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COURSE

RUDDER AND RUDDER DAMAGES

Prepared by OMCS CLASS HO

Hull – Ships in Operation

“I think we have a problem, Captain!”

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RUDDER AND RUDDER DAMAGES, COURSE NO. 3106

1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the course…………………………………………..2
1.2 Steering function…………………………………………………...3
1.3 General structural strength…………………………………………3

2: TYPES OF RUDDER
2.1 Types of Rudder……………………………………………………5
2.2 Repair in general…………………………………………………..24

3: HORN
3.1 Type of horn…………………………………………………..…...30
3.2 General damage and repair……………………………………..…31
3.3 Case: Strengthening of rudder horn…………………………….…32
4: STOCK
4.1 Stock & Pintles……………………………………………….……35
4.2 Neck bearing………………………………………………….……37
4.3 Separate Rudder Carriers………………………………………..…39
4.4 Types of lubrication…………………………………………….….40
4.5 Cone connections……………………………………………….….43
4.6 Securing of bolts & nuts…………………………………………...47
4.7 Stock/Flange bolt connection……………………………………...50
4.8 Damage and Repair…………………………………………….….52

5: PINTLES
5.1 Pintles………………………………………………………………54
5.2 Packing glands & seals……………………………………………..57
5.3 Liners & bushes…………………………………………………….59
5.4 Cast pieces………………………………………………………….59
5.5 Measuring clearances……………………………………………….61
5.6 Damage and repair………………………………………………….63

6: RUDDER BLADE
6.1 Design, typical features……….………………………..…………..66
6.2 Damages and repairs……………………………………..…………68
6.3 Case: Sharp corner, removable box………………………..……….78
6.4 Case: Steel surface, horizontal fin…………………………..……...85

7: MATERIALS
7.1 A short note on materials often used in rudders……………………86
7.2 Synthetic materials………………………………………………….87
7.3 Plastic repairs……………………………………………………….88
.

2001.10.16
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INFORMATION ON RUDDERS AND RELATED ITEMS:

1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the course.
This course is meant for OMCS CLASS surveyors with a few years of experience as a field
surveyor, and some basic knowledge of ships, including rudders, but who lack practical
experience and detailed knowledge of rudder problems.

It is our hope that a better understanding of rudder design and damages will be achieved
by increasing the knowledge of the surveyor. By this we hope to reduce the high
damage rate we experience today.

Information that is described in the Rules and the Instructions to Surveyors is not
repeated here, but only briefly mentioned or referred to. It is advised that these sources
of information be studied in detail before starting on this course.
This course is not meant to be a complete collection of information, it is just a collection
of hopefully useful information and a supplement to the Rules and Instructions to Surveyors.

Please refer to relevant part of OMCS CLASS Rules & regulations.

Our intention is not primarily to increase the knowledge of rules and instructions, but to
supply relevant technical information to the surveyor based on damage experience.

Please remember that one can always get assistance from OMCS CLASS Head Office
at surveys@omcsclass.org.
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1.2 Steering Function.

Function Steering
Steering Indicators........and Alarms

Main Auxiliary
Steering Steering
Gear Gear

Rudder Actuator

© 1998 Det Norske Veritas

Main Propulsion

DNV No. 1 DET NORSKE VERITAS q:\xxx.ppt

1.3 General Structural Strength. The Steering System.

The structural strength of rudder, horn, sole piece and steering gear foundation, all
depend on the strength of the after body as these components are all supported by the
ship's after body structure.
The stiffness and strength of the after body will be decisive for the line-up of bearings
and for the deflections during service.
The steering gear, it’s foundation and any rudder carrier is usually found on the after
peak tank top or in a separate steering gear compartment in that area, locally
strengthened to take the various loads from the rudder system.
This compartment is usually positioned above the deepest water level so as to avoid the
outside water pressure on rudder stock seals below the rudder carrier or tank top floor.
If not, a separate seal is to be required by the rules.
How the rudder forces are transferred through the horn and into the ship’s structure is
described under Rudder Horns.

The primary structural members in the after body will naturally be transversely
throughout. Scantlings will normally be well above what corresponds to maximum
allowable stresses, caused by the need for a particular stiffness and strength required by
both propellers and rudder.
What cause problems in the aft end structure are poorly designed details or a demanding
sailing pattern that includes excessive maneuvering.
The winter in the North Atlantic or in the Baltic is tougher than in the Mediterranean or
in the tropics. Vessels with a lot of maneuvering need a stronger and better steering
system than traditional traders.
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Rudders are designed to resist two forces: the transverse force approximately
normal to the rudder, and the torque, or twisting force, required to turn the rudder
against the pressure of the water flowing past it, all at the highest designed speed.
In addition, they must withstand similar, but probably greater forces resulting from the
impact of the seas and heavy weather.

Vibrations are not covered by the rules. The figure below is for guidance only.

Fig.1.1
Plot the position of your vessel. Inside the shaded area vibration problems are probable.

Excitations from the propeller blades and/or the main engine will act on the rudder and
on the whole aft body where it may cause vibration problems. Such excitations should
be avoided at the design stage to avoid later vibration problems. The problem of
vibrations will not be part of this course.
The structure should be designed to have a natural frequency well above the acting
impulses. The curve above is purely empirical, based on experience and practical cases
only. It is valid for semi-spade rudders only and should be considered for guidance.
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2. RUDDERS
2.1: Types of Rudder.

Fig.2.1

The traditional balanced rudder has a pintle fitted in the sole piece and may also have
a stern pintle on top of the blade. As on all rudders the connection to the rudderstock
may be conical or with a flange. Properly designed and well maintained, this rudder
type will work well for many years. This is the traditional rudder design. Check
securing of bolts and pintles, bearing clearances and wear rate. No special area
susceptible to cracking.
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Please also take a look at this balanced rudder in its true environment,
showing all the important details, Fig. 2.2

Balance of rudders. In the principle, a small blade area in front of the centerline will
more or less balance the area aft of the centerline. A rudder blade with no area forward
of the centerline will therefore be unbalanced. Unbalanced rudder was found on sailing
ships without a propeller and on very old ship designs.
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Fig.2.3
The figure above shows the true unbalanced rudder. All other types of rudders are
balanced to some extent.

The "balanced" types can of course be balanced only at some particular angle of helm,
since the location of the center of pressure on the rudder varies with the helm angle.
If the area forward of the stock is approximately 20-25% of the total area, as is usual for
balanced rudders, the rudder, when going ahead, will be approximately balanced for
small angles of helm, up to perhaps 5°, but will be under-balanced at larger angles.
If more area is placed forward of the stock, the rudder will be over-balanced for small
angles but may still be under-balanced for large angles. Overbalance at small angles
when going ahead is undesirable, as it results in excessive operation of the steering gear.
A good example of an over-balanced rudder is a flap rudder that has lost its flap.
When going astern all rudders are strongly over-balanced.
Guidance regarding rudder areas is found in the rules, Pt.3 Ch.3 Sec.2.

The Semi-Spade rudder is often used and may work well provided a good design.
Details to check are the recess in the blade for horn pintle. Look for well-rounded
corners and cracks inside the corners, in weld termination, in slot welds and welds
between rolled plate and cast steel, check for cracks around access openings.
Serious damages should be analyzed and a repair proposal made rather than just re-weld
cracks.
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Fig.2.4

Spade rudder. A highly stressed area is where the stock joins the blade, underneath the
flange or around the cone housing. Check stock/blade connection and surrounding area,
preferably with magnetic particle testing (MPI). If bracket connection between the thick
flange plate and top of side plates, all weld connections between flange, transverse
brackets, top plate and side plates, to be checked. If special pockets are made for the
flange bolts, check these pockets for cracks.

Fishtail rudders (Fig.2.5) are designed for improved maneuverability and may on
certain conditions perform quite well. Each rudder, and this go for all rudder designs,
should in the principle be designed for a particular hull. Therefore, to fit an improvised
fishtail on an existing rudder will generally not improve the maneuverability
significantly. It may increase the load on the steering gear caused by increased
resistance. The formation of separating vortexes from the aft ends may also increase the
load and cause vibrations.
A steering test to check the effect of the conversion and the load on the steering gear is
required.

Fig.2.5
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For your curiosity we have some photos below of typical rudders from the
following manufactures:

JASTRAM Rudder, Fig.2.6

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SCHILLING Rudder, Fig.2.7

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Fig.2.8. The photo above is of a Schilling rudder, the twin version of MonoVEC,
defined as VEC Twin.

