

mammals and more than half of
mammalian species alive today
belong to it. Rodents may be
herbivorus or omnivorus and they
thrive on cereals, seeds, vegetables,
melons and other useful plants. They
destroy grain even in the field crops.
Today million tonnes of food is
consumed and/or spoiled by rodents
in silos, warehouses and households.
A. Rodents:
1. Squirrels:
Generally these animals
remain close to their nests. There
are two sub-families: ground and
tree squirrels (Sciurinae) and flying
squirrels (Pteromyinae) with 44
genera, 380 spp. and 1350 sub spp.
These animals are mainly
carnivorus.
The diet of squirrels consists
mainly of herbs, seeds, fruits, tubers,
onions, and roots. They also search
out and eat subterranean
mushrooms. Million tonnes of corn,
sunflower, legumes, potatoes, turnip
and other similar food are
consumed/spoiled by these animals.
They also consume other small
animals like birds and their eggs,
mice, small rodents and insects, etc.
Flying squirrels eat all sort of nuts,
including acorns, chestnuts, and
peanuts. They occasionally consume
berries, but never herbs. Moreover,
they like so many other rodents,
meal worms, beetles, grasshoppers
and other insects.

- 33 -
2. Marmots:
They are having a sturdy body
and head is broad and round with
clearly visible ears. Tail and legs are
short. Different types of marmots are
- Alpine, Bohac, long tailed, Hoary,
yellowed bellied, North American,
etc.
Their diets consist of roots,
herbs and grasses. From August and
onwards, they consume grass, plant
stalks in large quantity and lay them
out to dry. Using their mouths they
prepare their nests with hay, which
is used as insulation and as winter
food. They are also able to find food
even when there is · snow on the
ground, they scratch the snow away
from a particular area and eat the
plants beneath to it. This process of
eating is continued till snow melts.
Regarding the nutrients
requirements information are
lacking in the literature but they can
fed ad libitum on feeds and fodders
to meet out their requirements.
B. Lagomorphs
Since long time the lagomorphs
(hares, rabbits and pikas) have been
classified with rodents. However,
resemblance between lagomorphs
and rodents is only superficial, and
actually is based on similar feeding
habits. Moreover, as per the
composition of blood, they are
actually closer to ungulates (hoofed
animals) than to rodents.
l.Rabbits and hares:
Lagomorpha contains two families
and 12 genera. The main ',Vild
lagomorphs include cotton · tail
rabbit, jack rabbit hares, arctic hare
and snow shoe hare and the pikas or
rock rabbits. Among rabbits, hares
- 34-
and pikas, there are substantial
anatomical and behavioral
differences. Very few nutritional
studies have been conducted on
lagomorphs as compared to domestic
rabbits.
Wild lagomorphs seem to have
similar digestive physiology as
domestic rabbits. Coprophagy occurs
in almost all wild lagomorphs.
Rabbits and hares have similar
caecotrophic behaviour producing
soft faeces pellets enveloped in a
mucous covering. These are
consumed once or twice every 24 h
directly from the anus without
mastication. Several hours
fermentation occurs in the
caecotrophs. Conversely, pikas have
no distinct periods of caecotrophy
but produce small amount of soft
faeces. It is an amorphous paste
without a mucous envelope. A part is
consumed directly from the anus
while remainder is pasted on stones
and consumed later on in semi dry
state.
The diet consists exclusively of
plant materials such as juicy herbs,
grasses and berries. They can detect
the presence of truffles-wonderful
underground fungi. During cold
seasons snow hares change their
feeding habits and concentrate on
dry twigs, shods, and the bark of
several soft wood and deciduous
trees (aspen, willow, birch, oak,
maple, etc.). The most important
food for snow hares in the Scotish
moor is heather CCalluna ualgaris).
ncp requirement for snowshoe
IJnlye is- found to be 2.6 g/KgWU:15
f~h 11% CP ~ntent in th~ep
JackliDDit:-f e minimal digestible
nitrogen requirements was worked
 out to be 3'30 to 450 mg/Kg body activity of enzyme in snowshoe hares
weight as compared to 375 mg for was low round the year.
snowshoe hare. The energy For different stages of rabbits
requirements for non-producing jack tIte vitamin A and D requirements
rabbits and desert cotton tails is varied from 6000 to 12000 and 900 to
about 150 Kcal/Kg body weight. The 1000 IU/kg respecftvely. Moreover,
estimated daily requirement of DE, other various vitamins required for
ME and NE was 112, 116 and 91 growth are: 50 ppm Vitamin E; O..oL
Kcal per kgWO· 75 for snowshoe ppm Vitamm B12; ppm Thiamin; 6
hares. ppm riboflavin; 40 ppm pyridoxin;
Only few studies have been and 20 ppm pentothenic acid.
conducted on mineral and vitamin's Several factors influence the
nutrition of wild lagomorphs. It nutrient requirements of animals.
appears that almost all lagomorphs These include productive function
are efficient absorbers of Ca, and . (growth, lactation, maintenance,
excrete more Ca in the urine. Thus etc.), age, sex, body size and
urine was the major route of Ca environment (temperature, humidity,
excretion in jack rabbits and pikas-. air movement). Due to individual
In mountain hare prihcipal excretion variations in the requirements
of Ca, Na, . K and Mg was found between animals a safety margin
through urine. It was also found that allowance over and above
./ mountain hares consuming birch requirements has been given. This
and willow twigs ' were in negative safety factor is for tlJe shake of that no
N a balance. Information available on animals should be underfed.
the requirements of vitamins for Variations between samples of food
wild lagomorphs concerns to vitamin and between animals must always be
C. Activity of L-gulODolactone kept in mind while formulating the
oxidase the lackin in diet.
~als s nthesize
Keeping above mentioned
vitamin C, in cotton-tails,
points in mind the rodents and the
jackrabbits an snowshoe rabbits.
lagomorphs can satisfactorily be
However, cottontails s owe a
maintained nutritionally well fed
seasonal changes in activity, with
.under captive environments.
about a 10 fold greater level in ·
winter than in summer but · the
Further readiangs
Cheeke, P.R. (1987). Rabbit Feeding and Pehrson (983). J . Zoo). 119:563-574.
Nutrition, Academic Press, Inc., New
York.
NRC (972). Nutrients requirements of
laboratory animals. National Academy
Science (No. 10), Washington D.C.

·35·
 Metabolic problems in wild herbivorous mammals
S.K. Dwivedi
The nutritional status of wild
herbivorous mammals is of primary
importance to individual health of
animal. Maximal resistance to
environmental changes, infections
and parasitic diseases and maximal
production and infant survival rate
can only be expected from animals
having optimum level of nutrition.
Inadequacy or excess of nutrition as
happens sometimes in wild animals
results in metabolic problems.
However, these diseases are rarely
diagnosed and reported.
Metabolic bone disease in wild
herbivorous mammals
Metabolic bone diseases are
relativel common m Wl er lVores
compared to other metabolic disease.
This is due to perfect diagnosis and
wide reportin system as compared
to ot er disease conditions. . It
encompasses a number of conditions
that result due to deficiencies of
calcium, vitamin D or an improper
ratio of calcium to phosphorous in
the diet. This is characterized by
metabolic defects affecting the
morphology and function of bones.
Many names are given to this
syndrome and they are at times used
interchangeably. They include
osteoporosis, osteomalacia, rickets,
simian bone disease, osteogenesis
imperfecta, cage paralisis,
nutritional secondary hyper-
parathyroidism, paper bone disease.
Paget's disease and fibrous
osteodystrophy.
- 36-
Specific metabolic bone disease
a. Osteoporosis
It is a state of bone in which
resorption of osteoid over balances
the deposition of new tissue. The nf;lt
result is the decrease in the organic
matrix of the bone and thus, density
of the bone. The quality of osteoids
remains unaffected. --
Etiology
Protein the· et
results in Cushing
syn rome (Hyperdenalism) romotes
protein Jiepletion resultin in
depletion of bone matrix. Calcium
and phosphorous level has no role in
this case. Disuse of bone as in case of
paralysis, prolonged immobilization
of bone and confinement certainly
contribute to osteoporosis. Senile
osteoporosis is recorded in old wild
mammals.
Clinically it is difficult to
distinguish osteoporosis from
mineral imbalances. Radiographic
diagnosis is not accurate uniess it is
too advanced. Radiographic signs
include thinning of the cortices with
a corresponding increase in the
medullary space. Bones become
light, brittle and fragile. In young
animals cartilagenous transfor-
mation to bone is delayed.
b. Osteomalacia
Insufficient mineralization of
oste i Ie s to so nt!!g_ 0 bones
and decreased bone d~ity. The
condition is seen in 114ult bones in
 which mineralization fails to keep
pace with mineral resorption. As a
compensatory mechanism body
attempts to deposit osteoid tissue at
the site of greatest stress, such as
tendon insertion, points of bone
angUlation and curvatures.
c. Rickets
Failure <2f._mineralization of
bone matrix in young, growing
animals results in ricket.
Radiologically there is wideninK of
radiolucent e iphyseal plate, bowing
or-Iong bones and widening {?f
meta hyses. . clinical
d. Fibrous osteodystrophy
Mineral imbalances or
osteoporosis causes osteoclastic
resorption of osteoids-and it is being
re aced by highly cellular
connective tissue. Bones of face d._
mandible are affected most
frequently although other bones are
also affected. It is a compensatory
mechanism for structural weakness
resulting from softening of the
bones. Excessive connective tissue is
iaid down to offer support. Clinical
. signs include enlargement ~ial
and mandibu ar bones. Dysponea
results due to occlusion of nasal
p~sage. Prehension and mastication
becomes difficult.
e. . Nutritional secondary hyper-
parathyroidistn (NSH)
Deficiency of calcium in diet or
iIIlJnediate.'loss of calcium from the
body leads to resorption of calcium
from the bone through excessive
production of parathyroid hormone.
The ultimate result is osteomalacia
in adults and ricket in young
- 37 -
animals.
Clinical signs
It varies depending on the
species, age, duration and degree of
deficiency. They include lameness,
painful joints, reluctance to move,
difficulty in prehension, mastication,
loosening of teeth and subsequent
dental pain. Other skeletal
deformities are scoliosis, kyphosis,
lordosis and collapsed -pelvis with
the possibilities of dystocia.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based upon the
signs, laboratory
examination, radiographic findings
and evaluation of diet. Radiographic
changes come in the latter stages of
the disease. Laboratory examination
includes determination of serum
calcium and phosphorous level as in
most of the cases of metabolic bone
diseases their concentrations lie in
normal range. Serum alkaline
phosphatase leve~reased in
conditions involving osteoclastic
activity. - -
Therapy
Correction of diet is necessary
for amelioration. . Calcium
supplements are availabl
commercially. However, it is a remo
possibility in wild animals.
Ketosis
Wild runinants may suffe
from ketosis, either primary 0
secondary, as a result of feeding 0
onl roughages that are too coarse 0
prolonged" starvation. Energy for th
adult ruminants is normally derive
om car 0 y rates, while he maj
calorie source of immatu
ruminants is protein and butter fa
When a very coarse mature
roughage is consumed by adult
ruminants, there is negative energy
balance and the animal will be
forced to draw on its fat store.
Pregnancy ketosis occurs in wild
sheep tnat have been fed on poor
quality grasses and twining
increases the rate of occurrence.
Clinical signs of ketosis include
annoerxia, central depression,
acidosis and unconsciousness.
Diagnosis is made by laboratory
examination and finding increased
ketone bodies in blood and/or urine
or reduced blood pH.
Correction can be made by
intravenous glucose administration
and corticosteroid theraphy
supported with increased
carbohydrate level in diet.
Hypomagnesemia tetany
It has been reported in wild
herbivore mammals fed on lush
pasture rich in potassium. Clinical
sign include ataxia, depression, or
hypersensitivity to stimuli.
A Brief Note on Energy Cycle
Nityanand Pathak
The sun is the source of life for
all creatures including plants and
animals due to which the sun was
recognised as a 'God' in many
ancient mythologies. Solar radiation
is the source of energy for the
maintenance of life hich falls ~
the surface of earth at the rate of
about 20 Kcallm2/minute when ,~
r~ fa11 -Qerpendicular. Only about
half of the solar radiation (ranging
from less than 40% in cloudy area to
- 38 -
White muscle disease
Clinical signs associated with
the deficiency of vitamin E Selenium
complex are being recognised in
primates and feral ruminants.
Chronic cases demonstrate severe
anaemia and advanced fibrous
muscular dystrophy of skeletal
muscles. Muscle stiffness and
hyaline degeneration of straited
muscle occur. Elevated CPK levels
are diagnostic for nutritional
muscular dystrophy.
Clinical signs include muscular
weakness, myoglobinemia, myoglo-
binuria and subcutaneous edema.
_-
Malnutrition
It is a common problem in wild
animals as a result of non-
availability of feed or behavioural
problems with the colony. Infighting
frequently develops if several males
are maintained in a colony and less
dominant animals are often
restricted from feeding leading to
malnutrition.
70% in tropical arid zone) reaches
upto the earth's surface. About 45%
of the total radiation reaching on the
earth is in the photosynthetically
active range Le. iOO-700 nm."'FOrthe
production of one gram dry matter in
most of the higher plants requires
the fixation of about 4000 - 5000
calories of chemically bound energy
(Cooper, 1970). The factors affecting
the utilization of solar radiation for
chemical energy fixation in plants
are seasonal variation in day length,
duration of cloud and angle of solar
radiation. Energy conservation is
much higher in summer than in
winter in temperate region, but it is
generally more efficient in tropical
humid climate.
The functional unit of plant cell
for photosynthesis is chloroplast.
The light absorbing units in the
chloroplast are pigments (chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll b and many
carotenoids). In the day light
photosynthesis takes place and this
is known as light dependent phase of
photosynthesis when solar energy is
utilized and converted into chemical
energy. In the dark (night) this
chemical energy is utilized for the
conversion of carbon dioxide to
organic compounds which are stored
in the plants forming complexes and
structures water, nitrogen in the
form of protein, carbohydrates,
lipids, vitamins, some other organic
constituents (some having
characteristics of enzymes, enzyme
inhibition and hormones) and
minerals. These substances are the
sources of nutrients for the
herbivorous animals.
The plants are the primary
producers of complex organic
matters which greatly form the food
of animals. The plant eating fauna
are often classified as primary,
secondary, tertiary and quarternary
consumers.
The efficiency of energy
utilization in this natural food chain
is highly inefficient. Only about 10
References
Cooper, J.P. 1970. Herb. Abst., 40:1-15.
- 39 -
per cent of solar energy't ies fed lucerne
the plants in organic .
normally stored in the tvr..-.-- -
tissues in the body of herbiv6?S
animals and of this too only 10 pt.
cent is stored in carnivores feeding
on herbivores. The solar energy
entering into the food chain by
photosynthesis is very small due to
which there is continued
competetion among the animals and
human for food.
The cycle of energy chain
through the formation of organic
matter by photosynthesis in plants
and their consumption by the
animals is completed only when
considerable part of plants and
animals are made available by
recycling for the removal of herbages
and animal growth.
The balanced cyclic flow of
energy from producers to consumers
and subsequently by microbial decay
to environment and soil and again
return to producers Le.
photosynthesizing herbages is
necessary for the maintenance of
desired ecosystem. Due to extensive
expansion and modernization of
cropping systems more land was put
under farming causing heavy
depletion of forest cover. This
disturbed the balance and increased
environmental pollution. Now, all
round consorted ,fforts are being
made to revive the balanced
relationship between the
atmosphere, herbages, soil and
animals for the development of
friendly ecosystem.
 Nutrition and Feeding of Wild and Tamed
Pseudo-Ruminants
N. N. Pathak
The camels and cameloids fall
in the category of pseudo-ruminants
due to occurrance of rudimentary
omasum and presence of the central
upper incisors (one pair). The
camels, both dromedary (Came/us
dromedarius) and bactrian (C.
bactrianus) are now domesticated
animals except some small herds of
feral dromedary in the National
Par s of Mrica and a few small
j he as of bactrian camels in Ceobi
d sert of Central Asia.
eeding Behaviour on Range:
The camelids graze and browse
on wide herbage species ranging
from scanty grasses, thorny herbs,
shrubs and trees. They prefer
browsing because the leaves of
browse contaih high level of water
and salt. Camels may cover upto 90
km in semhof food on poor herbage
cover in dry season. The quantity of
feed per bite is highly variable and
ranges from 1 to 20g depending on
the leafyness of the plant and mouth
is full after several bites. The camels
do not close their mouth on eating
the thorny plants. The herbages
collected in the mouth are chewed
slowly and thoroughly before
swallowing. The camels browse for
5-20 minutes at a stretch and then
chew for 10-15 minutes for
regurgitation but these rates
gradually decrease greatly in the
afternoon. This may be due , to
attainment of gatiety and/or fatigue
of the jaw muscles. Mastication is a
normal feature and each cud is
- 40 -
chewed for 40-50 times before
regurgitation. Chewing site is
changed frequently.
Selection of Feeds on Range
Feeding on herbages in camels
is selective. Dromedary Kenerally
avoid to graze on dense and
succulent vegetation and move to
drier plants discarded by other
grazing species. However, in some
other area they prefer to feed on
succulent, thorny and salty
herbages. The leaves and yods
browsed by the camels contain
13-24% crude protein on dry matter
basis. The herbages fermented by
the hot desert camels are Acacia
species, morgosa, khejari, jharberi,
grasses and vines etc.
The bactrian or double-humped
camels- are found in central asia
where _ they graze and browse on
temperate herbages - during the
warm month and accumulate more
than 50 kg fat in the hump. The fat
accumulated in hump is the major
source of maintenance energy supply
during the winter season. They get
only decaying fallen leaves and
lichen for feeding duril!,g the winter.
The llamas are the native of
high Andean mountain and well
adopted for feeding on local
herbages.
Digestibility of nutrients
Digestibility of f~__rutd
nutrients are generalLY higher in
cameloids than the other berbivores
Table 1. Digestibility of nutrients in different herbivore species fed lucerne
hay (% DM basis)
Feed Constituents Pony
(Non-ruminants)
DM 64.8
CP 66.7
NDF 60.1
ADF 46.7
Cellulose 51.2
(Table 1). Probably higher retention
time of feeds in the gastrointestinal
tract and characteristic annu1ated
feature and more absorption area of
the colon favour higher digestibility
of feeds and nutrients in camels in
comparison to other herbivores like
pony and sheep. Fermentation
pattern in camel is similar to that in
true ruminants e~wt that
substantial amount orractic acid is
also produced along with the
common VFAs (acetic, propionic,
butyric and valerie acids). Contrary
to other species, substantial amount
of VFA is also present in the
contentS of caecum and colon of the
cam eli ods indicating active mjcrobial
activities in these segments. High
concentration of total nitrogen,
ammonia-nitrogen and urea in the
rumen liquor is indicative of
- 41 -
Sheep Llamoids
(Ruminant) (Pseudo-
ruminants)
63.8 71.5
69.7 74.7
58.5 69.4
50.5 61.0
64.8 77.6
preference for browsin_g higll protein
herbages. Recycling of urea
increases on the feeding of low
protein diet and utilization . for
protein synthesis is dependent on
energy supply to the animals.
The metabolism of VFA in
comeliods is some what different
than the true ruminants because
glucose generation in former is more
than 100 mg% which is much higher
than 50-75 mg% in true ruminants.
Feeding of Cameliods in Zoos
From the feeding habits of
different cameliods, it has been found
that meal mixture used for the other
ruminants is also satisfactory for the
cameliods. Similarly dry fodders,
green grasses and tree leaves should
be fed as per their supply and
requirement of the animals.
 Scope of Tracer Techniques and Remote Sensing in
the Feeding Management of Wild Animals
D. D. Mall

