Human nutrition

A Balanced diet:

It is a diet that provides an adequate intake of nutrients and energy required to sustain the body
and ensure good health and growth.

Components of a balanced diet include Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Water and
Fibre.

Functions of Balanced diet

1. To provide energy (Carbohydrates and Fats).

2. To allow growth and repair (Protein).

3. To regulate body’s metabolism (Vitamins and Minerals).

4. To prevents malnutrition and deficiency diseases.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

This is the minimum amount of energy required for the body to function. It varies from person to
person. Diet depends on age, sex and activity. Children have greater energy requirements than
mature adults because they have higher BMR (They are still growing). The elderly has lower BMR
and protein needs. Women have higher storage of fat in their bodies. (Fat tissue has a lower
metabolic rate than muscle). So, they generally have a lower energy requirement than men. Women
need extra nutrients during pregnancy and breast feeding.

Energy used in a day

Male (KJ) Female (KJ)

8-Year-old 8,500 8,500

Teenager 12,500 9,700

Adult office worker 11,000 9,800

Adult manual worker 15,000 12,500

Pregnant women 10,000

Breastfeeding women 11,500

Sources of Nutrients

Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food and food is an energy-rich organic substance
either in solid or in liquid form which organisms take to stay alive.

Carbohydrate
Composition: Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and the ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1. They have a general formula of Cx (H2O)y where x and y may be the same
or different whole numbers.

Sources: yam, millet, maize, potatoes, honey, bread and yam.

Types of carbohydrates:

Simple sugars (monosaccharides): They are the simplest or monomeric units of carbohydrate. They
cannot be further hydrolysed into smaller unit. They have a chemical formula of C 6H12O6. Examples
are glucose, fructose and galactose. They are also known as the hexoses because they contain six
carbon atoms in their molecular structure. However, ribose and deoxyribose are pentoses (5- carbon
sugars) used in the formation of nucleic acids.

Disaccharides: They are carbohydrates or sugars which are formed by joining or condensation of
two simple sugar molecules with the elimination of water molecule.

Examples are sucrose, maltose and lactose.

Condensation Reactions

I. Glucose + glucose – H2O = Maltose

II. Glucose + fructose –H2O = Sucrose

III. Glucose + galactose – H2O = Lactose

Polysaccharides (complex sugar): They are formed by the condensation of more than two or
hundreds of simple sugar molecules. They are represented by the chemical formula (C 6H10O5)n
where n represents large number. Examples include; Starch, Cellulose and glycogen (animal starch).

N/B: Monosaccharides and disaccharides are sweet, colourless and soluble in water. Starch and
glycogen (polysaccharides) are white in colour, tasteless and insoluble in water.

Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates are the main sources of energy to the body

2. They act as the structural basis of certain body parts e.g., Exoskeleton of arthropods and cell
wall of micro-organisms

3. They are used as components of cell membranes

4. Excess carbohydrates are converted to glycogen (animal starch) for storage in the liver.

Proteins: Proteins are made up of smaller units called amino acids.

All proteins must be digested or broken down into amino acids before they can be absorbed by
animals. The breakdown of protein takes place in the following steps as follows;

Protein  Proteoses  Peptone  Polypeptides  Amino acids

Composition: proteins contain hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and traces of sulphur and
phosphorus.

Sources: Milk, egg white(albumen), fish, meat, beans, groundnut and soya beans

Functions of proteins
 1. Proteins are used for growth of body tissues

2. They are important in the repair and replacement of worn-out tissues

3. They are essential for the production of enzymes and hormones

4. They aid reproduction

Fats and Oil (lipids)

Fats and oil or lipids must be hydrolysed during digestion into fatty acids and glycerol before they
can be absorbed and used by the body. Fats are solids and oils are liquid at room temperature.

Composition: Fats and oil are composed of carbon, hydrogen and little oxygen.

Sources: Palm oil, groundnut, margarine, cheese, butter, soya bean oil and lard.

Functions of fats and oils

1. They storage form of energy than carbohydrate.

2. They are used structural components of cell membranes.

3. They act as insulators against changes in temperature.

4. They protect internal organs like the heart and kidneys by providing a cushioning effect.

5. They are essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

6. They give shapes and contour to the body.

7. They act as electric insulators in neurons.

Why can fat be bad for us?

Fat gives more energy than carbohydrates and proteins.

N/B: Saturated fat (from animals); unsaturated fat (From fish and plants).

Saturated fat increases concentration of cholesterol in the blood and this may link to narrowing of
arteries which predisposes blood pressure and heart disease.

N/B: Monounsaturated fats have little effect on blood cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fats reduce
cholesterol concentration and help reduce heart disease.