BARKEMEYER Rudder, Fig.2.9

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HINZE Rudder, Fig.2.10

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ULSTEIN HIGH LIFT Rudder, Fig.2.11.

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Fig.2.12

Fig.2.13
FLAP-rudders: High efficient lift rudders.
As damages are becoming more frequent on these rudders, due to a large number of
mechanical parts, we find reason to inform about the typical flap rudder damages.
Flap rudders may be of various designs, but they all have a flap and necessary flap
mechanism fitted, and this is usually their weakest points as well as their advantage.
The flap mechanism consists of many parts where high wear rate and damage is often
experienced. Check the pivot pin, it’s bearing, the flap bearings, the flap connection to
the mechanism etc. Cracks and high wear rate in bearings may be experienced. These
details should be checked also during Bottom Survey afloat.
Flap rudders are more often subjected to wear and damage than more traditional types
of rudder, particularly when sailing in ice or where extensive maneuvering is required.

Smaller bearing clearances than required are often shown on the drawing. If the
drawing is approved these clearances are valid. During Bottom Survey in dock it is
wise to consider the bearing clearance of the hinges, the pivot pin and the sliding
mechanism as well, and not only the pintle- and neck bearing clearance.
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Clearance for a water lubricated pivot pin should be as for the pintle bearing unless
otherwise stated by the manufacturer.
The rule requirement to arrange for additional water lubrication to the bearing when
needed should be considered for all water-lubricated bearings, particularly for those
who frequently operate in ballast condition.

The flap and it’s hinges are therefore more subjected to dynamic loads. The flap
bearings often experience a large wear rate. When damaged, the flap may lock in an
arbitrary position or stop to function. Some flaps have even broken off just below the
upper arm after having jammed. The loads are highest at the upper part of the flap,
where the arm is attached.
Some of these rudders are so over-balanced that steering of the vessel becomes difficult
should the flap fail or be lost. In such cases the manufacturer should be contacted for
assistance or advice.
Some flap hinges are vulnerable to vertical movements. Following, heavy seas in
particular may cause a fast wear down of the bearings unless it has been designed to
take vertical loads. Not all hinge bearings are designed for this vertical movement and
should be closely surveyed.
The combination of materials in the bearings has in some cases been unfavourable and
strong galvanic effects have been experienced. Look for galvanic corrosion and find the
reason behind it. Here, as well, check for dry running bearings.
Unsuitable bearing material that is worn down too fast has also been experienced.
Another problem area is the pivot pin around which the sliding mechanism and the flap
arm turn. When the pivot pin is long, i.e. the distance from the hull to the sliding block
is large, a considerable bending moment that puts high strain on the flange bolts is set
up. This is made worse by a small diameter on the fastening flange. Both the pivot pin
bearing, it’s flange and the flange bolts are known to fail should these unfavourable
conditions occur.
In these cases it is not sufficient to repair back to original standard, an improvement of
details should be considered.
To weld the pivot pin flange to the hull is not a good solution, but it has been done after
consideration of special cases, and often as temporary repair.
A welded flange can not be dismantled without some difficulties and is not a good
permanent solution.
Pivot pin flange bolts should be provided with a nut and a proper securing arrangement.
The bolt securing must be strong and preferably by securing the bolt directly to the nut.

The choice of or need for special rudders is often misunderstood. A liner or a tanker,
going long distances with little maneuvering and which will have to use tugs in port, do
not need a flap rudder.
Ferries, Ro-Ro vessels, tugs, some passenger vessels and others with a definite need for
maneuvering may benefit from a flap rudder, and the high maintenance cost may be
justified.

Some rudder manufacturers claim that the main part of the rudder, i.e. without the flap,
is sufficient for steering the vessel. According to the manufacturer, the flap just ads
additional maneuverability, it will therefor steer as well without the flap.
Please remember that the rudder is not approved without a flap and this condition is
considered a damage that has to be repaired.
One solution is to permanently fit the flap to the blade. This may cause additional load
on the steering gear and should be checked before carried out. Contact SiO.
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Please look at this typical case, when a flap-rudder experiences problems! (8

photos).

“I think we have a problem, Captain!”

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Lost connection to the flap

Hole for pivot pin in the sliding block

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Lower part of pivot pin broken

Flap cracked at the middle hinge

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Temporary fastening of the flap

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Flap seen from forward, cracked, bent and out of control

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Upper flap hinge lost. This may have started the whole string of damages
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BECKER
Becker-rudder, with the brand name from Willi Becker Ingenieurburo GmbH., is the
mostly used flap rudder. It comes in all sizes and in a variety of models, and this is not
always an advantage. It has over the years suffered from several defects that have more
or less disappeared as new models with new problems have been introduced.
Maintenance costs are normally higher than for traditional rudders without flap, and
they are of course more often subjected to damage from ice, as all flap rudders.

Fig. 2.14
All the moving parts of the flap mechanism and the hinges are naturally worn, but it is
not always possible to measure clearances in a quick and simple way and renewal of
spare parts may be a problem.
Becker often make a special drawing or a service manual where all practical
information is collected, like all clearance limits, push-up distances, how to check the
security devices on bush and liner etc. Look for this one on board.
There is often a separate hatch for measuring clearances that is not welded but held in
position by a horizontal flatbar like mechanism, that can easily bee seen on the blade.
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The neck bearing is often found at the end of a trunk that may extend well into the
rudder blade.

2.2 Repair in general.

Weld repairs in practise often means to grind out cracks and to re-weld. This type of
repair often cracks again after a period in service. Some owners seem to prefer keeping
damages alive, so to speak, for years, by these insufficient repair methods, instead of a
more costly and improved solution. Some manage this, but some loose the rudder.
If the original design cracks, one can not expect a repair to be better than the original,
unless of course the original suffers from poor workmanship or weld defects.
It is therefore essential to establish the reason for cracking before a procedure for a
permanent repair is decided.
If the design of a detail is unfavourable, a permanent repair will usually require a
strengthening or a design improvement of that particular detail.
To improve the design of an existing rudder is usually complicated and the possibilities
are limited, i.e. the design can only be improved to a certain extent without being
extremely costly and time consuming.
This makes it just the more important to consider the design of details that are known to
cause problems. The rudder system contains several critical details that should be
considered during the approval process; the potential for improvement is in theory high.
To consider whether details are "Fit for purpose" is a simple but good rule for the road.
In any case, repairs require planning and consideration in order to be successful. Such
repairs should therefore not be improvised or left to the repair-team to decide.
For major damages, the repair yard should be requested to present a complete repair
procedure.

A typical problem is the use of one-sided welds. The Rules states that butt welds from
one side are only permitted where the stress level is low, and where a back seal weld is
not possible. In the case of rudders it is particularly important that the stress level is low
and that the stress risers are few, since there is normally no redundancy when rudders
are concerned.
Since there is no access to the internal structure, a form of backing bar is required if
one-sided welds can not be avoided.
A one-sided weld implies that the root bead will not be ground back and welded from
the root side, as good welding practise normally would require. The surface of the root
bead will contain surface irregularities and weld defects and these will act as stress
risers. This is the main reason why these one-sided welds often crack.
It must also be considered that the mechanical properties of the steel structure may have
been weakened by the original weld and again by repeated repair weld, and this makes
cracking easier.
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A round bar used as backing for one-sided welds.

Fig. 2.15

Below we have a real-life situation explaining the problem above. These 3 photos are
taken after blade is lost.
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Underside top flange, complete blade lost.

Spade rudder blade welded to flange, poor backing and poorly fitted.

Round backing bar poorly fitted

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Backing bars are required where one-sided welds are defined, i.e. where there is
no access to the root bead for back gauging and welding. The uses of one-sided welds
are to be minimised, but we can unfortunately never do completely without them.
To be of a permanent nature the backing bar must be accurately fitted, no excessive
clearances and no misalignment should be accepted.
If the opening for a cover plate has rounded corners, the backing should have the same,
so that the weld will follow the curvature of the opening. Perpendicular flat bars in a
nicely rounded corner do not work well.

Fig.2.16

A: In slot welds the throat thickness is often too small. Misalignment and poor fitting
and also corrosion will reduce the effective throat thickness.

B: Do not fill the slot with weld deposit. This does not necessarily increase the strength
and may prevent detection of cracks at an early stage, and it makes repair more difficult.
Increase throat thickness, but don’t exaggerate

C: This illustrates a typical defect that is difficult to discover unless proper construction
survey at the new building stage is made. Poor fit-up of the backing bar will reduce the
effective weld.