Tracer techniques _and remote data on biology of a variety of species

s~are versatile tools in wildlife and formulation of resource
management, but unfortunately no management strategies.
orvery little work has been done in Remote Sensing
our country. Some of the applications
are : Remote sensing is in essence
collecting data about an object from
1. Marking of animals to study a distance. The data needed for any
their movements by radioactive food management planning are
excrement. population of animals, their
2. Parent - offspring relations are distribution, food habits of the
determined. animals, and their requirements,
~
resource inventory, environmental
3. Predator - prey and food chain
impact assessment. Remote sensing
relations are studied.
covers all the aspects except the
4. Naturally occuring radio- feeding habits of the animals at a
isotopes 40K and fallout very economical cost. Other field
products (90S r , 137Cs, 1311) are techniques are very expensive.
useful in study of natural
ecosystems. Different remote sensing
techniques are enumerated below:
5. Study of pesticides distribution,
translocation and bioaccumula- 1. Aerial Photography
tion in natural environments, 2. Aerial Videography
e.g. 36Cl labeled DDT, 35S
3. Visual survey from aircraft
labeled malathion.
4. Thermal Infrared aerial
Radioisotopes commonly used
in these studies are 90Sr , 134Cs, 1311, sensing
59Fe , 65 Zn , 14C, 45Ca, 22Na, 51Cr, 5. Rremote sensing satellites.
137 Cs, 32p , 64 Cu , etc. Tracers usually
Aerial photographs, with scales
are Gamma radiating, the activity is in the rangeoIl:4{),OOO to 1:10,000
measured by geiga-Muller counter, are. commonly used, _ coupTed with
scintillation counters, solid state human interpretation. Plant
"Semi-conductor detectors- (Gehi). ~ resource data, animal population
and a. particle emitting isotopes are data, data on water resources are
to be avoided as they cause damage easily inferred from using the first
to the tissue. four techniques. These coupled with
The role of tracer technique in data obtained from field observations
food management boils down to the help in evolving computer
determination of food chain programms to obtain reasonably
relations, quantity of forage uptake, accurate estimates by applying
- 42 -
suitable correction factors e.g.
visibility bias, sampling error etc.
Remote sensing satellites have
put a very versatile tool in the hands
of humanity. We have IRS-1 group of
satellites geo-stationary satellites
j
!NEAT (Series 1 & 2), they help in
communications and provide data on
various resources. Remote sensing
satellites have multispectral scanner
(MSS). This type of sensors
simultaneously measures the
intensity of reflected light from 4
different portions or --ehe
electromagnetic spectrum-2 in the
visible range green (0.50 - 0 . 59f.UTI~
and red (0.61 - 0.68f.UTI) and 2 in the
near infra red (0.79 - 0.89lJlIl) and
(0.90 - 0.98f.UTI) spectral band. This
image data is transmitted in digital
form to earth stations.
These data can be processed
into a color image by optically
combinin8" 4MSS bands in
registration to produce an image
commonly called a 'color composite'
or 'false color composite'. In additIOn
to these Return Beam Vidicon (RBV)
caI!lera images ana Data Collection
System (DCS) are usea to monitor
the movements of wild animals.
With advancement of technology
very small objects can be identified.
The digital techniques are used in
inventory and map vegetation cover
related to various animal habitat
requirements.
- 43 -
These data obtained in
different months tell us about the
probable shortages so that we can
take appropriate steps to
supplement in the deficient areas.
Wildlife Telemetry
In addition to these telemetry
techniques are there to monitor
various activies of animals. This
technique requires a device to be
fitted on ---ui.""e animal under
observation. The transducer converts
the movement, animal temperature,
heart rate, animal sounds, etc. to
electrical signal. This signal is
processed and converted to digital
signals which are transmitted. These
data are received at the observation
station and recorded on a suitable
device cassette recorder or floppy .
This data is processed in a computer
to get the results.
This technique can be used in
many applications like monitoring of
animal activity, detection of heat in
mammals, __gfficiency of chewing
during eating, deep throated
vocalisations under threat and
numerous other applications.
To conclude it can be said that
we have versatile tool, in the shape
of various remote sensing
techniques, which can be
successfully used in food
management of wild animals.
 Rumen Microbiology of Blackbuck and other
Wild Herbivores
D.N.Kamra
The vertebrates do not have
enzymes responsible for digesting
lignocellulosic feeds of plant origin,
for which these animals depend upon
symbiotic microbial partners
. inhabiting in some part of the
gastro-intestinal tract. The microbial
fermentation sacs in GI tracts may
either be pre-gastric or post-gastric.
The pre-gastric fermenters can be
classified as ruminants and pseudo-
ruminants. The ruminants which
have a well developed forestomach -
include blackbuck, deer and wild
buffalo; the pseudo-ruminants
include camel and llama. The
non-ruminant herbivores
(post-gastric.fermenters) can further
be classified into three sul>- groups
i.e. concentrate feeders like
hippopotamus and wild pig; medium
roughage feeders like rabbit, hare
and kangaroo and high roughage
feeders like elephant, horse, wild
donkey and zebra. In the GI tract the
microbial fermentation is strictly
anaerobic and therefore only partial
oxidation of sugars to volatile fatty
acids takes place. In this process of
anaerobic fermentation, the
microbes can extract only 15-20% of
the energy and 80-85% of total
energy IS preserved in volatile fatty
acids to be ultimately used by the
host animal to meet their energy
requirements. In ruminants the
volume of fermentation sac varies
from 10% in young calves to 90% of
the stomach volume in adult
animals. This explains the
- 44 -
importance of microbial fermen-
tation in the rumen with increase in
age of the animal and increasing
dependence on lignocellulosic feeds
for their survival.
The microbial ecosystem in the
rumen of domestic and wild
ruminants consists of bacteria,
protozoa and fungi. They collectively
degrade the lignocellulosic feeds into
volatile fatty acids and have a
synergistic effect when they degrade
the feed collectively. A large variety
of rumen bacteria have been
observed which are responsible for
degradation of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, starch, sugars, protein,
lipid, acids and for generation of
methane. In male deer 11.13 x 109
bacteria/ml of rumen liquor have
been observed when the animals are
fed on alfalfa hay and on inclusion of
barley grain in diet the number
increased significantly to 19.22 x 109
cells/ml. The major bacteria reported
in the rumen are Ruminococcus,
Streptococcus, Peptostreptococcus,
Lactobacillus, Propionibacterium,
Eubacterium, Lachnospira,
Bacteroides, Selenomonas and
Succinimonas. A majority of these
bacteria have also been reported in
domestic ruminants (Hungate,
1966). In camel the cellulose
digesting bacteria have been found
to be in the range of 105 - 108
bacteria/ml of rumen liquor, while
the total number ranges from 108 -
109 cells/ml of rumen liquor
(Hungate et al, 1959).
 The ciliate protozoa in the
rumen can be classified into
holotrichs and spirotrichs (Kamra et
al, 1991). The holotrich protozoa are
sugar fermenting and are
represented mainly by Isotricha and
Dasytricha. The spirotrichs are
classified into smaller (mainly
Entodinia which are starch
degraders) and larger spirotrichs
(Diplodinium, Polyplastran,
Epedinium, Ophryoscolex etc. which
are cellulose and hemicellulose
degraders). The ciliate protozoa in
different Mrican wild ruminants like
wild buffalo, impala, springbok and
Kudu varies from 1.69 - 10.6 x 105
cells/ml of rumen liquor (Giesecke
and Van Gylswyk, 1975). . The
number of ciliate protozoa increases
significantly when green maize is
included in the diet of blackbuck fed
ad libitum Feen berseem (14.81 to
25.55 x 10 protozoalml of rumen
liquor). There was no effect on the
References
Agarwal, N., Kamra, D.N., Kewalramani, N.
and Pathak, N.N. 1996. Int. J . Anim.
Sci., 11:21-23.
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N., Kamra, D.N.,
Sawal, R.K. and Pathak, N.N. 1993, In-
dian J. Anim. Nutr., 10:53-55.
Giesecke, D. and Van Gylswyk, N.O. 1975. J.
Agric. Sci. Camb., 85:75-83.
- 45 -
number of holotrichs but spirotrichs
increased considerably. In many·wild
ruminants the ciliate protozoa are
represented only by spirotrichs and
that too by entodinia only (Pearson,
1969), but in our study with
blackbuck kept in captivity the
holotrichs were also present
represented by Isotricha and
Dasytricha (Agarwal et al, 1993,
1996).
In rumen fermentation the role
of anaerobic fungi is very important
as far as the degradation of
lignocellulosics is concerned. These
fungi help in increasing the surface
area of the feed by breaking down it
into smaller particles; on which
other rumen microbes can act and
hydrolyze the polysaccharides. The
fungi reported in the rumen are
Neocallimastix frontalis, Piromonas
communis and Sphaeromonas
communis.
Hungate, R.E., Phillips, G.D., McGregon, A.,
Hungate, D.P. and Bueckner, H.K
1959. Science, 130:1192-1194.
Hungate, R.E. 1966. Rumen and its Microbes.
Academic Press, Washington, DC.
Kamra,D.N., Sawal, R.K., Pathak, N.N.,
Kewalramani, N. and Agarwal, N. 1991.
Letters Appl. MicrobioL, 13:165-167.
 Effect of Environmental Pollution on Natural
Herbage and Water Resources and their
impact on Wild Life
s. A. Khan
Environment is the aggregate pollutant is consumed. Quite
of all the external conditions and substantial quantities settle down on
influences affecting life and the vegetation affecting the normal
development of an organism. function of leaf food building .. The
food supply to the whole plant is
Environmental contaminants
reduced including seed, stem and
include products of combustion,
flowers. Finer dust particles may
human and animal wastes, expired
also enter the plant stomata
air, dust, pathogenic organisms,
reaching the plant and may also clog
vapours, gases including solvents,
the stomata opening (Darley, 1966).
extreme of temperatures, all sorts of
radiation and noises. Major The various constituents of
contributors to environmental polluted air including the dust
pollution are the r esults of benefit particles are highly damaging to the
drawn by man due to : vegetative growth and production
around the high ways and industrial
1. Pesticide and herbicide applica- areas (Purdom 1971; Stern 1968).
tions to enhance agricultural High chimneys scatter these
production. pollutant to far off areas. Road
2. Production of synthetics to transport, cement, power generation,
replace the expensive natural mining, metallurgical industry etc.
raw materials and to over come are some of the industries which
their shortages. emit dusty and toxic gaseous and
particulate pollutants into the air.
3. Pharmaceuticals production to The toxic minerals like As, Pb, Cr,
extend life. Ni and asbestos fibre etc. produce
4. Fuel combustion processes to toxic symptoms and essential
provide more energy. mineral nutrients like Mn, Fe and
Co when consumed in larger doses
These activities of man as 'contaminants of plant leaves
contributed enormously to produce nutritional imbalance and
environmental pollution and are also harmful.
disturbed ecological conditions such
as decreasing forest area added fuel Some of the gaseous pollutants
to the fire . The pollutants enter our affecting the vegetation are S02,
ecosystem from every route-air, N02, H2S, HCI, NH3, HCN, F, and
water and food. CO.
The affect of air pollution is These toxic substances affect
many fold. It shows its toxic affect the vegetation in many ways and
when food contaminated with also to animal and man.