Mineral Salts

Mineral salts are chemical elements require in relatively small amount in the body. They are
essential for maintenance and regulation of body metabolism.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds occurring in small quantities and they are necessary for normal
growth and maintenance of good health. On the basis of solubility, vitamins are grouped into two;

Fat Soluble Vitamins: They are soluble only in fats. E.g., Vitamins A, D, E and K

Water Soluble Vitamins: They are soluble only in water. E.g., vitamin B- Complex, Vitamin C
Water/Importance of water to Animals

I. Water is a solvent or medium in which chemical reactions take place in the body.

II. It constitutes 2/3rd of the body mass of animal (about 70%).

III. It acts as a medium of transport of useful substances and waste products.

IV. It constitutes a greater part of blood.

V. It regulates body temperature to cool the body (due to its high specific heat capacity).

VI. It is necessary for the digestion of food.

VII. It helps to maintain the osmotic balance of the body.

N/B: One could be without food for some weeks, but would die in a few days without water. Ensure
that your intake of water which day equals your loss of water in urine, sweat and breath.

Fibre (roughage)

Fibre is an indigestible fibrous material which is made up of cellulose. It helps to stimulate

movement of the bowels by providing bulk to the intestinal content and prevents constipation. Lack
of fibre or roughage in diet results in constipation. E.g., green vegetables and fruits.

Fibre is believed to lower concentration of cholesterol in the blood and reduces the risk of heart
diseases and bowel cancer.

Balancing Energy Needs

Energy intake is the energy derived from food in a day.

Energy output is the energy used by the body in a day.

If the energy intake is greater than the energy output, fat will accumulate in the body and body mass
will increase.

If a person takes in more energy food than he uses, the excess is stored as fat and the individual will
become obese.

Obesity occurs due to excessive accumulation of fatty deposit under the skin or in the abdomen as a
result of eating too much and exercising too little.

Body mass index (BMI) = Body mass (kg)

Height (m 2)

BMI < 20 is under weight

BMI = 25 -30 is overweight

BMI > 30 is obese

BMI > 40 is severely obese

N/B: For normal person, BMI is between 20 to 24

Causes of Obesity

i. High intake of fatty food.

ii. High intake of refined foods containing a lot of added sugar.

iii. Too little exercise.

iv. Social and emotional stress

Effects of Obesity

i. High blood pressure

ii. Diabetes

iii. Heart diseases

iv. Arthritis.

Prevention of Obesity

i. Eat less of high-energy food

ii. Take more aerobic exercise

Constipation is a form of malnutrition that occurs due to lack of fibre or roughage in diet. A diet
containing vegetables contains lots of roughage and help to relieve constipation.

N/B: Malnutrition is a condition resulting from a diet lacking in or too rich in nutrients.

Starvation and Nutrient Deficiency

Starvation results in eating too little food, leading to weight loss, organ damage, muscle atrophy,
emaciation and eventual death. During starvation, the BMR is reduced. The body uses stored fat and
breaks down protein in the muscles to use as a source of energy.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) (Kwashiorkor and Marasmus)

Kwashiorkor: Eating diet rich in energy but lack protein.

Symptoms

i. Oedema

ii. Spare dry hair

iii. Flaky skin

iv. Fatty liver

Marasmus: Occurs if a child’s diet is deficient of both energy and protein

Symptoms

i. Thin arm and legs

ii. Wasting muscle

iii. Very low body weight

iv. Wizened, old looking face

Nutrient Needs

Vitamin C: It is found in oranges, lemons and citrus fruits. Its deficiency leads to a disease called
scurvy which manifest as bleeding gum, dry skin and hair; bone deformity in children.

Importance

i. It helps in the absorption of calcium by bones and teeth.

ii. It is used in the formation of tendons, ligaments and blood vessels.

iii. It is necessary in the healing of wounds and formation of scar.

VitaminD: It is necessary for the absorption of calcium in the small intestine and for deposition of
calcium in bone cells.

Deficiency results in ricket in children and osteomalacia (softening of bones) in adults.

Iron: It is necessary for the formation of haemoglobin. Lack of iron in diet leads to anaemia which
affects the ability of the blood to transport oxygen.
N/B: Adults need about 16mg of iron each day. A pubertile or menstruating girl needs enough iron in
her diet.

Anaemia manifests as tiredness, shortness of breath, heart palpitations and pale complexion.

Digestion
Digestion is the process by which complex food or nutrient molecules are broken down into simple,
soluble and absorbable form that can be used by the body, by mechanical and chemical means.

Digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and associated glands and organs which secrete
enzymes that bring about digestion.

The alimentary canal is a specialized tubular structure that runs from the mouth and ends at the
anus. Digestion and absorption of food takes place in the alimentary canal.

Parts of the Human Alimentary Canal

1. The mouth

2. The gullet (oesophagus)

3. The stomach

4. The small intestine (duodenum and ileum)

5. The large intestine (colon, rectum and anus)

The alimentary canal begins in the mouth and ends in the anus.