Section from a rudder’s slot weld. Fig.2.17

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The sketch above shows an actual section through a transverse web in a rudder,
welded by slot welds that cracked due to poor line-up that created stress-risers.

Also see the below 2 sketches illustrating good and bad welding, Fig.2.18

In-water welding in general is not accepted on rudders. The reason is the poor
mechanical properties of the deposit. It also contains a lot of stress risers and pores that
promote cracking.
Cracks and cover plates may therefore not be welded under water.
In case of a rudder repair survey afloat, this may mean docking if welding is required.

Cofferdams may also be used for in-water repairs, take a closer look at this cofferdam.
Photo. 2.19
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Below is shown the principle of a cofferdam and evacuation equipment. An

air driven pump pumps the cofferdam empty. A hole in the bottom may then be
made from the inside.

Fig.2.20

Workmanship requirements are defined in our Instructions and in most national

shipbuilding standards and in IACS’ Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard, just to
mention a few.
Good workmanship is not a natural matter of course and it must not be taken for
granted. Particularly where the yards use several sub-contractors rather than employing
a staff of workers themselves. Please remember that yards are responsible for the work
of their sub-contractors.
It is advised to agree on a specific quality standard, as this will make it easier to settle
disagreements.
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3: HORN
3.1 Type of horn

Fig.3.1: Type A Type B. Type C.

The rudder horn on semi-spade rudders, the neck bearing support in the stern and the
sole piece of balanced rudders are all typical examples of a structural part that is fully
integrated in the after body structure.
On semi-spade rudders most of the rudder forces are transferred through the horn
structure and distributed in the supporting aft body structure.

Type A horn is demanding to build, it is welded of thick, double-curved plates that

require accuracy in manufacture and fitting, and this requires professional skill. It
works well provided local stress concentrations are low and good workmanship is
demonstrated.
The rudder forces are transferred through the shell plates, through the transverse webs to
the internal structure of the after body.
The weld between side plates and transverse web, in the most curved transition area
between horn and hull, may crack due to large stress concentrations combined with a
high dynamic load level.
A full penetration weld with a K-groove and a balanced welding is recommended. This
way the natural root defect of the fillet weld will be avoided and the high stresses from a
large fillet weld will be reduced. Ultrasonic inspection will be easier without the
accepted root defect of a fillet weld.

Type B horn is the cast steel version of type A. The stiffness of this design is high. The
wall thickness is increased considerably and may be 100 to 200 mm locally.
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The corners of joints are well rounded. The stress level is usually lower, cracks and
damages are seldom, provided a cast steel of good quality and a proper transition
between cast steel and the rolled plates of the internal structure.
Repair of casting defects or cracks is often difficult, it is therefore essential that the
foundry is well qualified and that extensive NDT is carried out on a cleaned surface
during certification.
Welds joining cast steel and rolled plate are often susceptible to cracking.

Type C horn extends into the after body and transfers the forces directly to the inner
structure. The horn structure goes well into the after body and the forces are evenly
distributed there. The horn/ship’s side plate joint is highly loaded, and structural
continuity combined with strict alignment criteria is necessary in order to control the
hard point in way of the joint. Internal stiffeners may be fitted to ensure continuity and
softening of local stress risers.

3.2 General Damage repairs.

Permanent repairs often means to improve the detail design above the original.
It makes little sense to repair in accordance with a standard that has proven to fail. To
gauge out and re-weld is seldom a good repair, particularly when the reason for the
damage is unknown.
A repair is also an opportunity to improve the design, or at least a few details. Full
understanding of the damage reason is therefore important when permanent repairs are
required.

Temporary repairs are seldom successful as they may allow smaller defects to develop
into serious damages.
Repairs afloat are generally of a lesser quality than repairs in dock.
Our analysis show that poor design, poor choice of material, poor workmanship or
vibrations, or more often, a combination of these, have major influence on the extent of
a damage.

It is difficult to do proper repairs of horn and rudders due to poor access to the internal
structure. To refit side plates by slot welds is also a poor solution.
To weld against a backing bar is a better solution provided that the backing bar is
accurately aligned and properly fitted. Still, it gives the disadvantage of the one-sided
weld, root defects and an angle deformation along the weld seam.

On type A horn, the weld between cast and rolled steel and the weld between transverse
webs and the side plating are all typical places where cracks may occur.
The thickness of the aft transverse web of the horn may for instance be on the low side,
and it’s weld to the side plates may not be of a full penetration type or the fitting may
have left too large gaps to fill. This may result in reduced transverse stiffness of the
horn, and combined with local stress concentrations in the weld area the consequence
may be cracks, usually between the shell side plate and the transverse webs. A new web
plate with increased thickness and full penetration weld may solve the problem by
increasing the transverse stiffness and strength.
The longitudinal strength of the horn is usually sufficient.

Before going through a case with such a problem, please consider that a rudder blade
with extensive damage may have to be supported during the repair period in order to avoid
deformation caused by sagging and welding because of removal of damaged material.
A cradle may have to be built; otherwise one may experience problems with lining up the
bearings. Deformations should be monitored during repair work and welding.
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3.3 CASE: Strengthening of Rudder Horn.

The damage.
Internal cracks were found inside the horn, in the curved transition between horn and
shell plate. Longitudinal intercoastals as indicated on the sketch had been tried, but had
only a temporary effect.

Fig. 3.2
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The solution.
A new calculation showed that the strength was on the minimum limit and the
workmanship was not of the best. A finite element calculation showed that
strengthening of the transverse webs gave the best effect.

Access for working was restricted, even after the rudder and stock had been taken down.
The best solution was considered to cut out a large part of the aft web (shaded area,
please see Fig. ). During this work it was found that the weld to the side shell was not
of the full penetration type.

Fig. 3.3
 34

With this web partly removed it was possible to fit a doubler on web no.2.
The web and particularly the welds were blasted clean and the doubler plate was
accurately fitted. The doubler had the same thickness as the web.

Fig. 3.4

In cases where internal structure prevents the use of large plates, the doubler may be
sectioned into smaller plates. This will increase the amount of welds, which is
beneficial. Slot welds were not used.
The thickness of the aft web was increased with 50%, and it was welded with full
penetration weld.
Non-destructive testing was carried out several times during the repair.
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4: STOCK.
4.1 Stock.
For requirements to stock material, new as well as previously used material, see pt.7.1.
When stocks break or become damaged the reason is usually external, like grounding or
because stock or rudder has been improperly fitted.
After grounding or major damages the stock should be dismantled and checked for
straightness. Because it is difficult to see whether a stock is bent, one often overlooks
this. The result may be an extreme wear rate in the bearings or later consequential
damages.
If a stock is slightly bent over a certain length, this may be straightened. Local, sharp
bends are usually not possible to straighten properly and locally the material may have
been deformed too much.
This requires experience and special equipment, but there are a few companies that do
this successfully. The usual problem is that a while after straightening, some of the
bend comes back. This is why one often does a little “overstraightening”, to compensate
for this spring-back effect. It is beneficial to stress relieve the stock after straightening.
Straightening of stocks should only be done by firms that are well experienced and has
a reputation.

Photo 4.1: Rudder stock with typical keyway, lower end. Note stainless steel liner
above cone.

If a stock is not bent, a little twist may be accepted. The theory is that twisting will only
occur over the part of the stock that has the smallest diameter. The twist will be
distributed over this parallel length of the stock. If deformation of the surface of the
stock is less than 3%, this has not damaged the stock material. One may have to make a
new keyway for example, but that is often acceptable, compared to renewing the stock.
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What we fear is deformation ageing of the material, which makes it brittle. Modern
steel grades are less susceptible to ageing than older grades.

% Deformation = 0.44*D*a°/D+L, where twist in degrees (a°) is measured.

L=length of the parallel part of the stock with minimum diameter and D= diameter of
that part.

For information are also shown two photos of a typical torsion fatigue fracture.

Photo 4.2.
This photo shows a typical torsion-fatigue fracture. The fractured surface has roughly a
45-degree angle with the centre line plane, typical for torsion-fatigue cracking. On top
of the photo (see arrow) is seen the starting point of the fracture. Something has caused
the stresses to rise here, locally, and start a fracture developing from this point. The
semicircular marks are called beach marks, and show the development of the fracture.
Beach marks look like the wave marks one may find in the sand on a beach, and is
typical for fatigue cracking. The small part of the section that is the final fracture is seen
to the left.
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Photo 4.3.

The final fracture is seen at the bottom part (see photo above). While the torsion-fatigue
fracture take some time, the final fracture is happening fast, when the load on the cross
section area gets sufficiently high.