- 46 -
 The water sources get polluted
by three major routes: .
1. Natural salt water intrusion
from coastal areas, leaching
and decomposition of biological
products.
2. Human and industrial waste
water disposal: Industrial
waste water impoundment and
disposal, underground injection
operations, air born fallout of
pollutants, washing out of pes-
ticides, herbicides and fer-
tilizers and municipal land
fills.
3. Other sources: Accidental
spills, oil arid gas run off, min-
ing and agricultural operations.
In this way, all sources of
water, underground and overground,
are affected. Contamination
potential of mining is huge. The loss
of vegetation of vast areas can be
seen.
The washing out of pesticides
and fertilizers into lakes, streams
and rivers including the under
ground water supply increase the
nitrate and organochlorine content of
the water supply (Shield, 1987). Both
aquatic and land population suffers.
In this way low concentrations of a
variety of toxic substances such as
salts of toxic and heavy metals,
organochlorine and other biocides
are built up to substantial levels and
act as potent pollutants.
The danger to fresh water
pollution such as Ganges, Sasu,
Indus and Caspian area is all the
more because of larger industrial
areas around them. Animals in
estuaries seem to be at risk from
- 47 -
environmental modification from
dams and hydroelectric schemes.
The effect exposure to
organochlorine pesticides on wild life
. are good example of persistent
pollutants in aquatic species which
acquire toxic residues by direct
uptake from water and acquired
with food appeared to be of minor
importance and the situation with
terrestrial species is less clear
(Moriarty, 1972).
Ground surface is the focal
point for various contaminating
sources. Almost all pollutants
originate from here and most of
them settle down on earth surface.
The contaminants are taken away by
wind or flood waters from mineral
rich ore as dust or these pollutants
settles down on earth crust swept
away due to heavy rains. All sorts of
pollutants, be they in the form of gas
like S02 or H2S etc. or toxic minerals
like F or high doses of other minerals
like Mn and Fe or toxic sediments
due to over flow during flood and
rains over the ground surface cause
havoc to all form of life-plant,
animal and human. Such soils not
only produce vegetation containing
minerals in toxic levels, but toxic
levels of these pollutants are also
consumed by herbivorous animals
through soil consumption-such
animals take about 10% soil while
grazing. Such type of excess intake
of even non-toxic minerals produce
toxicity and imbalance.
Asbestos rich soils reduce
vegetative cover and also produce
vegetation rich in asbestos. This
high intake of asbestos penetrate cell
walls of G.I.T. and fibre has been
found both in blood and urine.
Further, large quantities of Ni, Co
and Cr are often associated with
such fibre. This may cause health
hazard including nutrient imbalance
and toxicity of Mg, Cr, Co and Mn
(Proctor & Woodell, 1975).
Similarly, construction of
highways in areas rich in Hg, coal and
thallium (low mining areas) exposed
the rocks which were later covered
with alluvial soil. The vegetation
grown over such soil was rich in
thallium and gave rise to thallium
poisoning to both animals and
humans through consumption of such
vegetation. The toxicity symptoms
were alopecia, neuropathy, visual and
G.I.T. disorders (Dai-xing, 1985).
Dust originating from rock
phosphate mines contaminated
herbage produced Darmous or
fluorosis in plants (Cholak, 1959).
Industrial discharges from
chloroalkali, paint, paper and pulp
and fossil fuel usage etc. are
responsible for Hg poisoning through
herbage contamination (Fimercite,
1970; Fishbein, 1974). Several
hundred ppm of pb contamination
has been reported in herbage due to
surface contamination from dust of
Pb mines (Alcroft and Baxler, 1950)
and high concentration of this toxic
mineral has been found on road side
soil and grasses and some of this Pb
is incorporated into vegetation
(Skinner and Hargue, 1945; 1946).
Major pollutants affecting the
vegetation and their influence to the
dependent animals:
* Organochlorines and other
biocides, DDT, Dieldrin, 2,4D
or polychlorinated biphenyl are
common pesticides. Their
toxicity can arise as herbage
- 48 -
contaminated can be consumed
by free ranging animals.
* Heavy toxic metal poisoning:
Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg),
Chromium (Cr), Cadmium
(Cd), Vanadium (V) and Nickel
(Ni) toxicity both acute as well
as chronic are possible due to
industrial, domestic and
mining operations.
* Heavy non-toxic metal
poisoning: Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu)
and almost all minerals can
cause toxicity/nutritional
imbalance when consumed by
animals due to contamination
as well as excess concentration
in plants grown on toxic soils.
* Fluorine toxicity:
contaminated herbage due to
Dust
industrial pollution and mining
operation, increase F
consumption which may cause
chronic as well as acute
fluorosis. Water contamination
is a major source ofF ingestion.
Sulphur dioxide (S02), oxidant
smog, ozone, nitrogen oxides,
fluorides and ethylene are
products of several
metallurgical industries, fossil
fuel combustion, synthetic
product industries and mining.
They damage mostly leaves,
thereby restricting food supply
to the plant and affecting its
growth, 'production and
propagation.
Mercuric chloride, hydrogen
chloride, ammonia hydrogen
disulphide, hydrogen cyanide,
sulphuric acid and herbicides are
minor gaseous pollutants affecting
vegetation.
 The danger of environmental
pollution from industrial
development are quite clear and the
wild life both aquatic and terrestrial
has to face this pollution because
they live in limited habitat, depend
References
Aleron, R., and Baxler, K.L., 1950. J .Comp.
Pathol. Ther 60: 209.
Cholak, J., 1959. J . Occup. Med. 1, 501.
Darley, E.F. 1966. J . Air Pollut. Cont. Ass. 16,
45.
Dia-xing, Z, 1985. J. Environ. Health 48, 14.
Fimercite, N., 1970. Environ. Pollut. 6, 119.
Fishbein, L., 1974. Sci. Total Environ. 2, 341.
Moriarty, F., 1972. Sci. Total Environ. 1, 267
Cited from Irvine & Knight Pollution &
Use of Chem. in Agri.
Feed and Water Resources and Feed Selection on
Wild and Captive Environment.
Narayan Dutta
Most of traditional water and
feed resources for wild animals are
under strain due to heavy pressure
of population and exploitation of
various natural eco-systems.
Therefore, an insight into the
hitherto available water and feed
resources and food selection by wild
herbivorous mammals under wild
and captivity is necessary to improve
their sustainable management.
Water Resources
The major water resources for
wild animals are:
1. Surface waters : Fresh water
(Lakes, ponds and streams),
salt water and snow water.
2. Dew Water
- 49 -
on the herbage, water and the local
prey which may be contaminated
and polluted with toxic material.
Even the low doses of toxicity can
have cumulative effect in the long
run.
Proctor & Woodell 1975. Adv. Ecology Res. 9 ,
255.
Purdom, P .W. 1971, Environ. Health,
Academic Press, New York.
Stern, AC., 1968, Air Pollut. VoU, Academic
Press, New York.
Shield, A.D. 1987. J . Environ. Sci., May/June
Issue, p. 23.
Skinner, j .T. and Hargue, J .S., 1945. Am. J .
Physiol. 143, 85.
Skinner, J.T. and Hllrgue, J .S., 1945. Am. J .
. PhysioJ. 145, 500.
3. Succulence (water in foods.
Some plants contain upto 90%
water)
4. Metabolic water (from oxida-
tion of carbohydrates and fats) .
Salty or brakish water can be
used only by species having
mechanism for excreting excess salt.
In deserts, water availability
may vary greatly in different seasons
and years. Although deserts tend to
have one or two seasons when
precipitation is expected, some years
pass without moisture. Men also
influence on water availability.
Historically, men have concentrated
around water in arid areas. Springs
have been diverted or developed for
livestock or for human use. Roads
have followed streams, and cities
have been built along rivers. Which
has further deprived wildlife of
access to water.
Food Resources :
Food of herbivores is mainly
composed of plant species and parts
of plants (buds, leaves, flowers and
fruits) in which nutrients are
concentrated. Usually permanent
pasture, forest, and wood land are
the major sources of wild life food in
most part of the world. India lost
about 6 lakh ha of forest land in
between 1984-1989 and this trend is
continuing due to indiscriminate
cutting of trees resulting in
substantial decrease in the natural
food resources for wild life.
The food availability for
herbivores in an area depends on
several factors like abundance and
distribution of plant species, forage
production and plant resistance to
damage caused by excessive use. In
arid areas, the production of
vegetation usually depends on
rainfall.
Food Selection:
Because herbivores usually
have marked food preferences, their
food habits are usually described in
a hierarchy of food classes. Some
foods are high quality and highly
preffered. Others are usually of
mediocre quality and less preferred.
Emergency foods become especially
important when all preferred food
have been used. They may sustain a
herbivores population through a
critical period of food shortage. Still
other foods are starvation food's of
inadequate quality and eaten only
when all other foods are absent.
- 50 -
Collins (1983) observed that
under natural condition male deer
are more forage selective than elk as
they selected fewer species in a given
subunit than elk did. However, both
species exhibited the lowest degree
of selectivity in subunits with lowest
plant diversity or where choice was
otherwise limited. Low selectivity
was also exhibited in the dry
meadow subunit where the density
and low profile of vegetation
apparently made selection of
individual plant species different for
different ungulates. Selection also
depends upon bite size e.g. a deer
can bite only the terminal half of a
leaf whereas elk can easily ingest
the whole leaf. Digestive effeciency
has also been found to affect food
selection. Elk can consume relatively
more structural plant parts (stems,
twigs) of shrubs and forages because
of their better ability to digest fiber
than deer which are true grazers.
The size of the rumen-reticula,
omasa and abomosa is also
important in food selection.
Selectivity improves diet quality but
often at the expense of feeding rate.
Therefore, selective feeding is
possible only where quality forages
are available in abundance.
A study on critical goats
showed that beside composition of
pastures social environment also
affect the food selection (Sylvain and
Biquand Guyot, 1992).
Feed Selection under captive
environment
In the captive environment, the
wild herbivores may be adversely
affected if their natural feed choices
are restricted. It is usually not
~ 3-1 II(;Hlj
'P273 J\
possible to simulate natural habitats environment but very little
in an artificially created systematic work has been done to
environment. It has been observed '> compare the performance of animals
that herbivores like deer can be under captive and natural
successfully reared in captive environment.
References
Collins, B. W. 1983. Feeding behaviour and Sylvain B. and V. Biquand-Guyot (1992). The
habitat selection of mule deer and elk influence of purs, lineage and environ-
on Northern Utah summer range. J. ment on food selection of criallo goat
Wildl. Manage. 43(3): 643-63. (Capra hircus). Applied Anim. Behav.
Sci. 34, 231-45.