Organs/Glands Associated with Digestion

i. Salivary glands,

ii. Pancreas,

iii. Liver

iv. Gall bladder

Structure of the Digestive System

Processes Involved in the Digestion of Food Substances

1 Ingestion: This means the taking in of food or nutrients into the body via the mouth.

2 Absorption: This refers to the diffusion or movement of digested food via the wall of the
small intestine into the blood.

3 Assimilation: This is the entry or uptake of digested food or nutrients from the blood by
body cells to generate energy.

4 Egestion: This is the process by which the undigested or insoluble parts of the food are
removed from the body as faeces.

Mechanical Digestion: This involves the physical breakdown of complex food substances into
simpler pieces to increase the surface area without chemical change the molecules. It involves the
chewing action of the teeth in the mouth (masticating and swallowing via the help of the tongue)
and the muscular contraction of the stomach.

Chemical Digestion: It involves the breakdown of food molecules by certain secretion and action of
enzymes. It occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.

N/B: Mechanical/physical digestion provides a surface area for effective enzymatic reaction.

Teeth

The teeth play significant role in mechanical digestion during chewing. They breakdown food into
smaller pieces to increase the surface area for the action of enzymes and for easy swallowing of
food. An adult human has 32 heterodont teeth (of different shapes, sizes and functions). They
include;

• Incisors- These are located in the front of the jaw. They are flat and chisel-shaped. They are
used for biting and cutting of food.

• Canines: They are sharp and pointed at the tips. They are used for piercing and tearing of
flesh or food.

• Premolars: They have large, ridged flat surfaces or cusps used for grinding and chewing
food.

• Molars: They are closely packed with ridged surfaces or cusps like the premolars. They are
used for chewing and grinding of food.

Sets of Teeth

Human teeth can be grouped into two sets;

Milk teeth-found in young ones and later fall off to be replaced by permanent teeth. They are 20 in
number (no molars).

Permanent teeth- they are possessed by adults and remain till old age. They are 32 in number.

N/B: The last of the permanent teeth will come out later in life. They are the back molars or wisdom
teeth.

Dentition

Dentition is the number and kinds of teeth present in a mammal (an animal) and their arrangement
in the lower and upper jaw bones.

• Dental Formula: This shows the number and types of teeth an animal has in one half of each
jaw.

The dental formula for different species is as follows where I = incisors, C = canines, P = premolars
and M = molars

• Man (adult): I - 2/2   C - 1/1   P - 2/2   M - 3/3 = 16 x 2 = 32

• Dog: I - 3/3   C - 1/1   P - 4/4   M - 2/3 = 21 x 2 = 42

• Sheep: I - 0/4  C - 0/0  P - 3/3  M - 3/3 = 16 x 2 = 32

• Rabbit: I- 2/1 C-0/0 P-3/2 M-3/3 = 14 X 2= 28

N/B: In carnivores, the last premolar in the upper jaw and the first molar in the lower jaw are large
and modified to form carnassial teeth which have sharp edge for cracking bones and tearing meats.

In herbivores, the space created by the absence of canines is called diastema which allows
manipulation of grass in the mouth.
Vertical Section of a Tooth

i. Enamel: It is a hard outer layer found in the crown. It protects the pulp cavity and the dentine
within. It is white in colour but not found in the root.

ii. Dentine: It is a bone-like structure that contains living cytoplasm.

iii. Pulp cavity: It contains blood vessels and nerves that are sensitive to heat and cold.

iv. A layer of cement surrounded by periodontal membrane fixes the tooth to the jaw bone. N/B:
The root is the part that is below the gum.

Tooth Decay
Tooth decay is caused by bacteria present in plaque (bits of food that stick to the teeth and gum
after a meal), which change sugar present in food into acid via anaerobic respiration. The acid
attacks the enamel and dentine of the tooth to expose the nerves and blood vessels in the pulp
cavity, leading to tooth ache. As the gum becomes infected and the fibres holding the tooth
weakened, the tooth eventually falls off.

How to Prevent Tooth Decay

1. Practise regular brushing with a good tooth brush and fluoride fortified paste.

2. Avoid sugary food.

3. Eat a balanced diet that contains sufficient vitamin C, vitamin D, phosphorus and calcium.

4. Finish a meal with hard, fibrous fruits.

5. Visit a dentist regularly.

Parts of the Alimentary Canal/Digestion

1. Mouth (Carbohydrate digestion)

As food is ingested into the mouth, the teeth masticate the food into smaller pieces to provide large
surface area for the action of enzymes. The salivary glands secrete saliva to moisten the food and
the tongue mixes the food with saliva and rolls it into a bolus that is then swallowed.