Both weld repair and stainless steel clad welding has been successfully carried out on
rudderstocks. Reduced fatigue properties are generally not a problem as long as
standard welding requirements like stress relieve heat treatment, are met.
Please see Instructions to Surveyors for detailed information.

Stocks and pintles have a liner shrink fitted in the bearing area. This liner is usually
made of stainless steel, but bronze has also been used.
The liner is harder than the corresponding bush and is meant to last long. This grade of
stainless steel should contain molybdenum in order to resist seawater corrosion, like
AISI-316 or better.

4.2 Neck bearings

The neck bearing and the pintle bearing are in principle identical.
A liner works against a suitable bush. The bearing is lubricated most of the time by oil,
grease or water. Water is strictly speaking for wetting the surfaces and for cooling
purpose. See pt.4.4 about lubrication.
It is important that the system for oil or grease lubrication is working properly. Clogged
pipes will for instance stop the lubrication and so will faulty grease pumps.
Therefore, it must be possible to have access to all parts of the piping system for repair
or maintenance.
There are cases of grease lubricated horn pintles, or even worse, of grease lubricated
sole piece pintles. In these cases we have many meters of grease supply pipe, perhaps
10 or 20 meters of pipe, and chances of something going wrong is definitely present.
The main problem is that we have no ways of finding out when the lubrication has
failed, until we have a damage or we dismantle the bearings.
As an example, grease is distributed through a hole in the bush and into the grease
distribution grooves. Should the bush move, turn or drop, the grease supply will
immediately be shut off. This makes securing of bushes very important.

For his reason, the lubrication system should be of a simple and well-tested type, made
to last long. It must be “Fit for purpose”, and you are among the ones to consider that.
 38

Fig. 4.4. An example of a complicated bearing that is not easy to repair.

The Burmeister & Wain’s neck bearing is an example of a special design, consisting of
two bearings. Complicated bearings will always represent a hazard. The inner bearing
is of traditional design, it is grease or oil lubricated with clearances according to
Instructions or as specified by the Manufacturer.
The outer bearing does not rotate but will compensate for any bending or deflection of
the rudderstock. Repairs are complicated and have been carried out with varying result.

Roller bearings are designed to last for the vessel’s lifetime without being opened up.
Unless something suspicious is found, there is nothing to do with a roller bearing during
 39

service. A competent firm with bearing experience should only open them,
preferably by the manufacturer.

4.3 Separate Rudder Carriers

Separate rudder carriers are found in combination with ram-type steering, i.e. 2 or 4
hydraulic cylinders connected to a rudder tiller.
The rudder carrier is fitted on the stock and on its foundation on the steering gear flat. It
takes both vertical and horizontal reaction forces and carries the weight of the rudder
and stock. These forces are to be transferred to the after body structure via the carrier
and it’s foundation. These functions are normally taken care of by a rotary vane steering
gear, when that is fitted.
In an emergency mode the carrier shall be able to function with only one ram acting.
This creates a large non-symmetrical, horizontal load on the carrier and it therefore has
to be firmly fitted to the foundation. Fitted bolt or friction bolts are both acceptable.
Separate side stoppers that resist radial movement and also prevent rotation are fitted.
The rudder carrier foundation/steering gear flat is locally strengthened in order to
transfer loads into the surrounding structure.
With rotary-vane steering gears the rudder carrying bearings are an integrated part of
the steering gear.

Figure 4.5, above: A separate rudder carrier, used with ram steering gear.
 40

Photo 4.6.
Inside a dismantled rudder carrier, they are normally in two halves that are bolted
together. The horizontal bearing pads that take the vertical loads have been removed.

4.4 Types of lubrication.

Lubrication of bearings:
Bearing material in bush and liner may be bronze, stainless steel or synthetic material or
a combination of these. It is a Class requirement to steel/metal bearings that there is to
be a difference in hardness between metallic/steel liner and bush of 65 HB.
The bush is usually the softer part that is worn and that is renewed when clearances
become too large. Acceptable clearances will vary with diameter and type of bearing,
Clearances are defined in the Instructions.

There are mainly three types of lubrication systems, namely the water lubricated, the oil
lubricated and the grease lubricated. The type of lubrication is independent of the
bearing material.

Water lubrication is usually based on natural flow of water in submerged bearings.

The requirement for water lubrication and cooling should also be considered for the flap
mechanism and the flap hinges. If the bearing is above water, as for instance in ballast
condition, forced circulation of water should be arranged. In dry condition the wear rate
may increase considerably and only a few bearing materials are approved for dry
working conditions.
 41

An example of a fully grease lubricated bearing system can be seen below. A

powerful master grease pump delivers what is required.

Fig. 4.7.
 42

Below is an example of a simple grease lubrication system. The whole trunk is

filled with grease that is supplied directly into the bearing area at the bottom. Grease
outlet on top.

Fig. 4.8.
 43

Oil lubricated bearings have a closed system.

Seals are fitted below and above the bearing area. These seals necessitate a reduction of
the maximum acceptable clearance in the bearing, as the seals may not hold tight if a
sideways movement in the bearing is excessive.
For oil lubricated bearings, normal clearances are between 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Above this,
oil leakage may occur and this is a serious offence in many ports.
Clearance is not measured as long as oil consumption is low and oil analysis confirms
absence of water. In order to have the oil analyzed for water, it must be possible to take
representative samples from the bottom of the bearing. This may be arranged as for
tailshafts. Due to the seals the clearances can normally not be measured without
dismantling.
Dismantling of seals for measuring clearances is done only when there is a specific
reason to do so, like a damage when in dock.

Grease lubricated bearings are more known to failure due to lubrication problems,
leaking seals and corrosion damages. Grease lubricated bearings may work well,
however, provided a sensible design that provides sufficient grease distribution inside
the bearing and provided a grease pump with sufficient capacity.
The grease does not flow as easy as oil and grease distribution grooves are required,
minimum clearance should at least be 1.5 mm. The maximum clearance should
preferably be lower than for water lubricated bearings, as the seals do not always accept
large movement of the stock inside the bearing. However, maximum clearances
according to our Instructions to Surveyors is as for water lubricated bearings.
Large clearance means large sideways movement in the seal that make it possible for
water to enter into the bearing and cause corrosion damage.
Grease lubricated bearings should be opened up at every dry docking for Renewal Class
Hull, for general survey, renewal of grease and for measurement of clearances.
This is a good opportunity to consider the efficiency of the bearing lubrication system
and to carry out any modification.

4.5 Cone Connections:

For conical connections class requires a minimum of 70% contact area, provided good
contact in upper and lower end. Without sufficient contact area between the conical
surfaces no securing will hold this connection.
For newly machined cones and during new building a test push-up is required, as that
will grind down the surface peaks. The fitting of the two surfaces should be checked
with toolmaker’s blue. Mark the position of the two parts for later reference.
The push-up distance for keyless cone connections should be carefully measured during
each new push-up, do not rely on old marks. It is wise to have the push-up distance
noted on the drawing. Start measuring the distance when the cone is firmly fitted in the
hole. The distance is what matters, the required force is for information only and may
vary considerably depending on the friction coefficient.

In order to achieve proper push-ups, at least for larger diameters, a hydraulic nut is
required. The old slugging nut system is not well suited for larger vessels as tight and
proper fits are required.
 44

Hydraulic nuts may be made in several ways, below is shown one example.

Fig. 4.9. Details from a hydraulic nut. For large diameters this is the proper way to
achieve the required push-up in a controlled way.
 45

The nut may be removed after push-up and be replaced with a traditional nut, or it
may be left in position with the “piston” in compressed position.
Nuts are to be secured.

In upper and lower end of the conical surface, a seal, usually in the form of O-rings is
required to keep the water out of the cone. Groves for seals are normally not machined
in the stock, but inside the conical hole.
If water has entered the cone, this may be a sign of low contact surface area, of
insufficient push-up distance or of poor sealing at the ends.

A slugging nut is an ordinary nut, made to fit a large spanner that is hit with a sledge in
order to tighten the nut. One often experiences that one gets the push-up that is possible
to achieve in the given situation, whatever that may be. And this is often not good
enough. This is why push-up distances must be measured and reported. Proper actions
must be taken instead of letting a vessel sail with insufficiently tightened stocks or
pintles.
Even flange bolt connections may be unevenly or insufficiently pre-tensioned due to
restricted room for working or insufficient tools for the job.

Keyways.