Effect of Water Deprivation on Perfonnance of

Wild Herbivorous Mammals
Murad Lal

Water is indispensable to all body is indicated by Rubner's

organisms. Yet it is unevenly
distributed-in time and
space--across the earth's surface.
Water is a simple chemical
compound and unlike most others, it
readily appears in liquid, gaseous
and solid forms that act in an
immense variety of ecological
settings. It occurs in grades
essentially free of minerals as well
as in those laden with salts and
other materials.
It has been estimated that of
the world's water, 97.3% is in oceans,
2.05% is frozen and 0.65% is fresh.
Of the fresh water, some 97.6% is
ground water, half of which is more
than one-half mild deep, 1.9% flows
in streams, rivers and lakes, 0.28%
is surface soil moisture and 0.22% is
atmospheric vapour moisture.
Water comprises about 70% of
the lean adult animal body and
many tissues contain upto 90%
water. The vital role of water in the
- 51 -
observation that the body can lose
practically all of its fat and over half
of its protein and yet live, while a
losS of one-tenth of its water results
in death.
Functions of Water
1. Its solvent and ionizing powers
facilitate cell reactions.
2. Its high specific heat enables it
to absorb the heat of cell reac-
tions with a minimum rise of
temperature.
3. The latent heat of vaporisation
of water also plays an impor-
tant role in regulating body
temperature.
4. Transport of metabolic
products and excretion.
5. Plays an important role during
hydrolysis of protein, fat and
carbohydrates which takes
place during digestion.
6. Anabolic and catabolic changes
in intermediary metabolism re-
 quire the chemical addition or
release of water.
7. As sinovial fluid it lubricates
the joints.
8. As cerebrospinal fluid, it acts
as a water cushion for the nerv-
ous system.
9. In ear it transport sounds, and
in eye, it is concerned with
sight.
10. Electrolyte-water inter-
relationship and water equi-
librium in health and disease
are well known functions of
water in the body.
Water and Wildlife Population
Water's impact on wildlife
population takes many different
forms. For many species successful
breeding is· directly or indirectly
related to water, usually in the form
of precipitation. Teer et al. (1965)
found that population of white-tailed
deer in Texas was related to the
precipitation occurring in the
previous year. In draught years, the
relationship was especially close and
lessened only when rainfall again
occurred in average or above-
average amounts. Sowls (1961)
reported reduced reproduction
among javelina CTayassu tajacu) in
Arizona following uncommonly dry
years. Such relationships suggest
References
Talbot, L.M. and Talbot, M.H., 1963. The Wild
beest in Western Masailad, East
Mrica. Wildl. Monogr. No. 12, pp. 88.
- 52 -
that precipitation controls the
populations of some game species.
Talbot and Talbot (1963) found
that every major movement of wild-
beest herds was associated with
rainfall. Wildbeest rapidly abandon
their grazing areas for those where
rain stimulates new growth.
Some animals can synthesize
water within their digestive system.
Reliance on metabolic water has
forced some animals like Kangaroo,
rats, Dipodomys species etc. from the
necessity of drinking.
Effect of Water Deprivation
Animals differ markedly in
their ability to conserve water and to
withstand water deprivation. Some
desert animals such as the camel
and gerbil can tolerate a more severe
water dehydration than man or the
dog without suffering an explosive
heat rise. Animals deprived of water
refuse to consume feed in early
stages of dehydration and will not
eat dry feed untill after they have
had a drink of water. The same
effect of water deprivation on
performance of wild herbivorous
mammals is existing. As such
precautions to avoid water
deprivation should be taken in order
to get normal performance of wild
herbivorous mammals.
Teer, J.G., Thomas, J.W. and Walker,
E.A., 1965. Ecology and Management
of White-tailed deer in the Llano Basin
of Texas. Wild!. Monogr. No. 15, pp. 62.
Nutritional Problems in Wild Herbivorous Mammals
M. C. Sharma
Provision of required nutrients '
for growth, maintenance and
reproduction in .proper amounts,
forms and proportions for zoo
animals is essential for their
successful and efficient health
management. Diseases resulting
from deficiencies of various essential
nutrients are unfortunately too
common among some wild animals
in captivity. Over feeding, on the
other · hand, can result in obesity,
indigestion, founder and other
conditions detrimental to health.
Nutritional diseases due to
different nutrients
1. Water
Water consumption is directly
affected by environmental tempera-
tures, water content of forage and
levels of dietary proteins and salts.
Wild ruminants that are
intermittent drinkers use a variety
of methods to conserve their body
water. Dehydration in ruminants
commonly occurs in the winter when
drinking water freezes or when there
is some pathological condition of the
upper digestive tract that interferes
with normal water consumption. The
classical P.M. signs of desiccation
are well demarcated collections of
peach-colored urates in the corti-
medullary junction of the kidney and
dehydration of the carcass.
2. Carbohydrates
Energy source for adult
herbivores is mainly carbohydrates.
Exotic ruminants fed only coarse
- 53 -
roughages such as dry grass, hay
and straw often suffer from ketosis.
A stage of negative energy balance
occurs and the animal is forced to
draw on its fat store. Ketosis may
also occur in ruminants that have
not eaten for several days or in
animals with rumen atony
associated with some other primary
illness. Pregnancy toxaemia or
ketosis is common in wild sheep that
have been fed poor quality grasses,
and twinning increases the rate of
occurrence. Signs of ketosis include
anorexia, central depression,
acidosis and unconsciousness.
Ketosis can be diagnosed by testing
ketone bodies in urine/milk and/or
by reduced blood pH. Treatment
includes administration cof
intravenous glucose, corticosteroide
and an increased dietary
carbohydrate level that should
initially include some molasses. P.M.
lesions of ketosis include fatty
degeneration of the liver and kidneys
and the haemorrhages of the
epicardium and icterus.
3. Protein
Free-ranging ruminants are
forced to suffer on annual protein
cycle. Grass protein levels of 12 to
25% may be available for only two to
three months of the year if the
population does not migrate.
(Abrams, 1968; Crawferd et al.,
1968). In general, grazers tend to
suffer greater reduction in nitrogen
intake during the dry season since
high protein levels only occur during
the rapid growth stages of the grass.
 Many wild ruminants possess
the ability to conserve nitrogen
during protein deprivation
CCrawferd et al., 1968) through
reduced urea excretion · (Church,
1971) as in the camel falls from 13.0
to 0.2· g/day.
If there is protein deprivation
in pregnant animals, it results in
small, weak or aborted kids, lambs
and calves. When excess protein is
fed to the animals, it results in
enterotoxaemia and laminitis. When
protein over 20% level is fed for
longer times, it results in overgrown
hooves (Wallach, 1971). Excess
intake by dominant, aggressive male
in combination with anabolic effect
of male sex hormone4estesterone.
4. Fats
Fats above 5% level in diet
interferes with cellulose metabolism,
changes the body fat character and
also interferes with metabolism and
assimilation of other major
nutrients.
5. Vitamins
The animals habitated in arid
and semi-arid regions are likely to
suffer from Vit.A deficiencies because
mature poor quality roughages are
poor sources of Vitamin A. Nitrate
present in forage may also interfere
with conversion of ~-carotene to
Vitamin A Deficiency symptoms are
poor growth, anasarca, emaciation,
lacrimation, corneal opacity,
infertility, weak, dead or aborted
foetus. Birth defects due to Vitamin A
deficiencies are diaphragmatic
hernia, cleft palates, micro-
phthalmia, metaplasia, cardio-
vascular defects and keratinised
epithelium. Hyper vitaminosis is rare
- 54 -
or absent in wild-whether free or
captive ruminants.
Vitamin D is essential for
optional calCium absorption from
intestine and calcium mineralization
in the bones.
Unlike domestic herbivores,
wild ruminants generally do not
suffer from Vitamin D deficiency.
Excess vitamin D administration to
captive wild ruminants results in
excess calcium absorption from
intestine which interferes with the
metabolism of other minerals like
phosphorus, zinc and copper. This
results in fibrous osteodystrophy and
fibrous interstitial nephritis, in
adults ~d specially in new born
animals. Excess calcium deposits are
found in connective tissue and
elastic tissue.
Vitamin E plays important role
as biological antioxidant and is
related physiologically with
selenium (Basson and Hofmeyer,
1973; Basson et al., 1971). Deficiency
symptoms are anemia, weak and
sproddle-Iegged young one, ~onal
dystrophy and nubitienal muscular
dystrophy. Newborn and suckling
small ruminants are more
susceptible as compared to large
ruminants (Decker and McDermid,
1977) for Vit E efficiency.
Vitamin K is essential for
synthesis of prothrombin. This is the
only soluble vitamin which is
produced by microorganisms in
rumen. Feeding of moldy fodders to
wild animals in captivity may
interfere with vitamin K
metabolism. Symptoms are
. spontaneous nasal or rectal
haemorrhages and increased blood
clotting time.
 Unlike adult ruminants
B-complex vitamins are of dietary
importance in monogastrics and
young ruminants. These are required
for metabolism of carbohydrates,
protein and lipid. Deficiency of
B-vitamin can also occur in adult
ruminants that have disturbed
rumen function. Toxic plants like
Pteris acquilira, Equistem polustre
contains thiaminase which produces
signs of vitamin B, deficiencies
(Church, 1971). Clin"ical signs of
deficiency are anorexia, reduced
growth rate, dehydration, weight
loss, diarrhea, head twitching,
convulsions, opisthotonus and brady
cardia. Postmartem examination
shows hydrothorax, hydroperi-
toneum, polioencephalomalacia,
emaciated carcass, flacid skeletal
muscle and right ventricular
dilatation. Deficiertt animals can be
treated with 250 to 500 mg
parenteral vitamin Bl (Church,
1971).
Deficiency signs of vitamin B2
are anorexia, anemia, lacrimation,
excessive salivation, diarrhea,
alopecia and death. This occurs
mainly in . captive wild ruminants
when diets are improperly
supplemented with vitamin B2.
6. Minerals
Free ranging herbivores obtain
their mineral requirements from
three sources i.e. forages, soil and
water. In tropical climates, ant
heaps and termite mounds are often
used as mineral licks by wild
animals. The mineral requirement of
wild animals are similar to that of
domestic herbivorous animals
(Ulrey, 1974; Wackerrugel, 1966;
Wallach, 1971).
Calcium and phosphorus are
very important in skeletal
development, antlers growth, rumen
functions and cellular metabolism.
Ca : P ratio should be 1.1 to 2.0 : 1.0
for proper utilisation of both
minerals. Excess Ca supplemen-
tation will interfere with metabolism
... of P, Cu, Zn and Mn. Phosphorus
supplementation is necessary for
wild ruminants in captivity.
Deficiency signs of P are weight
loss and osteoporosis (Wobeser and
Runge, 1975) "Walking on egg shells"
gait, lameness, spontaneous
fractures, anorexia, loss of body
weight, pica, reduced fertility,
hyperirritability and dyspnea.
Excess P supplementation results in
NSH with the associated fibrous
asteodystrophy and urinary calculi
formation (Wallach et al., 1978;
Woolf et al., 1976).
Magnesium is important as
catalyst in cellular metabolism.
Deficiency signs are depression or
hypersensitivity to tactile or
auditory stimuli, tremors
convulsions. The standard level of
0.5% NaCl is sufficient for wild
ruminants. Trace mineral licks
should contain 96% salt. Signs of salt
poisoning are enteritis, neurological
disorder and dehydration. Iron is
required for the production of
haemoglobin. Deficiencies are
observed in bottle-reared ruminants.
Milk should be supplemented with
iron as it is deficient in iron.
Deficiency signs are hypochromic
anemia, pale mucous membrane,
weakness, and increased
susceptibility to infection.
Copper is required as a catalyst
of cellular metabolism and for proper
hair, hoof, elastic connective tissue
- 55 -
 and bone growth. The liver levels of
copper in wild ruminants varies
according to species (Howard, 1964).
Cu toxicity signs are reduced liver
function, hemolysis and jaundice.
Deficiency signs are hypochromic
anemia, diarrhea, poorly keratinized
wool and hair, ataria, lameness and
acute cardiac failure. Serum copper
and ceriloplasma levels in free
ranging animals are used to assess
copper status of the animals. Iodine
is required for production of
thyroxine by thyroid gland.
Deficiencies are observed in captive
wild ruminants. Iodine deficiency
signs are congenital goitre and dead
foetuses at birth.
Cobalt is essential for Vitamin
B12 synthesis in the rumen.
Feeding of Yak, Mithun, Gaur and Wild Buffalo
Nityanand Pathak
/
IL The · Yak (Bo.§_____jJ_!__unniens),
mithun or gayal (Bos [rontaTlSf, gaur
(Bos gaurus) and wild buffalo
/ (Bubalus bubalis uar arnee) are the
little known animals. Out of these
four species the later two species are
still wild. The yak and mithun have
been included in the list of domestic
animals but in more correct term
these two species may be mentioned
as tamed animals, more specifically
the mithun. In some of the Indian
zoos, African wild buffaloes
(Syncerus caffer) are also
maintained. Very little information
is available on the nutrition and
feeding of these species. However, in
view of the close relationship of.yak,
mithun ·and gaur with cattle and
\ that of wild buffalo with domestic
- 56 -
Deficiency signs include lacrimation,
anemia, emaciation and death by
apparent starvation.
Selenium deficiency signs are
liver necrosis and nutritional
muscular dystrophy, muscle
stiffness, hyaline degeneration and
calcification. Excess selenium
produces ataria, alopecia of tail
switch, slunghing of the hooves and
malformed young ones (Church,
1971). Zinc acts ~ enzyme activator
and is component .of . insulin.
Deficiency signs are salivation,
pruritis, parakeratosis, alopecia of
mussle, flank and .neck and birth
defects (Wallach et al., 1978).
Deficiency occurs on zinc deficient
soils and legume rich diets. .
buffalo, the nutritional requirements
have been considered similar and
these values are generally used for
the determination of their feeding
schedule with suitable modifications
depending on the difference in feeds
and fodders due to locality etc.
Yak (Bos grunniens)
IIi India, Yak and its crossbreds
with cattle are found in Arunachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh,
. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu &
Kashmir. The yaks like to live in the
cold climate of 1500-5000 m above the
sea level. The crossbred of yak with
local cattle are capable to live at
lower altitudes. Seasonal migration
of yak herd in search of feed to lower
altitude is common in winter.
 The calves are reared on digestibility of protein and fibrous
nursing the dam. The composition of feeds in the yak.
yak milk is comparable with buffalo Adequate feeding of yaks is a
milk in fat content and its protein serious problem during the winter.
content is much higher than the cow The herbages available are even
and buffalo milk. However, in most inadequate to meet the maintenance
of the cases only half of the milk is
requirements because these are
allowed to be sucked and that too
covered beneath a thick layer of
during the first 2 or 3 months of life,
when calves are normally kept at snow. At most of the places yaks
home and yaks are let loose for '. loose body weight during lean period
grazing. The birth weight of yak is ' of winter season and feed on fallen
12-18 kg and rate of gain in the body , leaf blades and several species of
weight on suckling supplemented mosses and lichens. Similar to cattle
with grazing on good pasture is 700 the carotene conversion efficiency to
to 1000 g during. 3-4 months of Vitamin A activity is less efficient as
summer season. evident from the high yellow
coloration of butter fat. Yaks like to
System of Feeding drink running water and also eat
Grazing is the basis of yak snow in winter to satisfy their thirst.
rearing and specific supplemental
Mithun (Bos frontalis)
feeding is followed only at the
organized farms. The feeds used for Mithuns are tamed animals
the feeding of yaks are the same reared on ranges and in the deep
eaten by the cattle. The herbages of forests of some north-eastern states
temperate region are more of India. They are grazers and
nutritious due to high digestibility as browsers and prefer browsing. The
a result of structural differences. CP content of herbages eaten by
The herbage cover is quite mithun varies from 6 to 20%
satisfactory during the hot months depending on the season and type of
and quite often surplus fodder is herbages available. Animals have a ·
conserved as hay. The grass cover is strong craving for salt and easily
extensively impregnated with clovers tamed by salt feeding. The two
(oal) in most of the areas. The prevalent systems of salt feeding are
growing yak, cattle and their crosses (a) Owners visit their animals on the
may gain at the rate of 700, 850 and
range on Ii fixed day in a week and
1100 g respectively when grazed on
offer a handful salt to each animal
lush pasture during the flush period.
...)fhe_y:aks consume 9.9 to 13.3 kg individually, or (b) animals come to
F.U. per "kg gain in body weight. owners' house at the tUne of salt
feeding to receive their salt share.
Mean retention time of feed in Mithuns are selective feeders and
the digestive tracts is about 78 hours often travel long distances in the
which is much higher than 65-69 deep forest in search of palatable
hours in taurus cattle on the feeding feeds. They frequently change the
of 'p~leted diets. Higher retention plant and place spending only 5-10
time is -~ associated with higher minutes at a place, herb or shrub.

- 57 -
Gaur (Bos gaurus) cultivated crops is quite common.
This IS wild bovidae and Grazing takes place preferably in
considered to be one of the ancestors early morning and late in evening,
of the mithun. Feeding habits are while day time is spent by wallowing
almost similar to mithun but they in a mud hole or river.
avoid human habitation and live in ~ African wild buffaloes also like
deep forests in some parts of West grazing and they are now selective
Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh grazers with a broad mouth well
and Andhra Pradesh. adapted for rapid forage ingestion.
Both these species Cmithun and About 52% time is spent on grazing
gaur) have been adopted on the diet 'i.e~t 9 h for grazing and 6.5 h
of domestic cattle and being for rUmiilatlOn. Nocternal grazing is
maintained in many zoos. quite common and about 5-6 h are
spent on grazing. Vegetations grazed
Asian Wild Buffalo (Bubalu8 are grasses about 91%, browse 7%
Bubalis ver arnee) and African and herbs I%. The CP content of
Wild Buffalo (Syncerus .caffer) herbages grazed by buffaloes range
A few herds of wild Indian from 8-10 % on DM basis in wet
buffaloes are still found in the season and less than 5% in dry
forests of Kaziranga and Manas season. The changes in fodder
Wildlife Sancturies. They live in \ composition and climate have
small herds of 10-15 animals significant influence on the
comprising of a bull, few breedable performances of the buffaloes.
females and their young followers. On the basis of aforesaid
Wild buffaloes rarely browse and observations it is evident that the
obtain their nutritional requirement rations for the feeding of these
by feeding on large varieties of
ruminants should be similar to that
grasses along the bank of rivers. fed to cattle and buffaloes.
Trespassing into neighbour

Effect of Nutrition on Antlers Growth

A. Sahoo

Antlers are the most complex annually. Female reindeer caribou

mammalian appendage capable of
regeneration. Antlers of deer are
unique among mammalian structure
in that they cast and then
regenerate completely each year.
Except in muskdeer and Chinese
water deer all males have these
weapons on their foreheads which
grow on bony structure of frontal
bone and in most cases dropped
CRangifer tarandus) possess antlers
as its male counterpart. Main
functional significance of antlers of
ungulates is their use as weapons in
intra-sexual combat. Game ranching
efforts and antler-in-velvet
production for the oriental trade
provide impetus to understand and
controlling antler growth. But from
the animal production point of view,