As the bolus moves down, a flap called epiglottis covers the trachea to prevent choking and permits
movement via the oesophagus. N/B: Saliva also contains an amylase called ptyalin to convert
cooked starch to maltose.

2. Oesophagus: The wall of the oesophagus is muscular and it contracts and relaxes rhythmically to
push each bolus of food slowly downwards. This wave-like muscular contraction that moves food
along the oesophagus is called Peristalsis.

3. Stomach (Protein Digestion)

The stomach is a muscular bag that can store about one litre of food. Food enters the stomach via
the cardiac sphincter. Certain glands in the stomach wall produce HCl and gastric juices which
contain two proteases called pepsin and rennin. The muscular wall of the stomach churns up the
food (mechanical digestion) for effective mixing with the juices and HCl to convert it into a creamy or
semi-liquid form called Chyme, before passing via the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. The
pepsin acts on protein, converting it to Polypeptides, while the rennin causes the coagulation of milk
into thick curd by converting soluble Caseinogen into insoluble Casein (which can then be acted
upon by pepsin). The HCl provides an acidic medium for the action of these enzymes, and also kills
any bacteria that might be present in the food.

N/B: Food stays about two to three days in the stomach before moving into the duodenum.
4. Small Intestine (Lipids Digestion)

The small intestine is about 6m long. The first segment of the small intestine is called duodenum, the
second jejunum and the last Ileum. Duodenum contains the Pancreas which secretes pancreatic
juice (alkaline liquid that neutralises the acid content in chyme) and contains three digestive
enzymes such as;

i. amylase/amylopsin which converts starch to maltose

ii. trypsin which converts proteins to polypeptides

iii. lipase which converts lipid to fatty acids and glycerol

The liver produces a greenish liquid called bile, which is stored in the gall bladder. It does not
contain enzymes. In digestion, bile reduces the surface tension of fats by emulsifying them to
increase the surface area for lipase enzyme to act; it adds water to chyme and neutralises the HCl
content in chyme. This changes the chyme to more watery form called chyle.

Also, certain cells in the intestinal wall produce intestinal juices (succus entericus), which contain
amylase, protease (erepsin) and lipase that complete the process of digestion. The end products of
digestion (glucose, amino acid, fatty acid and glycerol) are absorbed into the bloodstream in the
small intestine by finger-like projection called Villi and transported to body cells for assimilation and
energy production.

Adaptation of the Small intestine

i. It is long and highly folded. This provides a large surface area and allows food to stay longer
for efficient absorption.

ii. It contains villi and microvilli which increase the internal surface area for absorption.

iii. It has a thin epithelium for easy diffusion of food into the blood and lymph.

iv. It is richly connected to blood vessels.

The structure of a Villus

Parts of the Villus and Functions

i. Epithelium: It is a one-cell thick wall which increases the rate of diffusion and active
transport of molecules.
 ii. Lacteal: It is a blind lymphatic vessel surrounded by a network of blood capillaries. The
lymph in the lacteal’s aids in the transport of fatty substances. Excess fats are stored as
adipose tissues under the skin and around organs.

iii. Blood Capillaries: The capillaries transport glucose and amino acids away from the intestine.
Also, mineral salts and vitamins are absorbed by these capillaries. N/B: The absorbed food
molecules are transported to the liver via hepatic portal vein for processing and transport to
body cells where they are assimilated. Also, fatty acids and glycerol are transported via
lymph in the lymphatic vessel that eventually empties into the blood circulation at the neck
region via the subclavian vein. Fat does not enter the blood too quickly.

N/B: Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation  Egestion

Large Intestine

The large intestine (about 1.5m long) is divided into the caecum, the appendix, the colon and the
rectum. The undigested waste food passes into the large intestine or colon where water and
minerals are absorbed from it, and it becomes semi-solid faeces which is eliminated via the anus by
a process called egestion. Egestion is the process of eliminating undigested wastes from the body via
the anus.
N/B: The functions of caecum and appendix are not well known in humans. However, Caecum
usually contains some traces of bacteria, which digest cellulose and also vitamin K and B- complex
are partially synthesized in this region.

N/B: The cholera bacterium (vibrio cholerae) produces a toxin which enters the epithelial cells of the
intestinal wall to disrupt the functioning of its cell surface membrane. This causes chloride ions to
pass out of the cells into the intestinal lumen. Accumulation of ions in the lumen creates a water
potential gradient and water flows into the lumen by osmosis. This movement of water and ions into
the lumen results in diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of useful ions.

Cholera is transmitted by ingestion of water or food contaminated by faecal material containing

vibrio cholerae. It can be treated by antibiotics and oral rehydration therapy.

Diarrhoea is the loss or frequent passage of watering faeces from the body.

What are the components of oral rehydration therapy?

1. Sugar in water
2. Garri
3. Antibiotics