Photo 4.10

Please see the photo above of the damaged keyway. The conical connection has come
lose and movement between the stock and its housing has hammered the key against the
sides of the keyway. This is obviously a case of poor securing of the nut to the stock.
Serious damage has occurred, but there are several ways to repair, please see
Instructions, Acceptance Criteria. Do NDT.
One way is to enlarge the keyway and remove all deformed material and make a new
and larger key, provided the keyway does not get too large and weaken the connection.
An alternative is to fill the keyway with weld and machine a new keyway somewhere
else, like on the opposite side. This requires good weldability and heat treatment of the
stock.
 46

Photo 4.11.
The picture above shows a keyway with a poorly shaped termination. Keyways are to
have a nicely rounded radius all along the bottom corner. The end of the keyway should
blend nicely into the stock surface and not end abruptly like this.
 47

Photo 4.12.
The picture above shows a nicely formed keyway termination that still cracked. By
machining the damaged end of the keyway as indicated by white, damaged material will
be removed and the keyway will be even better blended into the stock surface. Stresses
will be further reduced and the stock may be saved.

4.6 Securing of bolts and nuts.

Common for all rudders is the stock/blade connection. The securing of nuts to bolts or
stock/pintle must be checked regularly. Lost protection cover may be an indication of a
loose connection.
The securing of nuts to stock and pintle should be confirmed at every bottom survey, at
least when in dock.
Please note that the best securing is considered to be directly between nut and
stock/pintle/bolt, i.e. the nut is to be secured directly to the stock. Securing of the nut to
the housing may for instance not prevent the stock or bolt from turning.
Please see Casualty Information no.4/97.

Cover plates or protection plates that are meant to prevent the nut from being lost
should it fall off are not to be considered as part of the securing device.
An inspection opening or a peephole in the cover plate for checking the securing should
be arranged. A screw plug the size of a bottom plug is often used and may save the
dismantling of the cover plate. Liners and bushes should be checked for relative
movements.

The best and safest way to secure or lock a bolted connection is to secure the bolt to the
nut.
The bolt material must therefore be chosen with the securing in mind. The easiest
securing is generally by welding, directly on the bolt or indirectly by special locking
pieces. Unless the bolt and nut material is of a good weldable quality that can be
welded without preheating, locking by direct welding should be avoided.
 48

Please take a look at details from various ways to secure the nut to the pintle,
 49

Fig. 4.13.
Locking a nut/bolt connection by locking pieces that are fastened by another set of
screws is just to ”move” a problem around, as the new locking bolts/screws must also be
secured.
Locking paste, plastic compound or concrete is not accepted as a locking devise, but at
best as a secondary back-up system.

Other means of locking should be considered carefully. Locking by wire through holes
allows slack and movement of the bolt/nut and they will soon unscrew or the wire will
be cut. At next fitting after dismantling, it is very difficult to find the exact same holes.
Similar problems will be experienced with split pins.

Please also study the below sketch, Fig. 4.14. Note the machined slot for the flatbar
securing, welded to the nut only.
 50

4.7 Stock/Flange bolt connection.

Flange connection.
The flanges on the rudder and on the stock are of sufficient thickness to increase
stiffness and prevent deformation.
They are of improved quality, depending on the thickness; i.e. Charpy-V tested for
toughness at lower temperatures.
If welded to the stock, the weld should be machined to a radius of minimum 8% of
stock diameter. The smoother the surface the better the safety against fatigue.
The mating flanges are to be machined parallel and are usually fitted dry.
After having machined the flanges for repair it may be required to fit a thin steel plate
between the flanges in order to adjust the vertical distance. The thickness of this insert
plate should be restricted. This is not a requirement, but for guidance only. Bolt holes
in the insert plate may be larger than in the flanges.

Bolts for Rudder flanges.

Bolts and nuts for rudder flanges may be working at temperatures well below 0°C.
It is a good idea to make them of the same quality as the rudder flange, usually
corresponding to Grade D; i.e. Charpy-V tested at -20°C.
Bolts of ordinary cast steel or bolts machined from round bars of grade A are not always
of sufficient quality.

Tightening or pre-tensioning of bolts have always been poorly handled on the hull side.
This means that rudder flange bolts and foundation bolts for steering gear or rudder
carriers have not been properly tightened and this have resulted in damages.

We have no requirements to the use of bolted flange connections, but the general rule is
that fitted or reamed bolts are pre-tensioned to 30-40% of yield while friction bolts are
pre-tensioned to 70-80% of yield.
Fitted bolts are defined by a degree of interference between hole and bolt, according to a
recognized standard. H7/k6 or tighter is suggested.

Friction bolts do generally have a diameter that is smaller or equal to the hole.
The practical problem is to pre-tension sufficiently, and to achieve the same pre-tension
of all bolts in the system, not to mention the problem of knowing how much you have
tensioned the bolts.
These are problems that have often been neglected and therefore caused new problems
in the form of loose connections. Should 1 or 2 bolts be insufficiently pre-tensioned,
the remaining bolts may experience a considerable overload.

In practice one often has to accept what is practically achieved, whatever that is. This
will depend on the available means for tightening, the working space and how accurate
the bolts are machined.
Slugging nuts are often used. This means a large spanner and a strong man with a
sledgehammer. If one has cleaned the connection and fitted it properly and tightened a
bit before the real pre-tensioning of the bolt, that will give a point of reference from
where we may measure the pre-tensioning.
The degree of pre-tensioning may be measured by the amount of turns, or more
precisely how many degrees the nut has been turned.
Alternatively, the elongation of the bolt may be measured by caliper.
 51

The formula used is based on relative elongation e= ∆L/L = σ/E (Hook’s law),
which gives:
∆L = σ*(%)L/E E=2.06*105 , σ = Yield strength or a % thereof, N/mm².

Please take a look at the photo below (as a warning!). Bolts failed, i.e. nuts were lost.
Also the rudder horn and the blade lost! Bolts were meant to be fitted bolts, securing not
known…..

Photo 4.15. Rudder blade and horn lost in the Indian Ocean. Nuts on the flange bolts
have probably fallen off and started the accident.
 52

4.8 Damage & Repair

CASE: Rudder Stock Repair afloat, without dismantling. Please study the sketch,

Fig. 4.16.

Believe it or not, this is a case from real life.

A crack was discovered in the rudder stock, in the welded transition between flange and
stock, 25 mm deep and going a quarter of the circumference.
The vessel was in a hurry and the crack was welded afloat, without any dismantling.
When they were reminded that this was highly irregular and that stress relive heat
treatment is required, they did that. By several large burners, still afloat, they heated for
hours, but reached only about 400°C (3 burners are shown).
Our surveyor accepted this and the vessel sailed. This story did not end there, but for
you it does as soon as you have answered the question below:
 53

Please list all the things that may go wrong or that may at least be influenced by
this repair procedure! Please study for some minutes before looking at the text on
bottom of this page.

“Answer”:
A lot more than just the welded area will be heated. With 400°C in the weld area what
could be the temperature 300 mm further up the stock? Here there was a synthetic bush.
The stainless steel liner was shrink fitted on the stock, we wonder in what way the liner
or the shrinkage was affected.
Besides, when heating like this, the surface just beneath the flame may be locally
overheated. This may create a stress riser or a weak spot.
The flange bolts were of the fitted type and highly pretension. Were they affected?
Unless the stock was symmetrically heated, the heat input may have affected the
straightness of the stock/flange.
There is no complete answer to this one. We'll never know exactly what the long-term
consequences might have been as the stock and rudder was later dismantled for
permanent repair.
 54

5: PINTLES

A corroded pintle cone:

Photo 5.1.

5.1 Pintles come in a variety of designs. The traditional pintle with the cone pointing
down is normally the best solution as the pintle will not easily fall out and destroy the
bearing function even if the nut disappears.
To illustrate this, the loss of a sole piece pintle will make a balanced rudder into a spade
rudder and heavy overloading and loss of rudder is the result.

Fig. 5.2. This is taken from the 1969 version of our Instructions, but the advice is just as
good today.
On the left figure, the cover plate below the pintle is hardly capable of holding the pintle
should the nut be lost, and the pintle will be lost.
 55

There are pintles with a design that makes them poorly suited, an example is shown
on the next figure. With a bolted plate to hold the cone, not much force can be
applied here, and we do not actually achieve a push-up or a tight fit. The holding bolts
will be small compared to the pintle. Please remember the securing of holding bolts,
however small.

A poor cone design, Fig. 5.3.

 56

The next example is of a repair to a pintle cone, after corrosion damage.