- 58 -
the suppression of antter growth has
been desirable because of the
possibility of antler injury during
growth and the danger to both
animals and man from the hardened
antlers of aggressive males. It may
alsq be possible to a)ter the timing of
growth or to double crop the antlers
of females and weanling males
during the annual cycle to increase
the yield.
Testes, thyroid gland and
anterior lobe of pituitary are
involved in controlling antlers
growth. Initially pituitary provides
stimulus to the testicular harmone,
testosterone, that the puberscent
animal should grow its secondary
sexual characters and then thyroid
gland directs the rate of growth of
antlers. Antlers grow in 4 phases:
1. Pedicle grows under the control
of testosterone.
2. Velvet antler develops when
predicle reaches about 6 cm ac-
companaied by lowered tes-
tosterone secretron and in-
creased level of insulin like
growth factor (IGF).
3. Antler is cleaned of velvet at
high testosterone level.
4. Casting of antler at the fall of
testosterone.
At the tissue level, testosterone
may be metabolised via the
aromatase pathway to oestradiol
which is involved in the
mineralization of antler or via the 5-
reductase pathway . to 5-
dihydrotestosterone which is
involved in anlter cleaning. During
the growing phase when testosterone
secretion is low the antlers are live,
soft, sensible and vulnerable and is
- 59 -
supplied with blood vessels, but as
the rut approaches, testosterone
secretion increases causing
mineralisation and occlusion of blood
vessels. The resulting dead bony
tissue is frequently broken out but
such damage can be made good the
next year provided the damage has
not extended below the coronet. This
advantage is presumably the reason
why deer have evolved deciduous
headpieces rather than the
permanently live horns of the horned
species.
In a study on growth and
mineralization of antlers, Kay et al.
(1982) analysed the antlers for total
ash and Ca : P ratio. The ash content
from tip to base were 8.2 ± 0.5, 15.9
± 0.8, 30.6 ± 0.84 and 34.5 ± 0_7%
and that in hard antler was 51.7 ±
1.93%. The respective values of Ca :
P ratio were 0.4 ± 0.14, 1.5 ± 0.23,
2.0 ± 0.23, 2.2 ± 0.24 and 2.0 ± 0.02.
Thus, the tissue of an antler in
velvet differentiate rapidly, showing
a sequence of development from the
tip to the base and mineralization
advances as a discrete band, about 2
to 4 em behind the growing tip,
rather than occurring gradually
throughout the structure. Evenually
just before the rut, the skin dies and
is frayed off to expose the bone of the
hard antler. Robins and Koger (1981)
injected calcium chloride at the base
area and concluded that the falling
of antlers may be stimulated either
by the increased localized tissue Ca
level independent of the injury or by
the localized cellular effects of tissue
injury independent of traumatization
or method. Earlier reports proposed
a close link between wound healing
and antler regeneration. However, it
is unknown whether injury-induced
 antlers can be stimulated at any
time or are dependent upon
concurrent hormonal cycles. One of
special feature in trauma-induced
antlers is that they are covered by
live velvet even though the
underlying bone was well ossified. It
is also observed that the serum Ca
level doesnot increase during normal
antler growth and ossification is one
of the latter steps in antler
formation. Peak alkaline
phosphatase activity is observed in
early summer when the antlers are
in soft velvet, rather than later when
the antlers are calcifying.
Amputation of antler decreases the
enzyme as it cancels the need for
mobilization of skeletal mineral.
Many reports emphasize
proper and adequate nutrition
during the period of antler
regeneration due to its direct
involvement with tlie male sexual
behaviour. The period of antler
growth and calcification coincides
with the sexual maturation of deer
and corresponds to increasing levels
of circulating testosterone. It is
suggested that antler formation is
expensive in metabolic terms.
Varying the protein and energy level
as well as its mineral content,
mainly Ca and P, it is observed that
body growth takes precedence over
antler development and bucks
making excellent growth develop
large antlers. However, shifting from
a restricted diet or after following a
period of undernutrition seem to be
less efficient inspite of recovery in
weight and antler development
during compensatory phase of life.
So a daily supplement of 0.3 to ·0.7
kg per head concentratge mixture (@
0.5 to 1.0% B. wt.) should be
- 60 -
available t o meet protein and energy
need of animals in addition to
vitamin-mineral mix in the diet.
However, good pasture may not
require concentrate supplement for
antler growth. Galkin and Galkina
(1968) recommended nutritive value
of 4.2 to 4.7 feed unit CF.U.) for the
ration of Siberian stags. It is
observed that the development of
secondary sexual characteristics and
changes in behavioural pattern of
males concomitant with the
development of antlers require
additional nutrition over and above
the availability of seasonal fodder. In
caribou CRangifer tarandus) females
with antlers that on poor range, are
less likely to have calves than female
without antlers. Seasonal changes in
white-tailed deer COdocoilus
virgeanus) include biannual pelage
molts, reduced appetite and
metabolism (hence cessation of
growth) in winter, antler
regeneration in spring, lactation
during summer and fat deposition in
autumn. In winter due to snow
coverage food availability is very less
and the annual cycle is so regulated
that the bucks eat heavily in late
summer but voluntarily reduce to
near starvation intake at the onset of
rut and continue on low intake
throughout the winter. Long et al.
(1959) applied seasonal feed
restriction in white~tailed deer and
observed its .effect on antler
development. In the 3 groups he
studied, Group 1 was fed to appetite
with a diet containing dried alfalfa
meal 37.7, shelled maize 34.4,
soybean cake 9.8, cotton seed cake
4.9, ground oat 4.9 and molasses 4.9
fortified with minerals and vitamin;
Group 2, 50% of group 1 fed for 5
weeks and Group 3, same as Group
2 but fed for 10 weeks period and
then full feeding for the rest of the
period. He observed that the
replacement of coat was delayed by 2
weeks in group 2 and 4 weeks in 3
and there was slow development of
antlers in restricted group. '
Development of antlers delayed
about 1 d for each week of restricted
feeding, shedding was hastened,
density of antler bone was similar in
group 1 and 2 but less in group 3. In
tropical countries scarcity of green
fodder during summer also induces
similar effects on antler
development. Therefore, herbivores
diet specialization should occur
when food resources are abundant
and diet generalization should occur
at low food levels. Galkin and
Galkina (1968) could replace 30%
protein with urea in the ration of
Siberian stags fed on sugar beet
during January and February.
However, with feed based on hays,
silage and concentrate, later
introduction of urea (March
onwards) reduced growth of antlers
by up to 39% compared with control.
In addition to major nutrients
like carbohydrates, proteins and fats
these wild species also require
vitamins and minerals for overall
metabolism. In free ranging system
References
Brown, RD., Cowan, RL. and Kavanaugh,
J.F. 1978. J. Anim. Sci. 47:435.
Fennessay, P.F. and Suttre, J.M., 1983. In.
Biology of deer production. Procc. Int.
Conf. Dunedin, New Zeland, 13-18 Feb.
1983.
Galkin, V.S. and Galkina, VA., 1968. Nutri-
tion Abstracts and Reviews
1971:41:1788.
- 61 -
they obtain minerals from the
roughage and from mineral bearing
soils and water. In warm climates
ant heaps and termite mounds are
often used as mineral licks. Calcium
and phasphorus which are required
for mineralization of the skeleton,
antlers, rumen nutrition and cellular
metabolism, should be available in
the ratio of 1.1- 2.0:1.0 as in other
domesticated ruminants. Body size
and antler size vary considerably in
white-tailed deer depending upon
the availability of phosphoraus.
Annual regeneration of antlers
which is related with the male
sexual behaviour needs 10% extra
calorie due to its activity and vigour.
The protein level in the diet ranges
between 13 and 16% and that of fat
is 2 to 5%. Supplementation of
minerals and vitamins through
concentrate mixture, maintenance of
shrubs grazing, lands or provision of
good quality fodder (or hay) will help
in ameliorating periodic nutritional
deficiency in animals due to seasonal
availability and/or non-availability of
feeds. Placing mineral blocks or licks
at different corners of the range land
or near the fountains or watering
areas will provide daily supply of
micronutrients where the range or
soil is deficient in certain mineral
elements.
Kay, R.N.B., Phillipo, M., Suttie, J.M. and
Wenham, G., 1982. J. Physio!. 322:4 p.
Long, T.A., Cowan, RL., Wolfe, C.W., Rador,
T. and Swift, R W., 1959. Pennysil-
vania Agric. Exp. Station. Prog. Rep.
No. 209, pp 11.
Robbins, C.T. and Koger, L.M., 1981. J. Wild!.
Manage. 45: 733- 37.
 Feeding of exotic wild herbivores (non-ruminants)
kept in Indian zoos
N. Haque
The wild herbivores
(non-ruminants) which are imported
from different countries mainly
include ~, Arican black and
white rhinoceros, kangaroo, African
elephant, hippopotamus, tapir etc.
The zebra is a member of the
family Equidae. All zebras come
from Africa. The digestive system of
zebra is similar to that of domestic
horses. They do well on diets similar
to those of horses. There are five
species of rhino still serviving. The
Javan, Sumatran and Indian are
Asiatic; the black and white are
African. The white rhino reaches
weights upto 2000 to 2500 kg. The
black rhino is considerably smaller
with mature weights approximately
1000 to 1400 kg. ThEL.lili!ck rhinos
are mainly browsers, having a
prehensile tip on the upper tip. In
natural habitat, twigs and small
leaves of the plants Acacia
brevispica, Phyllanthus fischeri, A.
hockii, Carissa edulis, Tinnea
aethiopica etc. are commonly
consumed by black rhinos
CGhebremeskel et al., 1991). The
white rhinos are grazer
characterized by a long head and
square lips. It normally carries its
huge head low, with nostrils only
inches above the ground. The
digestive system of rhino is similar
to the equine, with a simple
stomach, short intestine and ,ver;t
large caecum and colon. No gaIl
bladder is present. In -natural
habitat. both olack, and white rhinos
- 62 -
prefer mud wallows. Even though
rhinos perspire, they appear to
thermoregulate by wallowing in
mud.
Kangaroos are true herbivores.
They have developed a ruminant like
dfgestive system, in that they have a
large, sacculated fore stomach in
which cellulose is digested in a
fermentative process by microflora
and fauna.
There are two genera of the
family Hippopotamidae with one
species in each i.e. the Nile hippo and
the Pygmy hippo. The stomach of
hippos is of complex type. It has three
sections. The anterior section is lined
with smooth furrows and two
secondary pouches. Third section is
short and thin. The normal habitat of
the Nile hippo is to remain in the
water in day time and graze on land
at night. The Nile hippos are social
animals and normally live in groups
of approximately 10 adults females,
few adult males and offsprings in
dense forests. They normally eat 1 to
2 percent of their body weight daily in
their natural habitat, mostly grasses,
leaves and aquatic plants. The pygmy
hippo also lives in the dense forest
but they are not social. They live
almost completely solitary lives.
Nutritional requirements
Nutrition is a fundamental
part of captive management and
providing appropriate diets for the
great variety of species maintained
in captivity presents a major
 challenge. There is a little specific
information on nutrient require-
ments on non-domesticated animals
(Kirkwood, 1991).
The BMR of rhinoceros,
Kangaroo and hippopotamus is
t i?etermined to be 71.46, 52.82 and
68.36 kcal/kg WO·75/d (Blaxter, 1989).
The metabolizable energy
requirements ~xpressed as
multiplies of BMR is suggested to be
about 3 for the good early growth
and declining to 2.4 at half the
mature weight (Abrams, 1968). Not
much information is available on
protein, vitamin and mineral
requirements of these animals and
lot of studies are warranted in this
aspect in order to provide scientific
and balanced feeding of these
animals.
Substitute for natural feeds
It is inevitable that difficulties
are likely to occur in providing the
captive wild herbivores with its
natural feeds. All the substances
find their way into compounded
feeds : oilseed cakes, by-products of
the processing of cereals such as
bran and dried fish and meat meals.
Feeding of zebra
The digestive system of zebra is
similar to that of domestic horses.
Obesity is a familier occurance in
most wild zebra in captivity with
free access to feed. Where available,
pelleted horse feed, usually with 12
to 12.5% protein is an efficient
method of supplying adequate
nutrients. A limited amount of
pellets, from 1.0 to 1.5 kg/100 kg
body weight, plus a low quality high
fibre hay of equal amount makes a
good ration. Orphaned foals of wild
- 63 -
zebra can be hand reared. Shaul and
Miller (1962) reported the
composition of zebra milk which was
higher in fat context than the
domestic horses. Cow milk may be
fed to orphaned zebra adding maize
oil.
Feeding of African rhinoceros
Pelleted horse feeds are,
readily accepted by rhinos. Hay
should be of good quality but a diet
of fine lucerne or berseem hay often
proves to have laxative effect. On
coarse hay rhino tends towards
constipation but this can easily be
corrected by addition of bran, carrot,
potatoes, browse branches or green.
Total daily intake of an adult animal
weighing 2000 to 2500 kg would be.
30 to 40 kg on dry matter basis.
One of the practised problems
in feeding rhinos is that of unability
of providing the necessary essential
fatty acids. The rhinos in the wild
ingest the re[.uired essential fatty
acids from a wide varieties of trees
and bushes. Both the linoleic and
linolenic acids are lost during
storage of feeds and preparation of
hay. Feeding of green fodders may be
helpful in this regard. Low
consumption of essential fatty aCIds
by the captive animal reduces the
bioavailability of vitamin E
supplements. The dry scaly skin
seen in some captive rhinoceros may
indicate essential fatty acid
insufficiency. It is suggested that
vitamin E supplementation in
captivity should range from 1 to 5 ~
IU/kg body weight. I
Feeding of Kangaroos
In captivity kangaroos are fed a
diet of fresh green feed or good
 quality hay ad libitum and_nelletized
dairy meal and grain meal
supplemented with vitamins and
minerals. Feeding of low quality
t oughages cause a disease known as
, "lumpy jaw" (necrobacillosis). Sharp
pieces of low quality roughages sets
up the site for infection. Wild
kangaroos chew at bark of trees, so
the provisions of green logs covered
with bark is recommended for the
teeth of these animals (Finnie, 1978).
A pouch young kangaroo may be fed
with a formula low with lactose and
galactose as the intestinal mucosa of
kangaroo produces low levels of
lactase.
Feeding of hippopotamus
The Nile hippos which are
having body weights ranging from
1360 to 2000 kg can be maintained
on 40 to 50 kg of hay along with 4 to
5 kg grain daily. Berseem and lucern
hay along with a dairy concentrate
mixture may be used.
References
Abrams, J.T., 1968. Fundamental approach to
the nutrition of the captive wild her-
bivore. Symp. Zool. Soc. London. No.
21 :4-1-62.
Blaxter, K., 1989. Energy Metabolism in
Animals and Man. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge. p. 130.
Finnie, E.P ., 1978. Feeding and nutrition : In
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine (ed.
Fowler, M.E.). Philadelphia W.B.
Saunders PP. 409-412.
Kikrwood, J.K., 1991. Energy requirements
for maintenance and growth of wild
- 64 -
An adult Pygmy hippo attains
about 200 to 240 kg body weight
which may be maintained with 5 to
8 kg of berseem or lucern hay
alongwith 1 ~ 5 kg commercial dairy
concentrate and 0.5 kg vegetable.
Feeding of elephants
The feed consumed by
elephants in wild is low in nutrients
and high in fibre. Hay makes up the
basic diet for majority of captive
Mrican elephants. Peters (1972)
reported th~ ~~ric and lauric acids
are present in much higher
concentrations in elephant milk than
other species Coconut 'oil is a very
good source of capric acid. It is better
to use 20% of the fat from coconut oil
and 80% from soyabeanloil in the
feed of infant elephants. A rice-base
formula composed of dried whole
milk 0.5 kg, cooked rice 0.5 kg,
sucrose 0.5 kg water, 8.5 litre may be
used to feed elephant calves. It may
be supplemented with pediatric
multivitamins.
mammals, bards and veptiles in cap-
tivity. J. Nutr. 121:529-534.
Kirkwood, J.K. and Bennet, P .M., 1992. Ap-
proaches and limitation to the predic-
tion of energy requirements in wild
animal husbandry and veterinary care.
Proc. Nutr. Soc. 51 :117-124.
Peters, J .M., 1972. Composition and Nutrient
content of elephant (ElepJur.s maximus)
milk. J . Mammal 53:717.
Shaul, B. and Miller, "D., 1962. Animal milk
analysis and hand rearing techniques.
International Zoo Year book. 4:282.
 Zooforestry and nutritional management
Raman Malik
Zooforestry
. Each animal has evaluated
with the. habitat it Pives in. They
have their own specific ecological
niches which they occupy in an
ecosystem. These niches vary from
animal to animal. The well being of
an animal in a zoo depend mainly on
the environment provided. If the
environment is closer to those
occuring in nature, the animal
psychologically feel secure and
breeding purpose would largely be
fulfilled. So enclosures of a wild
animal must be enriched by
plantation with species closer to
their natural habitat.
Food, shelter .-ancL.health._are
the basic requirements which are to
be provided to an animal in
captivity. The natural habitat of an
animal, however, caters many more
requirements which should be
providd to satisfy the psychological
needs of the 300 animals. These
needs vary from species to species. A
proper plantation and environment
of enclosers in the 300 fulfill the
physical, psychological, biological
and behaviour all needs of wild
animals.
(i) Physical needs
The animal enclosers should be
constructed in such a way to provide
the m_aximum physical
facilities/structures needed to
stimulate a particular habitat. Such
facilities include a large enclosure
area, planting of trees for shed,
diffused lighting conditions and a
- 65 -
way to central optimum temperature
and humidity. Wooden shelters
should be covered with grasses to
blend with local environment.
During winter windward sides
,should be broCked with 'kana' sereem
to fend against could winds. A thick
grass floor mattings should be
privided in the shelters for the
animals to rest. The emphasis
should be given both on quality and
quantity 6f space.
(ii) Psychological needs
Psychological needs are not
through provision of natural foods
and satisfaction of feeding habits.
The forage most liked by the animals
is provided. The ungulates and
provided green [adder in addition to
natural growing vegetation with in
the enclosure. Seeds of fodder
species are also broadcast with in
the enclosure to provide better
forage. The deer and antelopes like
to browse and the lower branches of
trees with in the enclosures are soon
utilized by the ungulates to the
browse line, hence browse is also
provided for them. Shelter
requirements vary with species. IIQg
deer prefer to stay in thick
vegetation, whereas blackbuck like
to have open space in their
environment. The vegetation in their
respective enclosure is manipulated
accordingly.
(iii) Biological needs
Biological needs include the
requirement of shelter which may be
in the form of trees or bushes and
grazing grounds to satisfy the
hunger in the most naturalistic
manner. In an enclosure of a
particular species only those trees
and bushes are planted which are a
part of their own natural
environment. More browse is
provided in the enclosure of
browsers. Solitude and shelter are
preferred for reproductive activities
an are provided by begetation. Due
to good vegetation growth an the
environment thus created, the bird
fauna has greatly improved within
the zoo and the environment seems
to be full.
(iv) Behavioural needs
Behaviour of the captive
animals undergoes a change due to
specific captive conditions. A large
percentage of their food
requirements is provided to them,
hence they do not show their normal
hunting or foraging behaviour. The
Nutrition of Exotic Wild Rmninants
Kept in Indian Zoos
A.Sahoo
Almost all zoological parks
display some form of exotic
ruminants because of the relative
ease with which natural roughage
diets can be imitated as compared to
specialized diets. The exotic wild
ruminants species found in Indian
zoos are mouse deer CTragulus
meminna), brow-antlered deer
(sangai)(Gervus e. eldi), sika deer (C.
nippon), barking deer eM. muntjac),
fallow deer, four-horned antelope
(Tetraceros quadricornis), blackbuck
- 66 -
usual competition and strife to
attain the food is, therefore,
diminised. Stall feeding is avoided
with in the enclosure and the feed is
provided for the groups so that a
definite peeking order is exhibited.
Nutritional Management
Nutrition of the captive
animals, although on essential
feature of maintaining the health of
zoological collection is a part of
managerial skills needed for the
successful rehabilitation of wild
animals in the restricted
circumtances that are imposed upon
them in zoos. The problem of feeding
a wide variety of captive species is to
recognise how they deviate from the
common patterns taht are familier to
us. In doing so a knowledge of the
foods they eat under natural
circumtances is essential although
natural diets may be rather different
from what they are suppose to be.
(Antelope ceruicapra), red panda
(Ailurus fulgens), gaur (Bos gaurus),
banteng (Bos jauanicus
biramonicus), Mithun (B. frontalis),
bali cattle (B.banteng), Kouprey (B.
saureli), Yak (B. grunniens), Eland
(Taurotragus oryx), Chinkara
(Gazella gazella), giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis), wildebeest
(Connochaetes taurinus) elk, okapi,
bison, wild buffalo, llama, kudu and
a lot many other species which are
being gradually adopted to captive
zoo environment as a measure to
stop extinction from the animal
kingdom. Ruminants, because of
their ability to flourish under widely
different and severe environmental
conditions converting a wide variety
of coarse roughage into usable
nutrients, are very adaptable to
captiva zoo environment after an
initial rejection period of great care
and watchfulness. A good number of
animals (spotted deer, swamp deer,
hog deer, camels, yak, mithun, etc.)
are now well adopted to tropical and
sub-tropical environment of Indian
sub-continent. However, rare species
of animals like moose, musk deer,
wild goats, wild sheep, banteng
cattle, Nilghai, etc. are well under
the fear of extinction and need to be
adopted to creative zoo environment.
As all ruminants are
herbivores, they can thrive well in a
varied agro-climatic environment.
However, their natural feeding
habit opposes initially to the
changing environment where they
are forced to adopt. A majority of
species in the feral state~nd 8 h or
more each day (4 h in the early
morning and 4 h in the late
afternoon) actively in grazing and
browsing. One or two additional
feeding periods may be added during
the night hour during periods of
extreme deprivation. The panda
needs 10 to 12 h to take sufficient
food, the antelope does not let a day
pass without eating. Hiding the
young during the day and feeding
them at night appears to be the
typical rearing routine of all deer
during the early period of
helplessness and dependency of the
- 67 -
young. Normally the animals rest or
sleep during the low activity period
of mid-day and late evening. In deer
grazing often occurs early in the
morning and evening in exposed
localities and consist of a hasty
snatching of food. This can then be
digested during the day in the
relatively safe resting ground under
cover. The process of rumination is
linked with a definite psychic
situation, with maximum amount of
rest and lack of disturbance. Elk,
moose are very shy animals and they
search food from the snow and
consume large quantity of food to
supply energy. During summer
moose nearly submerges along the
border of a lake or bay with its head
under water, grubbing water lilies
from the bottom. They seem to thrive
on water vegetation arid seek water
to rid themselves of insects during
summer. From an analysis of 53 elk
stomach it was observed that the
content constitute 11.75% conifers,
15.46% shrubs, 64.97% grasses and
grass like plants, 2.35% weeds and
5.25% mosses and lichens. Mithun
graze in a herd on the indigenous
pasture and are very choosy in
selecting grasiers or tree leaves.
Unlike mithun, yak grazes the lush
grass in valley bottoms in early
summer and during scarcity even
live on dry, coarse mountain grass.
When grass is extremely scarce, yak
thrives on broken and wilted blades
or last year's grass digging through
the snow. Nilghai and other species
of ruminants (musk, deer,
white-tailed deer etc.) at high
altitude showed similar feeding
habits. However, during severe
 winter under-nutrition they utilize
their own body reserves and adjusts
physiologically and behaviourally to
withstand severe environmental
stresses. The relative inactivity or
resting state during mid-winter help
to conserve vital body heat and
energy. During spring appetite
increases and they consume
maximum to compensate and to
conserve fat for the scarcity period.
Grazing and browsing habits also
differ from species to species. The
wildebeest prefers vegetation 2.5 to '
10.0 cm high, some species of deer,
wild goats and sheep pluck the'
leaves from bushes and branches,
the giraffe camels, llama, greatger
kudu, okapi prefer their roughage at
eye level. Certain specific
thermo-regulation and nutritional
adaptation are exhibited by eland
and camels. Eland can live in the
desert scrub independent of surface
water and able to more efficiently
conserve water by selectively
browsing on succulent plants,
avoiding the mid-day sun and
forming dry pelletized feces in
addition to possessing a narrow
thermo-neutral zone. The camel
absorbs minimal environmental heat
during the heat of the day elevating
its body temperature and cools by
radiation when temperature falls
late in the day. It does not pant or
sweat excessively and also can
concentrate urine thereby reducing
its water requirement, Free-ranging
ruminants may drink only in the late
afternoon or early evening after _the
last feed which is directly affected by
environmental temperature, water
content of forage and the levels of
- 68 -
dietary protein and salts. Certain
deer species (swamp deer, Ceruus d.
duuanceli) and wild buffalo prefer to
wallow in mud to get rid of excess
ambient temperature. Wild animals
make periodic visit in free life to
special spots in their territories or
neutral zones to get various mineral
substances which are often in the
shape of salt crystals and
occasionally in large quantity. Ant
heaps and termite mounds are often
used as mineral licks. The soil where
former deposit of salt have left traces
of mineral is pawed and eaten.
Exotic wild animals should
follow a cyclic feeding patterns-offer
roughage and concentrate during the
normal activity periods to ensure
maximum consumption. When
keeping exotic animals in captivity
they should be thought of as animals
at rest and fed accordingly. If
sufficient amount of feed are not
available at appropriate time, the
animals will satisfy their
behavioural feeding drives by
nibbling on their herd mates,
bedding or manure which will
potentiate parasite infestation and
foreign body ingestion. A high degree
of inter/intraspecies interaction
combined with lack of access to
pasture, some times result in one or
more individuals getting less than
its share of feed and suffer
undernutrition, A bison can easily
consume 4 lb. of an appropriate
concentrate with its roughage to
meet its micronutrient requirement,
where a dik-dik or duiker with only
0.25 to 1 lb consumption capacity
needs adjustment for micronutrients
concentration. In the absence of
 pasture green, preserved hay, yellow
vegetables or hydroponics. grass
should be fed to all ruminants at a
rate of 10 to 50 % of total diet to
compensate the bulk along with
concentrate.
Various feed recommendations
are made for different species of wild
ruminants which are given as below:
Camels, Llama
Greenlhay should be placed ,a t
'Eye level to 0.5 m lower. Concentrate
~12-13% CP) @ 0.5-1% body weight.
.'.lTiiCe mineral salt block at all times
of the year.
Chevrotains
Selective browser, requires
high quality leafy legume fodder (or
matured parts in chopped form).
Availability of feed early in the
morning and late evening. Grated
carrots, hydroponics grass and high
protein concentrate, free of choice.
As per the capacity quality diet or
concentrate, 0.5 - 1 Ib in pelleted
form «4 mm diameter).
Vitamin-mineral mixture and trace
mineral salt block supplementation,
round the year.
Deer _\
Good quality legume fodder
supplemented with commercially
available pelleted concentrate (0.5-
1% body weight), fodder at eye level
and concentrate in low bunks or con-
/ crete pads. Trace mineral salt
blocks, round the year.
Graffe & Okapi
Fodder, at eye level. High
quality legume fodder ad lib and
concentrates (13-19% CP) @ 0.5-1%
- 69 -
body weight. Concentrate and water
offered at 0.5 m below eye level for
giraffe and at floor level for okapi.
Mineral licks at eye level for giraffe
and ground level for okapi.
NB: Newly captured okapi
should have a liberal supply of green
feeds and vegetables because they
tend to constipate on high dry matter
rations.
Pronghorn Antelope
Green fodder at eye level.
Concentrate (12% CP initially which
gradually increased to 19%) @ 1%
. body weight. Mineral licks round the
year.
Kudu, Eland, Nilgai and Cattle
Fodder, above the ground.
Concentrate (13-19% CP) @ 0.5-1%
body weight.
Duiker1
Leguminous leafy fodder or
chaffed stemmed one; concentrate
(,15-20% CP) ad lib at floor level.
-Vegetables and hydroponics grass,
once a day feeding. Vitamin-mineral
mix and salt block, round the year.
Wildebeest, Reed Buck, Oryx
Leafy legume fodder at eye
level ad lib; concentrate (13- 19%
CP) @ 0.5-1% body weight.
Hydroponics grass, grated carrots
and minerals licks.
Mountain Goat, Musk Deer, Ox,
Wild Goat and Sheep
Leguminous fodder at eye level.
Concentrate (12-19% CP) @ 0.5-1%
body weight.
Black-buck, Dik-dik, Gazelle
Leafy legume fodder af
browsing height. ConcentratE
 (15-19% CP) twice a day to larger
species and ad lib for dik-dik.
Chemical composition of pelle-
ted concentrate should have 12-15%
CP, 2-3% EE, 20-25% CF, 7-9% ash
and about 45-50% other carbohydrate
with the energy value GE 2.5-2.7
MCal/kg and TDN 75-80%. An ideal
composition of vitamins and minerals
is also given below:

Mineral Mix Vitamin additive

Elements % Diet Vitamins Unit
Ca 0.375 A 23700 LU.
P 0.226 D3 1160 LU.
Na 0.137 E 57 mcg
K 0.767 Bl 4.4mg
Cl 0.094 B2 3.5 mg
S 0.144 Pantothenic acid 9.9mg
Mg 0.144 Protein 22 mg
with Cu, Fe,l, Mn and Zn in Choline 2212 mg
traces. Folic Acid 4.8mg
B12 0.94 mcg
Ascorbic acid 302 mg

Certain ration scales are ruminants in captive environment

devised for the feeding of wild which are as below.

Amount (kg) of feeds and fodder

I Animal
Mash Green Tree Hay Fruits & Gram Kutti Amla
Fodder Fodder Vegetates
Sika deer 1.00 4.00 2.00 0.05
Fallow deer 0.75 4.00 2.00 0.05
Barking deer 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.05
Banteng cattle 7.00 20.00 10.00 0.10
Eland 3.00 10.00 10.00 0.50 10.00 0.05
Giraffe 5.00 10.00 Moderate 0.10
amount
Okapi 2.00 4.00 -do- 0.05
Cape Buffalo 10.00 30.00 20.00 0.05
Goral 0.50 2.00 4.00 1.00 0.05

- 70 -
 Feeding wild animals in
captivity is not simply a Feeding off the ground or from food
physiological matter but a troughs that are too low cause
psychological one as well, especially
with newly captured animals. They
should be thought of as animals at
rest and follow a gradual slow
adoption process.
However, in fully adopted
captive animals, conditioning of the
animal is made wit}:l gradual
alterations in feed and fodde~ and
conducive managemental practices.
Many animals have been known to
go on hunger strike in reaction to
captivity. The substitute food should
be very less variable than nature's at
the initial stages of adoption. Care
should also be taken while offering
the feeds and fodder at level
Suggested reading
Abrams, J.T., 1968. Fundamental approach to
the nutrition of the captive wild her-
bivore. Symp. Zool. Soc., Lond. 21:41-
62.
Wackernagel, H., 1966 Feeding Wild animals
in zoological gardens. Int. Zoo Year-
book, 6:23-27.
Wallach, J.D. and Hoff, G.L., 1982. Nutrition-
al diseases of mammals. In: Non-infec-
accessible easily by the animals.
unsuitable posture of the neck and
has a harmful effect on the flow of
saliva in animals like giraffe, camels,
llamas etc. The needs of individuals
of a species at different stages of
development can be more diversified
than the needs at similar stages of
different species. It is essential that
proper nutritional standards be
established for each species from (1)
birth to weaning (2) weaning to
reproductive maturity, (3) calendar
season for reproduction terminating
in parturition and (4) age of
maturity until senility. In addition
environmental stresses must be
considered.
tious diseases of wildlife (Eds). Hoff,
G.L. and Davis, J .W., The Iowa State
Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa, USA _ .
Wallach, J.D., 1971. The nutrition and feeding
of captive ruminants in zoos. In: Diges-
tive Physiology and nutrition of
ruminants. D.C. Church (Ed), Oregon
State Univ. Press, Corvallis.

Feeding and Nutrition of Indian Deer

Usha R. Mehra

Successful feeding of deer farming is a method of utilising a

involves maximum utilisation of the
low cost feed in terms of energy to
achieve the best possible performance
in terms of weight gain, velvet yield,
fertility, mothering and health.
Feeding depends on many factors
such as state of pasture, climatic
changes and seasonal variations and
different feed requirements at
different seasons of year. Deer
resource which is naturally available.
The animal transference from its forel
habitat to farms has also in many
cases, the important benefit of
reducing a serious threat to that
habitat, and is the most effective way
of preserving a species. Keeping in
view the above factors feeding of deer
under captive conditions is an
important proposition.

- 71 -
Various breeds of deer, their availability, habit and habitat are given in
Table-I.
Table 1. Indian breeds of deer and their availability
S1. Name of the Zoological Availabili ty Habit and
breed name Habitat
l. White lipped Cervus India, Tibet and Occurs in the
deer or Throldo albirostrus New China swampy or dry
grasslands in the
sal forests.
2. Swamp deer or Cervus North and -do-
Barasingha dwvauceli Central India,
G.Cuvier S.W. Nepal
3. Axis deer or Cervus axis Assam, Punjab, Central
chital Rajputana provinces in the
Terai and sub
Himalayan foot
hills.
4. Hog deer Cervus India, China & Sal forests, grass
poreinus Indonesia lands and
riverine forests.
5. Sambar Cervus India, Depends on
unicolor Philippines, grass coarse
Indonesia grasses, the
flowers of
Mohwa (Bassia
latifolia) aola
tree (Phyllanthus
embZica).

6. Musk deer Moschus India, Nepal, Live in birch

moschiferus S.E.China forest zone
though nocturnal
but its chief food
items are
lichens, ferns,
flowers leaves
and grasses.
7. Mause deer Trag'!"Zus Southern India, It is solitary
memtnna eastern part of creature,
Madhya seclusive and
Pradesh and crepuseular.
Orissa, Chhota
Nagpur and Sri
Lanka
8. Manipur thamin Cervus eldi Restricted to Eats grasses,
melelland the Karpul buds and flowers
lamjao national of jungles.
park in Manipur

- 72 -
 Feeding and Feed Availability
Hog deer diets kept in one of
the national parks consist of grasses,
flowers and fruits. They were seen
feeding the items lIsted in Table-2 in
different season of the year.
Body size is positive1y
correlated with absolute amount of,
energy required by an ungulate
(Moen 1973) but mouth size is
negatively correlated with the degree
of forage selectivity. By comparison
with Chital and Sambar (220 kg),
hog deer (25 kg) probably have a
smaller ;nergy requirement and
spend less time foraging but they
apparently cannot subsist on diets as
high in fibre as can sambar and
chital. Pellets of the latter two
species contain coarse plant
material, whereas hog deer pellets
are fine and smooth in texture. The
defaecation rate and shape and size
of pellets of wild ruminants have
been used for the estimation of
population, herd composition,
habitat and migration pattern of
animals. (Dinerstein and Dublin
1982)
Feed Selection
Deer prefers to select good
quality feed within and between
species having higher digestibilities
and rich in protein but low in crude
fibre and lignin.
Captive Deer-Many aspects of
rumen function have been studied.
Deer living in forest environment
have a considerably larger mass of
rumen contents to body weight than
the small fellow deer though the
difference in the relative weights of
the empty rumen are less marked
(Nagg and Ragelin 1975).
Ruminal digestive process is
similar . to other species of
ruminants. Deer digests dry matter
of fibrous diets about 5% unit less
completely than sheep (Kay and
Goodall 1976, Miline at at 1978).
Seasonal variation in feed
intake
Deer shows a marked
seasonality effect in voluntary feed
intake with values lower in winter
and higher in summer
(Freudenberger et at 1994).