A stepped insert cone is a good repair method as an alternative to the difficult task
of machining a new cone in the rudder housing. The insert cone can be machined in the
workshop and the fit can easily be tested on the cone.
It may be made of a steel grade similar to that of the housing.

The press fit of the insert in it’s housing need not be very hard as it will be pressed
against the housing when the pintle is pushed up.
A strong sealing weld is made in upper and lower end.

A stepped, insert cone, Fig. 5.4.

 57

5.2 Packing glands & seals

Packing glands and seals are required in grease and oil lubricated bearings. An old
advertisement for a BOA seal, in Norwegian, the design is the same today, Fig. 5.5.
 58

Typical seals, the design is often simple:

Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.7.
Please note that bearings transfer forces, while seals hold the water out of the
bearing.
 59

5.3 Liners & Bushes

Bushes are traditionally fastened in a build or cast housing and normally act as the
softer part of the two bearing surfaces that will be consumed or worn down. Bushes are
normally easier to renew than liners and are considered an article of consumption.
Bushes are made of synthetic material or metal or steel, and may take different bearing
loads depending on the material.
Bushes are normally shrink fitted into the housing for instance by a fit like H7/r6.
When calculating the interference it is important to consider the correct temperature
interval that covers worldwide service. Neck bearing that may be out of the water may
experience -30 to +40°C, and this must be included in the calculation of the
interference.
In addition to this they are often given a flange in upper or lower end and additional
securing by bolts. This will also prevent the bush from rotating. Properly fitted bushes
are a must.
The counter part is the liner that is shrink fitted to the pintle or the stock. The liner may
be made of bronze or steel, and is meant to last and is therefore of a harder grade.
The material for bush and liner should always be considered together. It is the
combination of materials that is to be approved.

5.4 Cast pieces.

As an example on the use of cast pieces a semi-spade rudder is shown.
These rudders will have a recess in the blade for the horn pintle. The important details
here are the cast housing for the pintle and it's weld connection to the vertical web and
to the rudder side plates. The vertical web is the backbone of the rudder blade.
The best design is probably of type A, where upper and lower bearing housing is almost
cast in one piece with the transverse web. This makes a strong and rigid structure with
less stress risers due to less welding.

Fig: 5.8, Type A. A good design, the upper and lower housing is in one piece, and the
transverse web holds them in line.
 60

Fig. 5.9, Type B is the welded version and is an alternative of lesser quality, with a
difference in stiffness between cast and fabricated parts. The welds between the cast
piece and the internal structure will be highly loaded and may crack, as they are not
prepared for a soft distribution of the stresses.

Fig. 5.10, Type C castings compensate for this by being prepared for welding and may
result in a quality rudder. Note that the welds are moved a little away from where the
bending moment is at the highest.
 61

5.5 Measuring clearances

Fig. 5.11. Plot of bearing clearance and wear rate.

By plotting the bearing clearances of water lubricated bearings over the years, the
condition will always be known and unscheduled docking may be avoided.
A large wear may have several reasons. Low hardness of bearing surfaces and
insufficient difference in hardness between surfaces (65HB) may give extreme wear in
an otherwise perfect bearing. Poor line-up of bearings, bent stocks or pintles, loose
bushes, vibrations etc. will also result in extreme wear rate.
Please note that there is a rather typical tendency for the wear to increase with the
clearance. A large clearance increases the wear rate and makes the curve point more
upwards. Not only the clearance as such should be considered, the wear rate is just as
important as indicator of the bearing conditions. Normal wear rates in a bearing like this
is up to 0.5 mm per year, with an average wear of 0.2 to 0.3 mm per year.
 62

Photo 5.12 (prev. page).

Wear rate above 0.5 mm per year may give reason to suspect something may be
wrong or at least conditions slightly different from normal and should result in a more
careful check of the rudder and the bearings.
In this case the wear rate was soon 1.5mm per year after renewal of the bush, but
without any survey of the general condition. At next bottom survey repairs were
necessary, in addition to still a new bush and checking of the line-up.
By plotting the clearances and calculating the wear rates regularly, the unpleasant
surprise of having to repair during bottom survey may be avoided.

Photo 5.13.
 63

5.6 Damage and Repair: Renewal of the heel pintle.

Please also take a look at the photo-session on the next pages, showing the renewal of
the heel pintle bush, afloat, using a cofferdam:

Photo 5.14. The cofferdam was prefabricated.

Photo 5.15. Please note the stays needed to hold the cofferdam down, when emptied of
water.
 64

Photo 5.16. Down, inside cofferdam.

Photo 5.17. Taken from underneath the sole piece pintle. The bush is missing.
 65

Photo 5.18. The bush is pressed up into the sole piece from below, inside the
cofferdam.
 66

6: RUDDER BLADE.
6.1 Design, typical features.
As illustrated in the beginning of the course, rudder blades vary in form and design
depending both on the type of rudder that we have, and on the yard’s design.
Most rudders are of a fully acceptable design and some are of high quality, but too
many rudders have poor details that often result in serious failures and damages. Do
also see the Instructions to Surveyors regarding Bottom Survey, it contains several
useful hints about rudders.

Let us have this in mind when we concentrate on the poor designs, so that we may learn
why rudders fail and hopefully what to do with it.
There are usually several answers to a problem; we have tried to tell you how to solve
the problems by yourself.
As in most cases, the basic condition for solving a problem is to understand what went
wrong and why, only then may we succeed with a permanent repair.

Balanced rudders.
Balanced rudders are the traditional types; they do normally work well, provided
properly maintained, damage is seldom.
If at all, their main weakness is the sole piece pintle, also called the heel pintle. If that
one is lost, the rudder suddenly becomes a spade rudder. The connection to the rudder
stock is not built for this and the blade is often torn off immediately. Please see sketch
in chapter 5.1, Pintles.
If the pintle is fitted in the sole piece with the cone pointing down, it is not so easily lost
even if the nut should be gone, and the rudder may be saved.
With the pintle fitted in the blade, with the cone pointing up, the pintle will easily be
lost when the nut is lost. Don’t count on safety measures to prevent the pintle from
being lost in a situation like that. Without the support of the pintle the blade is
normally torn off.

Spade rudder.
The typical feature with a spade rudder is the lack of support of the blade, i.e. no pintles.
The blade is fitted to its flange on the top, or fitted directly to the stock by a conical
connection.
The bending moment of the blade will be at it’s maximum at the top of the blade. For
conical connections, a strong rudder stock housing made of cast steel is welded to the
blade. For details, repeat previous chapter Pt. 5.4: Pintles, Cast pieces.

For a bolted flange connection the blade is welded to it’s top flange or palm plate.
Please remember how a blade is built, the first side plate will be welded to the internal
structure, including the top flange, from both sides, applying full penetration- or double
fillet welds. This is an opportunity to make a strong rudder, the weld between blade and
flange should be of full penetration type, continuous and with well-rounded fillets.

When the plate on the other side is welded, it side will close the rudder. The plate is
welded against previously fitted backing bars and with the used of slot welds and
continuous one- sided welds, all welded from the outside.
Unless this is manufactured with great accuracy, and good workmanship is
demonstrated during fitting, later failures are probable. A poor fit-up will reduce the
quality of the weld, set up stress risers and increase the chances of a failure. Many
spade rudders have been broken off just below the flange, because of poor workmanship
during manufacture.
 67

Fig. 6.1. Spade rudder, weld connection between top flange and side plate.

To the left, the last fitted plate was welded only with a one-sided weld, from the outside,
without a backing bar. Rudder was lost.
To the right an improved version. The upper part is made as one piece that is later
welded to the rest of the blade.
Both side plates are welded with full penetration welds, from both sides.
The joining weld will be moved down to where the rudder bending moment is smaller.
All one-sided welds are made against backing bars.
Due to its thickness the top flange is made of grade NV-D and pre-heated to 150°C. A
stress relieve heat treatment of this upper part at 580-600°C is beneficial, but not
required.

Semi-spade rudders.
The semi-spade rudder is the most used design on modern vessels. It is also the rudder
that causes the most problems. Whether this is because there are so many of them or
because there are so many details that may fail, we do not know for sure.
The detail most often subjected to damage is the recess or the cutout in the blade where
the horn fits in with the pintle bearing.
The stiffness of the blade is reduced here and the stress level is often higher, because so
much of the cross section is cut away and not all that remains will contribute. In
addition to this comes the small but important details that set up stresses and promote
cracking, one way or the other. Let us concentrate on these details, let us repeat them
and show the many varieties. Let us learn what to look for in a damaged semi-spade
blade.
 68

6.2 Damages and repairs

Fig. 6.2. Study these photos.