Table 2. Hog Deer diets in different season

Seasons
Species
Cool Hot Wet
Bombox Cetba (young leaves, flowers) x x x
Cynodon dactyl on x x
Dalbergia sissoo (young leaves, fruits) x x x
Imperata cylindrica x x x
Saccharun sps x x
Trewia nudiflora (young leaves, fruits) x x x
Vetivoria Zyzanoides x
Zizyphus Zujuba (young leaves, fruits) x x
(x) Available (-) Not available.

- 73 -
Nutrition of growing deer
Deer can readily be raised in
captivity (Youngson 1970). Dry feed
pelleted concentrate and dried grass
together with a supply of water are
provided from first day to encourage
early development of rumen
function. MJlk can then be
withdrawn when the calf is about 8
weeks old without danger of
digestive disturbances of a serious
check in growth. Suckled calves of
well fed fond hinds gained about 300
g daily during their first month of
life ou ling their birth wei ht in 21
days (Arman et al 1974). - phosphorus reduce the appetite and
Nutrition of adult deer
Energy is often the most
important single factor in the
nutrition of the deer. The estimated
maintenance re'q uirement of stag
calves for ME when penned indoors
and weighing 35-5Q kg w.as_ar_Ql!illi
464 KJ/kg WO· 75 day, 38% higher
than sheep under the same
conditions in _this experiment, ME
References
Arman, P., Kay, RN.B., Goodall, E.D. and
Sharman, G.A.M., 1974. Journal of
Reprodu ction and Fertility, 37:67-84.
Dinerstein and Dublin, H.T., 1982. Journal of
Wildlife Management, 46:833-835.
French, C.E., McEwen, I.C., Mogruder, N.D.,
Ingram, R.H., and Swift, RW., 1956.
Journal of Wildlife Management 20:
221-232.
Freudenberger, D.O., Toya Kawa, K, Barry's,
T.N., Ball, AJ. and Suttie, J.M. (1994)
Kay, RN.B. and Goodall, E.D., 1976. Proceed-
ings of the Nutrition Society. 35: 98
- 74-
was 0.87 x DE (Simpson et al 1978).
Higher values expected for animals
under natural conditions Le. 689
KJ/kgO.75 day.
Water
Maloiy (1968) has shown that
deer gmserves water less efficiently
than seep. When it is housed in
metabolic cages, need a liberal water
supply as compared in natural
habitat.
Minerals
It has been shown that
deficiency of dietary calcium and
growth rate of deer (French et al
1956). They browse extensively on
deep rooted plants which are able to
tap the mineral resources.
Supplementary food enriched
with minerals will improve antler
growth. There is evidence that both
skeletal demineralization and
harmonal changes are associated
with mobilization of antler growth.
Milne, JA., MaCrae, J .C., Spence, A.M. and
Wilson, S., 1978. British Journal of
Nutrition 40:347-357 .
Moen, AN., 1973. Wildlife . Ecology,
W.H .Freeman & Co., San Francisco,
Calif., pp. 458.
Simpson, AM., Webster, AJ.F., Smith, J.S.
and Simpson, C.A., 1978. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. 59, 95-
99.
Youngson, RW., 1970. Journal of Wildlife
Management, 34:467-470. ·
 Nutrition and Feeding of Rhinoceros
S. S. Sengar

Rhinoceros or rhino are also Black rhinoceros depend

called Indian rhinoceros or Great heavily on woody planks but can
Indian rhinoceros. It has different utilize trees, shrubs, herbs and
names in different languages, in grasses as well (Leuthold, 1978).
Hindi, Ganda, Gonda, Gorgadan, \, Black Rhinoceros were seen eating
Ganda or Genra, in Marathi Ganda" 70 plant species from 30 botanical
in Assamese Gor. Rhinoceros can be families. They showed marked
classified as follows: preference for Solanum incanum,
Class Mammalia Dichrostachys cinerea and Accacia
spp.
Order Perissodactyla
The selection indices showed a
. Family Rhinocertidae moderate degree of selectivity by the
Genus Rhinoceros rhino. ~chemical composition of a
Species Unicornis (Linnaeus); selected number of plants indicated
indicus (Robert A. moderately nigh concentratien of
sternadale) soluble tannins (Loutil et aI, 1987).
Rhinoceros is one of the largest They were found to visit salt
land animal, next to elephant. It is licks containing Ca, Mg, Na and K
more ferocious than eleI>hanLand when fed in captivity.
can not be made obedient or In an experiment white
submissive (Mishra, 1986). rhinoceroses and ponies were fed
Rhinoceros measures. 300-315 cm..in concentrate cubes and hay m
the body length and about 18O-cm in different proportions. It was
the shoulder height. Unlike African observed that overall digestibilities
rhino, the hidg_ of Indian rhino is were similar in the two species.
hairless. Rhinoceroses given apparent
Habits and Habitat: d}.gestibl~ energy of 109 KJ/kg body
Rhinoceros is a denizen of the weight daily mam allied their
grass-jungles and prefers swampy normal condition (Frape et at, 1982).
grounds. It is a grazer and feeds Feeding schedule :
mainly on grass.
Rhenoceros may be provided
Nutrition and Feeding hay supplemented with concentrate
Two feeding peaks Le. morning mixture. Concentrate can be offered
and afternoon have been ob~ed.1n in the form of pellets, made up of
rJlino. They drink water mainly at oats, barley and soyabeanlgroundnut
night. Rhinoceros speno most of the oil meal (Table 1 and 2). A fairly
night time near watering places and high amount of minerals and
are found walking to feeding ground vitamins should be added in the
in the morning (Mukinya, 1977). ration.

- 75 -
Table 1. Physical Composition of pellets

N arne of Feed Ingredient %

Ground Date 15.0
Ground barley 20.0
Ground grain sorghum 8.0
Ground wheat 10.0
Soyabean oil meal 10.0
Groundnut oil meal 8.0
Linseed meal 3.0
Lucerne meal 10.0
Wheat bran 5.0
Potato flakes 2.0
Pomace 3.0
Liquorice powder 1.0
Ground calcium carbonate 1.0
Bone meal 2.0
Salt 0.9
Magnesium sulphate 0.2
Trace element and vitamin mixture 0.9

Table 2. Chemical composition of pellets (%DM basis)

Nutrients %
Crude protein 18.0
Total digestible nutrients 62.9
Crude fat 2.5
Crude fiber 7.0
Calcium 1.2
Phosphorus 0.6

References
Frape, D.L., Tuck, M.G., Succlife, N.H., and Mishra, G.C., 1986. Summer Institute on
Jones, D.B., 1982. Compo Biochem. Health, Production and Management of
Physiol., A, 72(1):77-83. Wildlife, IVRI, Izatnagar.
Leuthold, W., 1978. Oecologia, 35(2):241-252. Mukinya, J .G., 1977. East African Wildlife J.
15(2): 125-138.
Loutil, B.D., Louw, G.N. and Seely, M.K.,
1987. Madoqu8, 15(1):35-54.

- 76 -
 Microbial Digestion of Feed in Non-Ruminant
Herbivorous Wild Animals
D.N.Kamra
The herbivorous wild animals
depend upon energy and protein
sources of plant origin; which consist
mainly of soluble sugars, starch,
cellulose, hemicellulose, protein and
bound lipids. Among the energy
sources cellulose and hemicellulose
are the most abundant poly-
saccharides available to the wild
herbivores. Unfortunately, the
ammals do not have ability to
degrade these polysaccharides and
depend upon symbiotic microbial
eco-system in some part of the
gastro-intestinal tract. The size of
the organ which hosts these
microbes, determines the ability of
an animal to utilize these
polysaccharides as energy source.
Depending upon the capacity of
utilizing fibrous feeds the non-
ruminant herbivorous animals can
be classified into three groups e.g.
* Low fibre digesting animals or
concentrate requiring anii:nals;
Medium fibre digesting
* animals, and
* High fibre digesting animals.
The mammalian large intestine
and rumen have many similarities
e.g. synthesis of microbial protein,
degradation of ligno-cellulosic feeds,
VFA as the major end product,
buffered intestinal contents (salvia
or ileal fluid), absorption of VFA
(rumen epithelium and large
intestinal mucosa), similar effect on
feeding high grain ration and
adverse effects due to over
- 77 -
production of VFA during microbial
fermentation. The dissimilarities
i~clude pregastric fermentation in
rinnen and post gastric fermentation
in intestine and large difference and
variation in the size of fermentation
sacs (rumen versus cecum).
There is no difference in the
counts of total proteolytic, ureolytic,
cellulolytic and . NHt utilizing
anaerobic bacteria in the cecal
content and soft feces of rabbit, but
the counts were significantly higher
than those in hard feces (Emaldi et
al, 1979). In addition to that the soft.
feces also have higher content of
bacterial protein, B-vitamins and
amino acids and therefore serve as a
good source of protein on
re-ingestion through cecophagy. In
cecum the microbes synthesize
protein and secrete cellulolytic
enzymes and produce volatile fatty
acids which are absorbed through
the cecal wall. About 4-12% of the
energy requirement of rabbit and
hare is met through the cecal
absorption of nutrients.
An experiment on the studies
of digestive enzymes in the various
segments of gastro-intestinal tracts
of hare (Lepus sp.) indicates that the
enzymes responsible for the
hydrolysis of fibrous feeds are
located mainly in the caecum, colon
and rectum.' These enzymes are
mainly of microbial origin in these
segments. Amylase and protease
have the highest activity in small
intestine; as these enzymes may
either be of microbial OrIgm or
animal origin. Although in small
quantities, but all the enzymes were
present in the stomach, in spite of
lower pH. The presence of these
enzymes is attributed due to
cecotrophy in hare and the source of
these enzymes is the soft feces of
hare which pass through the
stomach (Agarwal et al, 1993).
The cecal microflora of
monogastric herbivorous animals
References
Agarwal, N., Kewalramani, N., Kamra, D.N.
and Pathak, N.N., 1993. J. Vet.
Physio!. Allied Seo., 12:29-32.
Digestion and Metabolism in Wild Ruminants
Neeta Agarwal
Ruminants are characterized
by having four chambered stomach
one of which is called rumen where
complex microbial eco-system
flourishes. This complex microbial
eco-system comprises of varieties of
bacteria, protozoa and fungi. It is
this microbial eco-system which
provides ruminants a unique
characteristic of utilizing fibre as a
energy source and non-protein
nitrogen as a amino acid source.
The differential microbial
population of rumen is the factor
which determines the digestive and
metabolic efficiency of a particular
species which itself is regulated by
the number of physiological factors
like the type of feed, rate of
consumption, rate of saliva
production etc. These physiological
factors are the determining factors
for rumen pH, rate and type of
fermentation.
- 78 -
has not been studied in detail, but
whatever information is available,
indicates that bacteria have a major
role to play in degradation of
lignocellulosic feeds. Protozoa have
also been reported in the cecum of
some of the herbivorous animals but
anaerobic fungi have not yet been
reported in the cecum of any wild
herbivores. But their presence in the
cecum of domestic herbivores has
been confirmed.
Emaldi, 0., Croeillni, F., Mattenzzi, D. and
Proto, Y., 1979. J. Appl. Bacteriol.,
46:169-172.
The stomach of ruminants is
also evolved according to the feeding
habits of the animal. The "forage
eaters" which are predominantly
grazers have large stomach, because
the animal feed is rich in fibre and
poor in nutrients, so has to consume
bulk of it to satisfy its requirement.
But the "selective eaters" which feed
on softer and juicy forages like buds,
blossoms and fruits (low in fibre and
rich in nutrients) have smaller
rumen since they can fulfill their
requirement by taking small amount
of feed. Accordingly microbial system
is also diverse in case of forage eater
and simplified in case of selective
eater. Rate of digestion also depends
on the fibre content of the feed. The
higher the fibre content in the diet,
the lower is digestibility (roughage
eaters) and vice versa in selective
eaters e.g. animals fed on grain diet
have very fast fermentation rate
resulting in high volatile fatty acid In view of the feeding habits of
production rate, since the amylolytic wild ruminants further differen-
bacteria become quite active. In tiation in three groups will be more
arctic herbivores food intake, rate of helpful in understanding the feed
digestion and fermentation is quite requirements of these animals and
low during winter as compared to overlapping in behaviour between
summer. It has been observed that the groups may be minimised as '
in these animals during winter
follows:
production rate of VFA is almost one
third of the summer samples .
. Ruminant Feeding Types
Concentrate Intermediate types (IM) Grass/roughage
selector (CS) eaters (GR)
White-tailed deer Ibex
muledeer praghorn big horn, dall
and stone sheep
roe deer red deer mouflon
follow deer
moose sheep
goat elk cattle
musk ox
Simple rumen Advanced (mixed) Highly advanced
(low fiber) (high fiber)
Feeding rhythm (chamios) (red deer) Cattle
(roe deer)

o 6 12 18 24 06 12 18 24 06 12 1824 o 6 12 18 24

(by R.R. Hofman)

The above table indicatges that Clemens et al (1983) have

the greater the capability of
digesting fibre, the more advance is
the rumen and also the CS has
shorter feeding intervals than the
GR since the structure of rumen is
such that the GR can retain food in
rumen for a longer time than CS.
compared composition of rumeno-
reticulum contents of various East
African wild ruminants under three
categories (a) browsers, (b)
intermediate (browsers . + grazers),
and (c) grazers. The amount of fresh
content dry matter percentage and