On the first photo try and find the extent of the cast pieces and where the removable
boxes and the inspection openings are, how the bearing clearance may be measured etc.,
make use of the vessel’s drawings to find information when you're onboard.
 69

Fig. 6.3.
These photos show a rather typical bad design, a vertical weld that comes down inside
the upper corner of the recess and ends here, see photos 6.3 & 6.4. No well-rounded
corner with low stresses is possible with such a detail.

Fig. 6.4.
 70

Photo 6.5 is from a different vessel, it illustrates the often seen crack between cast steel
and rolled plate. It also shown that the lower corner has not been given the larger radius
that it could have had. How large radius it is room for may be tested out by a template
made of cardboard, rather than just taken from the drawings.

This damage reason is so frequent that in 1993 it resulted in this Casualty Information,
see next page.
 71

Fig. 6.6
 72

Fig. 6.7
 73

Fig. 6.8.
 74

Fig. 6.9.

Let's summarize:
- Look for cracks in welds between cast steel and rolled plate.
- The corners of the recess are important and must be well rounded with sufficiently
large radius.
- Do not fit small brackets inside the corner in order to compensate for lack of
radius, a larger insert is required.
- No weld must run out inside this corner, welds must be placed elsewhere.
- Figure 4B: No access plates must be positioned in such a way that welds between
cast steel and plate will have to be gauged out for removal and later re-welded. Access
openings must be planned with repeated removal in mind.
These details are unfortunately decided at the design stage and there is little we can do
about it during a repair. But, let’s do whatever we can.
 75

Fig. 6.10. On the above photos is seen that the lower part of the rudder is almost gone.
The crack was discovered in time and reinforcements were made so that the vessel
could be towed to a repair yard.
 76

Fig. 6.11. Temporary repair made before towing.

The damage reason was the poor design of the aft upper corner of the recess. This had
obviously been repaired before, but with little understanding of the problems the repairs
often fail.

Fig. 6.12. A ground corner, seldom a permanent repair. Note the welds!
 77

Fig. 6.13.
The photo above is an example of a repair that involves too many plate pieces and too
much weld deposit that set up welding stresses. The upper corner is now nicely
rounded, but will it last? The curiously designed lower corner is probably meant to
soften the otherwise sharp corner, but with a weld inside the corner and a small radius
the detail will probably crack again. This is not a quality repair and it may turn out to be
temporary.

Fig. 6.14. By the rusty appearance it is evident that this crack is not new. The damage
reason is the traditional weld that ends inside a sharp corner. Sooner or later this crack
will develop further and cause a damage.
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Fig. 6.15

6.3 Case: Sharp corner, removable box.

This case is another variety of the same damage type as above, the figure is from the
surveyor’s report. The sharp corners in the lower end of the recess where a removable
box was fitted cracked.
In an attempt to strengthen the corner and to introduce a radius the small brackets were
fitted. The size of the brackets, however, was too small to have any effect, and all the
weld deposit introduced more problems in the form of stress risers. A much larger
bracket is needed in order to solve this problem, but is it room for that?
The next time it cracked at the upper toe of the bracket that ended exactly in the weld
between rolled plate and cast steel, a weld that is known to crack more often than welds
in rolled plate only.
In addition to this the “backbone” of the rudder blade was damaged, i.e. the most
important of the transverse webs had cracked. Without this web the strength of the
blade is severely reduced.

To repair the transverse web in a proper way means to remove part of the side plate in
order to get access to both sides of the web. It needs to be welded with a full
penetration weld from both sides.
The lower corner of the recess needs to be re-designed if cracking is to be avoided.

A removable box may also be found above or below the pintle, as in this case. It is part
of the system that makes removal of the pintle possible. The box is positioned as part of
the recess and in the forward part of the rudder. The fastening of this box must be
designed with repeated removals in mind, and the box itself must be just as strong as the
rest of the rudder blade.
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Let us repeat:
- Do not fit brackets inside sharp corners, insert plates with a suitable radius is
needed.
- The transverse web in the recess is vital for the transverse strength.
- Check the fitting of the removable box.

Fig. 6.16.
This photo is from a similar repair and shows how the side plate is removed. The
transverse crack in the web is seen above the upper horizontal web.
A poor lower corner of the recess, a previous repair by a doubler plate and a cover plate
that is welded directly to the cast steel is also seen.
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Fig. 6.17

Fig. 6.18. A permanent repair of such a damage requires a well-qualified repair yard.
The figure on previous page is taken from the repair procedure made by such a yard,
beautifully illustrated with sketches showing the damage as well as the complete repair.
This must be every surveyor’s dream. It is well worth the time to study the details of
this repair.
 81

Measuring clearances.
It is required that all rudder bearings are to be accessible for measuring of clearance
without lifting or unshipping the rudder. Based on clearances, the wear rate (mm/year)
may be calculated.
This rule requirement from the class societies should be taken literally. Bottom survey,
in dock or afloat, is not to be credited unless measurements are taken.
There are rudders where the clearance can be measured, but only with some problems.
By improving a few details of the bearing arrangement it may be made a lot easier to
measure clearances. A problem that should be discussed with the owner.

One should not have to gauge out welds and remove cover plates in order to measure
clearances. The problems with fitting the plate again and avoiding later cracks could
perhaps be avoided.
Several Classification Societies, including OMCS CLASS, do not accept under water welding of
cover plates, as these welds would generally be of inferior quality.
Cover plates should be made with removal in mind. They must be designed for removal
so that one may cut as indicated by the arrow, and the plate comes out without
damaging the backing bar.

Fig. 6.19.

This is an example on welds that are meant to be cut open. They should be designed for
this to make the operation easier and to reduce damage.
The opening and the backing bar should have well-rounded corners. The backing must
be strong and permanently fitted.
Before fitting the plate after dismantling, the backing and the plate edges should be
properly dressed up by grinding.
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Inspection openings.
The main job is to survey, and inspection openings are useful. This means access
for visual inspection, not necessarily access for work or for tools. To check the securing
of nuts on rudder stocks and pintles, an opening is required. Instead of removing a
complete cover plate, a peephole about 10 cm in diameter is suggested.
Standard bottom plugs may be welded in for this purpose as shown on the photo below.

Photo 6.20.

Cover plates.
Take a closer look at the weld of this cover plate. One should question the qualifications
of the welder; it does not look good.
The cover plate does have rounded corners, but they could have been given a larger
radius and been cut more even.
The actual problem here was the poorly fitted backing bars. Backing bars that make a
square corner does not fit well with a rounded opening in the plate. Besides, large gaps
were found between the backing bars and the plate and the root bead therefore had no
bar to land on.
All in all, poor design and poor workmanship caused the damage.

Blade modifications.
The manoeuvring ability of a vessel is not the responsibility of the class, but some
vessels do not manoeuvre satisfactory and small modifications are suggested.
Considering the mass that is to be moved small modifications like in the example below
are seldom satisfactory, but it may be worth trying.
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Fig. 6.21.

The balance of the rudder is important to maintain, if an area is added in front of the
rudder, it will have to be balanced by an area behind the neutral axis. See Rules for
guidance on rudder areas.

It is also important to check the changes against the capacity of the steering gear. There
are also requirements to rudder movement that has to be considered. In practise, a
steering test should always be carried out.
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Fig. 6.22.

Flap rudders have a particular problem, i.e. the flap with its hinges and the whole flap
mechanism with all it’s moving parts. A lot of small parts that contribute to the
movement of the flap may be damaged and the flap may not function properly. Some
vessels have repeatedly had such problems and wish to convert to a non-flap rudder.
Other vessels just need to have the flap fixed in centre-line position until a permanent
repair can be carried out.

The class requirements are the same. The rudder blade must have acceptable
proportions and it must fit the capability of the steering gear.
The flap may be fixed by horizontal fins on each side of the rudder, fitted at the level of
and in line with the internal stiffeners, for instance 2 or 3 stiffeners on each side on top
of the flap and perhaps 2 on each side at the bottom.
The length of the fins may be up to twice the length of the flap, fitted symmetrically
about the flap shaft. There are several ways to do this and it must be considered in each
separate case.
If this is meant to be a permanent solution the arrangement must be approved and a
Memo to Owners, stating the facts should be issued.
In any case, please consider:
- The blade usually becomes heavily over-balanced and the steering gear may have
problems bringing the blade back to centre. Over-balanced rudders may also lead to
unpleasant consequences by malfunction of some types of steering gears.
- A normal steering gear test, at full speed, in order to register whether functional
requirements in the rules is satisfied. Should the
steering gear have problems with this, one must find the reduced speed at which the
steering gear function properly, and keep this max. speed until the arrangement is
brought in order.
- The rudder force (FR) is reduced and this will influence the steering characteristics.
Even if this is not a class requirement, information on the steering particulars is to
be found on the bridge. At reduced rudder force this information is no longer
correct and corrections must be considered. For instance a "zig-zag"-test according
to IMO res. A.751.
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Photo 6.23.