- 79 -
total volatile fatty acids (TVFA)
concentration in the rumeno-
reticulum of the different ruminant
species of East Mrican wild
ruminants showed large variation
which indicates that the microbial
fermentation pattern is considerably
affected by the feeding habits.
Brucel (1983) made a toxic. Hence the protein digestion
comparative study between domestic
and captive wild ruminants in
respect of in vitro dry matter
disappearance (IVDMD) of various
herbages, very common in the diet of
grazers (Table 1).
It is quite clear from the above
data that the domestic ruminants
are comparable with the wild
ruminants in captive conditions.
Thus domestic bovids can be used as
a representative for the wild
ruminants.
Forages contain crude protein
which comprises of protein fraction
(N) and non-protrein fraction (NPN).
The ratio of N ; NPN varies with the
variety, stage of maturity and
growth conditions. Major
components of NPN fraction are
amino acids and peptides. Amides,
nucleic acids, nitrate and ammonia
also constitute this fraction. Most of
the NPN fractions are water soluble
and are rapidly fermented.
Table 1. IVDMD % in different ruminant species
Fodders Sheep Goat
Alfalfa 87.6 88.7
Wheat grass 78.3 79.2
Wild rice 72.2 70.6'
Barley straw 46.6 46.1
- 80 -
Disbalance between rate of nitrate
absorption by the roots and its
assimilation by the plant results in
accumulation of nitrate. It is
generally being observed that nitrate
level in plant tissue upto 1.5% of dry
weight is easily converted into
ammonia but above this level it is
depends on the type of feed taken by
the animal. It is a common
observation that if the feed is not too
low in nitrogen content and also can
provide sufficient energy for
bacterial activity (mean the feed is
not too mature, lignified and
stemmy) then the quality of protein
digested by the animal does not vary
widely.
In wild herbivores and grazing
domestic animals green leaves
constitute a greater part of diet.
Green leaves chloroplast and stem
are rich in gal acto-glycerides (mono
and diagalactosyl derivative of
diglycerides). These galactogly-
cerides are degraded by the rumen
microbes into free fatty acids,
glycerol and galactose. The glycerol
and galactose are fermented by the
rumen microbes and release short
chain fatty acids and unsaturated
long chain fatty acids are partially or
completely hydrogenated. Since the
glycerides of green leaves and stems
Cattle Muledeer Elk Praghorn
84.7 88.1 85.2 86.2
71.2 72.6 73.8 70.7
64.1 67.9 65.7 62.2
32.5 44.6 43.8 34.1
have high contents of linolenic acid,
there is accumulation of stearic acid
as an end product of hydrogenation
in wild herbivores and grazing
domestic animals.
In wild herbivorous animals in
their natural habitat the amount of
lipid ingested vary seasonally
because of seasonal variation in the
composition of herbage. While in
carnivores there may be day-to-day
variation. Further unlike carnivores,
in herbivores lipid contents is quite
low in relation to the total energy
value. The lipid content is about 5%
of total dry matter in wild
herbivorous ruminants. Rumen
microbial digestion of lipids is
affected by the extensive changes in
dietary lipids by changing release of
esterified fatty acids by hydrolysis of
lipids, . fermentation of glycerol and
galactose released during lipolysis,
and hydrogenation of unsaturated
fatty acids.
The regulatory factors for the
digestion and metabolism other than
food and feeding habits are of
endocrine origin. The pancreatic,
thyroid, parathyroid, sex glands,
References
Bruce), L.W., 1983. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:873-
877.
Clemens, E.T. and Maloiy, G.M.O., Sultan,
J.D., 1983. Compo Biochem. Physiol. A,
76:217-224.
- 81 -
adrenal hormones are the hormones
which regulate rate of digestion and
metabolism. In wild habitat the
animal is always under stress,
because it has to struggle for its
survival. It is in continuous threat of
other animals native of that habitat.
~en wild animal is transferred in
the captive condition the animal
comes under stress e.g. when wild
animal is shifted in the captive
conditions due to stress, the fasting
heat production increases upto 20%
and then become normal after 3
weeks in sheep (Graham, 1962).
The animal becomes
accustomed for the new environment
gradually, where it is more relax and
safe. Of course, the acclamatization
period vary widely in different
animals. Sometimes this period may
be of a few years. It is an
experienced fact that the breeding of
wild animals is quite difficult in
captive conditions. Here the factor is
not nutritional but is psychological.
Definitely the national parks can
provide better environment to the
animals than zoological parks for
conservation purpose.
Graham, N. Mac.,1962. Br. J. Nutr. 16:615-
626.
 Scope of Rearing Wild Herbivores
for Food Production
L. C. Chaudhary
India is a vast country and
exhibits a great variety of fauna and
flora. In the early stages, these
fauna and flora were used as a
source of fuel, tool, food, clothing,-
recreation etc. but at that time more
or less equilibrium was maintained
between man and eco-system. With
the advancement of civilization and
agriculture, some species became
domesticated to serve mankind
directly while other continued to be
hunted for meat, horn, skin, etc. The
human population explosion in last
few decades resulted in disturbances
in several natural eco-systems. Now
due to population pressure people
started searching alternate feed
resources for their survival. To some
extent wild herbivores can be used
for the above purpose.
Since ages wild herbivores like
rat, mice, squirrel, hare, porcupine,
monkeys etc. are used by the tribals
and some other weaker section
people for meat purposes. Although
there is no recorded data available
on the country's meat production by
these animals but certainly their
contribution is significant. Some of
the important herbivores which
provide food (meat, milk) to human
being are as follows .
Deer • throughout Indian plains, Orissa,
Different species of deer
(swamp deer, musk deer, fallow
deer, sika deer, red deer, rein deer,
spotted deer, hog deer and four-
horned antelope) are found in India.
- 82 -
Among these most of the species are
endangered due to their massive
killing for different purposes. Due to
socia-economic reason and
enforcement of Wild Life Act, the
deer farming for meat production in
our country is not practised but in
other countries like Newzealand,
U.K, China and other European
countries the farming of Red deer,
spotted deer and other deer is very
popular.
The research study and system
development work carried out at
Glensaugh have shown that farming
of Red deer can provide an
economically viable alternative to
both sheep and cattle production
systems in the hills and uplands.
Several species of deer are now
farmed but the Red deer farming is
most common. Properly managed
deer have an excellent reproductive
performance and are adoptable to
wide range of nutritional
environment. They have long
productive life of 8-15 ,years and
young Red deer produce an excellent
low fat (5-10%) and high carcass
percentage (34%).
Blackbuck
Blackbuck is one of the
loveliest Indian animal. It occurs
Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
The Indian antelope was once
plentiful all over its range of
occurance but has disappeared from
many places where it was very
common few decades ago. It is a
prolific breeder and can be used for
meat production.
Mithun
Mithun is now a domestic
indigenous animal of India. Because
of large body size, high butter fat
content of its milk, it is widely used
for cross-breeding. Mithuns. are kept
by the hill tribals of Northern India.
It is the main domesticated animal
of Nagas of Nagaland. They are used
for field work, draft, meat and milk
purpose.
Yak
Live weight of Yak is 250-550
kg for males and 180-350 kg for
females. Generally they are used for
riding and as pack animals,
occasionally the Yak bulls are
slaughtered' for meat. They are
mostly reared for milk production.
The average yieldllactation is 600 to
1000 kg.
Feed Selection and Feeding Behaviour of Wild
Herbivorous Ruminants in Natural Habitats
Kusumakar Sharma
India has a diversified wild
herbivorous population associated
with four main grassland regions.
1. Alluvial grass lands
They are distributed in
Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra valley
plus smaller areas on the coastal
plains and the Indravati-Mahanadi
rivers. The grazing ungulate species
associated with these grass lands are
Indian rhino, hog deer, swamp deer
and wild buffalo.
- S3--
Other wild herbivores like
chinkara, goral, Himalayan Tahr,
Ibex, Markhor, Urial etc. found in
Himalayan and hilly region, are also
used\for meat purpose. Their meat is
of good quality but due to massive
hunting their number has reduced
drastically. Some of these animals
are reared by hill tribals.
These animals seem worth
considering for use in husbandary in
many tropical regions where poor
grazing and worse environment limit
the performance of livestock.
There is need of an organised
farms of these animals where they
could be bred, raised and butchered
on demand. Most of the herbivores
require no special foods, needs little
space and can be kept together with
many others in relatively small
enclosers.
2. Arid-grasslands
The arid, semi-arid grasslands
of western India in Kutch, Thar and
Punjab and smaller areas in eastern
Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Maharashtra harbour populations of
Blackbuck and Chinkara.
3. High altitude grasslands
These grasslands constitute
high altitude meadows and steppe-
lands of the Himalayas and
trans-Himalayas and the Western
Ghats. The species associated with
these grasslands include Tahr, goral,
Tibetan gazella, chiru, argali,
bharal, ibex and urial.
4. Secondary grasslands
They have resulted from main
clearing and burning the past forest
cover especially in peninsula India
over the last few thousand years
(Rodgers, 1988). Blackbuck and
chinkara are normally found in these
secondary grasslands.
Unfortunately, none of these
four regions retain extensive natural
vegetation . due to growing
cultivation, de-forestation or rapid
degradation by domestic livestock. It
is only in the small areas set aside as
wildlife protected areas that the full
range of the natural grassland
commuunity can be found.
The restricted distribution
pattern of grazing herbivorous
suggests a close dependence between
individual species and habitat types.
This underlines the importance of an
understanding of the factors
influencing the feed choice and
behaviour of wild herbivorous in
their natural habitats and of the
means of controlling it to advantage.
It is also considered essential for
wild life managers to evaluate
habitat conditions and determine
carrying capacity.
Feeding Habits
An analysis of broad feeding
habits of the ungulate fauna is given
in Table-I. Eleven species are
considered to be primarily grazers
and of these 8 (73%) are endemic to
the sub~continent. Twelve speCies
feed selectively in the herbs layer,
taking a mixture of grass, forb and
fruit components, 3 (25%) are
-84-
endemic. Nine species including one
endemic are considered as
generalists taking grass forbs and
woody plants; five species are
primarily browsers with one
endemic.
It is evident from the Table-1
that most of the Indian ungulate
fauna take grass at sometime of the
year, and that a sizeable proportions
are primarily grazers (11 out of 37 or
37%).
Herbivore responses to feed
constraints
It is useful to examine the
constraints placed on grazing
animals by the grass land
communities and as to how well the
animals respond to these constraints
by suitable shift in their feed
selection habits.
* Herbivores can grow in body
size to levels where they
become huge mobile fermen-
tation chambers dependent on
bulk input of a low quality
fibrous diet (African buffalo
wet weight rumen contents
exceed one third weight). Large
size also means energetic
considerations require a lower
input of energy and protein per
unit body weight. Large size
not only allows animals to eat
tall coarse grasses, but also to
modify grassland structure by
trampling and feeding and
thus, in most situations,
stimulate production of fresh
shoots.
* Herbivores could become
smaller in size with very
selective feeding habits and
adaptation to allow greater diet
Table 1. Broad classification of feeding type amongst Indian wild herbivores
Primarily grazers Selective herb Generalists Browsers
layer
Blackbuck E Chowsingha E
Goral E Mouse Deer E \Chital E Nilgai E
Hog Deer E Pygmy Hog E
Himalayan Tahr E Barking Deer Elephant Javan Rhino
Nilgiri Tahr E Chinkara Gaur Sumatran
Rhino
Indian Tibetan Gazelle Hangul
Rhinoceros E Chiru
Southern Musk Dear Sambar
Swamp Deer E
Northern Argali Shou
Swamp Deer E
Wild Ass Bhara! Thamin
Tibetan Ass Ibex Wild Boar
Wild buffalo Urial Yak
E : Indicate a species endemic to the Indian sub-continent.
Source: Rodgers (1988).

selection (narrow muzzle, however, evidence that feed choice in

mobile lips, long neck).
* Herbivores can become
generalists or opportunist and
switch diets away from grasses
when nutrient production and
accessibility becomes limiting.
Herbivores would then change
to higher quality browse items:
dicot leaf, stem, bark, flower
and fruit.
FACTORS AFFECTING FEED
SELECTION
Genetic aspects of feed choice
Feed choice by the animal is a
highly sophisticated process,
developed through evolution, to
mOOClmlze the efficiency of energy
use in food harvesting. There is,
- 85 -
many species is more directly
controlled by inmate
pre-programming. Longhurst et al
genetic
(1968) working with mule deer
(Odocoilens hemionus) showed that
in a cafetaria free-choice feeding
situation, fawns artificially reared on
milk and alfalfa pellets showed a
choice of native browse species which
was indistinguishable from that of
experienced deer brought up in their
normal environment.
Influence of sward
characteristics
The botanical and
morphological composition of
vegetation exert a marked effect
upon the selection drive of wild
herbivores and variations in sward
structure and the distribution of
components within the sward canopy
influence the opportunity for
selection. The factors influencing the
choice of grazing site and choice
between alternative plants or plant
components within sites are complex
and difficult to rationalize with
present knowledge.
The grazing of animals is a two
phase process involving "site
selection" and "bite selection" (Milne
et al., 1979). The choice of grazing
site may be influenced by the
distribution of green areas,
differences in the constituent species
and stage of growth of different
communities, the patchy distribution
of dung and urine and soil
contamination. The distribution of
grazing activity may also be affected
by variations in ground slope aspect
and micro topography. Selection
depends upon the preference
contrasts between alternative
components of the sward as well as
their distribution within the canopy.
The choice of grazing or browse in
plant communities containing
shrubs and trees or herbs plants
may be regarded as either site or
bite selection depending upon
circumstances.
Both preference and selection
may vary between and within
animal species. Differences in
preference may reflect inmate or
induced differences in senstivity to
plant characteristics. Selection
differences reflect differenceS' in 'Size
and shape of the body and mouth
parts and in grazing strategy which
- 86-
could be expected to influence diet
selection.
FEEDING BEllAVIOUR OF
HERBIVORES
There has been no systematic
work on feeding behaviour and
ecology of Indian herbivores. Table-2
summarises broad feeding type for
ungulate species in three main
habitats: alluvial grasslands, arid
and sub-arid grasslands, the
deciduous woodlands and forests of
Peninsula India. It shows that all
ungulates in the alluvial grasslands
are primarily grazers, with the
exception of the elephant which also
consumes a variety of browse items
in habitats away from the alluvial
plains. Within the grazing
community there is a variety of
feeding strategies. The rhinoceros
has the ability to move through the
tall grasslands and by bulldozing
down the taller culms, fresh shoots
are stimulated. However, new short
grass areas are constantly created by
water level reduction, dry-season
fires as well as by animals
concentrating in favoured areas, so
green irowth is availabale for much
of the year. The swamp deer are
dependent on a short grass (1 m)
sward. Hog deer are adapted to
feeding within a tussock grassland
and on the short grass surrounds.
They are more selective feeders
taking the soft herbs within the tall
grassland community, the pygmy
hog has a similar selective ability
but also uses herbs, shoot bases and
rhizomes.
In the woodland biomes of
India from the Himalayan foothills
to the south peninsula, there are no
Table 2. Feeding behaviour of some Indian ungulates in their natural
habitats
Species Feeding behaviour Approx.
B.W. (kg,
male)
Alluvial Grasslands
i. Indian Rhinoceros Grazing; grass, sedge, 2000
rarely herbs
ii. Wild buffalo Grazing, grass, sedge, 800
aquatic plants
iii. Swamp deer (Barasingha) Grazing, shorter grass 180
patches
iv. Hog deer Grazing, dicot l~aves, 40
fruit
v. Asiatic elephant Mobile, much graze but 3500
. browse
Arid, Semi-arid Grass-Bushlands
i. Nilgai Browse, dry-season use 235
pods etc.
ii. Blackbuck Grazing, some dry 37
season browse
iii. Chinkara Selective browse, young 23
grass
Deciduous Woodlands and Forests
i. Gaur Generalists: browse, 700
graze
ii. Sambar Generalists : browse, 250
grass, bark
iii. Chital Grass, increasing browse 80
in dry
iv. Chowsingha Selective browse, young 25
grass
v. Barking deer Selective browse, young 23
grass
Source: Rodgers (1988).

- 87 -
pure grazers with the exception of
swamp deer. Most of the ungulates
in these areas, where grass growth is
highly seasonal and usually limited
in quantity, favour strategies of diet
flexibility by taking browse as the
dry season progresses.
Small size necessiates high
quality dietary items and the small
Indian gazelle or chinkara maintains
nutritive requirements by selecting a
wide variety of foodstuffs young
green grass, herbs, young leaf and
shoots of shrubs, fruits, flowers and
seeds. The production of such food
items is low in the arid, semi-arid
zones and chinkara densities are low
as a consequence.
References
Longhurst, W.M., Oh, H.K, Mames, M.B. and
Kepmer, R., 1968. North American
Wildlife Resource Conference, Transla-
tions 33:181-192.
Milne, J. A., Bagley, L., Grant, S.A., 1979.
Grass and Forage Science, 34:45-53.
- 88 -
The nilgai is a coarser browser,
able to reach to 2.2 m high, its large
size helps it to subsit easily on
poorer quality food items. The nilgai
is absent from the true arid zone
where woody cover is inadequate to
meet requirements.
The future of India's wild
herbivores is largely dependent on
future measures of control and
regulation of domestic stock in forest
and wildlife lands. Rational
conservation and land use planning
depends on adequate information on
feeding behaviour of wild and
domestic herbivores so that both can
be managed before one destroys the
other.
Rodgers, W A, 1988. In Range lands Resource
and Management (Eds. Panjab Singh
and P.S. Pathak), Range Management
Society of India, IGFRI, Jhansi, pp 404-
420.
, • >
 LIST OF AUTHORS

1. Agarwal Neeta A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

2. Agrawal, D.K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

3. Chaudhary, L.C. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

4. Dass, R.S. ~ N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

5. Dutta, Narayan A 'N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

6. Dwivedi, S. K Experimental Medicine Division, IVRI, Izatn

7. Garg,A K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

8. Haque, N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

9. }{amra, D. N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

10. Kewalramani, N. Cattle Nutrition Division, NDRI, Karnal

11. Khan, M. Y. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

12. Khan, S. A. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

13. Malik, Raman A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

14. Mall, D. D. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

15. Mehra, U. R. AN. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

16. Murari Lal A. N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

17. Pathak, N. N. A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

18. Sahoo, A A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

19. Sastry, V. R. B. . A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

20. Sengar, S. S. AN. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

21. Sharma, Kusumakar A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

22. Sharma, M. C. Experimental Medicine Division, IVRI, IzatIl

23. Singh, P. A. N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar

24. Verma,A K A N. Division, IVRI, Izatnagar