6.3 Case: Steel surface, horizontal fin

This chapter ends with a photo of something special. Take a closer look. What do you
think has happened to the steel surface in the forward end of the rudder and the
horizontal fin? Do not read on until you have spent a few minutes studying the photo.
STOP READING.

This is a rudder with a flap and a horizontal fin at the bottom. The forward part of the
blade and the fin suffer from cavitation.
Cavitation is caused by the wake, by the water streaming around the rudder, governed
by the shape of the after body and the effect of the propeller and a little by the design of
the rudder and by the ship's speed.
Cavitation is almost impossible to repair permanently and a steel renewal without
removing the reasons for the cavitation is pointless.
The problem is that to change the shape of the after body or the rudder is unrealistic.
One may change the characteristics of the propeller within limits, but that may prove to
be insufficient.
As far as we know the only acceptable solution is to clad the attacked area with thin
plates of stainless steel. Stainless steel is the only material that seems to stand against
cavitation. This requires a special welding procedure. It has been done on a few
container vessels that we know of, and with success, as far as we know.
 86

MATERIALS

7.1 A Short Note on Materials often used in Rudders.

We highly recommend a course in Materials Technology held by Veritas' Training
Center. This course contains useful information for any surveyor.
Here we only have time to give you a few hints about the most common things you may
need to know.

There is no redundancy in the rudder system and this therefore indicates the need for
materials well suited for their purpose, considering crack initiation, weldability and
toughness. The choice of material is not based on strength requirements alone and
during repairs the use of materials of better quality should be considered.
Both cracking and corrosion problems may be avoided by a careful choice of material

Areas traditionally susceptible to cracking in semi-spade rudders are the rudder blade
side plates around the corners of the recess. In a rudder that is generally made of mild
steel of grade NV-A, this crack exposed area would benefit from a grade NV-D steel,
perhaps of increased thickness and perhaps of higher strength, but of grade D or E.
These grades are Charpy-V impact tested at –20 or -40ºC respectively.
These grades are definitely tougher than simple mild steel of grade NV-A which in the
principle may be brittle below room temperature. They do not crack that easily and they
have a definite ability to stop a propagating crack, and the weldability is better.
They do unfortunately not have a higher resistance to fatigue cracking.

Corrosion resistance in seawater. Brass or bronze grades used for liners or bushes
must be resistant to corrosion in seawater. This usually means that the well-known
grades are the most suited.

Bronzes.
Traditional bronzes used for bearings should be used, otherwise extreme wear down
may be experienced.
Example, a soft bronze liner against a soft bronze bush, like JIS H 5111, BC2 against
BC3, is used in some Japanese built vessels, but do not last long. In such cases both
liner and bush will be worn and will have to be renewed.
The liner is to be the hard material that is meant to last and the bush is meant to be worn
down and renewed, but only after many years in service. This is why the rules require a
difference in hardness between metallic bush and liner of at least 65 HB.

Stainless steel is used mainly for liners, but also for bushes and for various parts like
bolts and nuts.
Stainless steel may suffer from pitting corrosion and this reveals an unsuitable choice of
materials.
The chromium content should preferably be close to 17 % or higher and the content of
molybdenum at least 2.5%, to be on the safe side.
To resist the corrosive attack from seawater, the steel grade should be acid resistant, i.e.
grade AISI 316L or better. Grade AISI-304 does not contain molybdenum and should
be avoided.

Cast steel pieces are used where large thickness and rigidity, as well as complicated
forms are required, like the housing for stock and pintle bearings.
Weldable cast steel parts are to have a carbon content of maximum 0.23%, more
suitable and often used are grades with carbon content between 0.16 - 0.18%.
 87

Advisable specification for a new building is Carbon max. 0.18% and Charpy-V
tested at 0°C or lower, as described in the Rules Pt.2 Ch.2 Sec.7 Table B1. Please
see Note 2:
“For cast stern frames, rudder horns and rudder members, the impact test temperature is
to be 0ºC”.
The rudder stock or other cast parts of the rudder may in wintertime work above water
at rather low ambient temperatures, minus 20 or 30ºC is not unusual. A test temperature
of -20ºC had therefore been more logical. Charpy-V testing at 0ºC should therefore be
considered a minimum requirement.

Forged steel parts are described in Pt.2 Ch.2 Sec.5 Table B2. Here as well, the test
temperature is defined as 0ºC. It is therefore vital to use the correct table, table C may
not be used.

Rudder stocks may be cast or forged, requirements to both are found in the Rules.
Since stocks may be operating at ambient temperatures well below freezing point,
Charpy-V test temperature is to be 0°C or lower. This is in order to avoid brittle fracture
of the stock.
The following applies:
For forged steel Pt.2 Ch.2 Sec5 Table B: Mechanical Properties of Forging for General
Application.
For cast steel, Pt.2 Ch.2 Sec.7 Table B1, Carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steel Casting
for General Application. (Please remember note 2).

One should be aware of repairs where it is suggested to use stocks and pintles made of
previously used material. Generally, previously used material is not acceptable, as it
does not satisfy our Rule requirements.
It’s origin is seldom known and it may not be manufactured by an approved
manufacturer, the exact manufacturing process and also the exact steel grade is not
known and the reason why it was rejected is usually unknown.
Only in cases where the material may be identified and the cause of rejection may be
considered, may this be used.
Previously used materials will often have to be machined to reduced dimension and this
represents another problem. This means that the best material, close to the surface is
removed by machining and we are left with the softer, large grained material with
reduced mechanical properties. In such cases we suggest head office be contacted for
advice.
Please keep in mind that fatigue properties are important for components in the rudder
system, but are not tested. A previously used part may already have used part of its
running life.

7.2 Synthetic materials.

The main use of synthetic material in rudders is for bearing bushes. These are to be
Type Approved and are generally approved for a bearing pressure of 5.5 N/mm2.
In general all bushes are to be lubricated, but there are a few that are approved for
running dry. A few are approved for a bearing pressure up to 10 N/mm2.
Information on Type Approved bearing bushes is found on the Intranet.

Plastics used for repairs is the other use of synthetic material in rudders, and it comes in
liquid and paste grades. We have no program for approving plastic compounds for
repair of rudders.
 88

Their use should be limited to well known repairs and conditions, which are
suitable. There are many brands and with many grades it may be difficult to choose
the correct grade of plastic for the repair in question. The choice of grade is often
essential for the result of the repair.

The following pointers are essential to a good repair:

- Thorough cleaning of the repair surfaces and sufficient time for curing the plastics.
- Beware of low temperatures and high humidity, see manufacturers guidance and
measure the temperature.
- Consider the use of plastics, as it can not replace lost steel. A plastic that is approved
for fastening chocks of engine beds may not be a good choice for fastening a lose
bearing bush.
- Beware of plastics with revolutionary new properties, it may not be quite as fantastic
as announced.
- Use well-known brands. Well-reputed manufacturers train their local representatives,
ask to see his certificate. Ask for an approved repair procedure.

7.3: Repairs by plastics.

Corrosion may damage the bearing surfaces and it makes bushes loosen. Properly
carried out, and on certain conditions, the bush may be fastened in it’s housing by use of
plastics. This is described in the Instructions.

Do consider the consequences of replacing a bronze bush with a synthetic one. The new
bush would have the wall thickness of a metal bush without having its strength and
stiffness. The thin walled synthetic bush lack stiffness sufficient for a shrink fit and
should be glued into the housing. Use proper glue, not plastic compound.

Allow sufficient time for proper hardening. It takes time at lower temperatures and the
use of additional heat may help.

WARNING:
To fasten damaged pintle cones by plastic compound is not a sound repair. Plastics can
not replace steel and can not take the high edge pressure that often occurs in pintle
housing. Little by little the plastics crack and break away in small pieces, increasing the
edge pressure on the remaining plastics.

On the other hand, to set the pintle in plastic and then tighten as usual, the plastic will
only fill out the void space caused by corrosion. The plastics will only fill up where
metallic contact is not achieved inside corroded areas and pits. This will seal the cone
connection, but should only be used where sufficient metallic contact is achieved
without the plastic.

The End.