Biology Note

Biological molecules
Biological molecules are useful complex chemicals required by living organisms (plants and animals)
for metabolism. What is metabolism?

These complex chemicals include carbohydrates, proteins and fats (lipids). Most plants make their
complex chemical compound via photosynthesis and minerals or ions from the soil. Animals obtain
biological molecules from their diets by feeding on plants or other animals. The various biological
molecules required for healthy living in humans are carbohydrates proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals,
fibre and water.

1. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. E.g. sugar (glucose, sucrose), starch,
glycogen and cellulose.

Glucose: It is a simple sugar made in photosynthesis

It is a six- carbon sugar.

It is used in respiration and transported via the blood

Sucrose: It is a double sugar molecules formed by condensation of two simple sugar molecules.

Starch, glycogen and cellulose are complex carbohydrates.

Starch: Energy store carbohydrate in plant

Glycogen: Animal starch store in the liver and muscles.

N/B: Starch and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet.

Cellulose is a complex structural carbohydrate molecule linked together to form fibres that give
plant cell wall strength and rigidity.

2. Proteins

Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

They are made from smaller units called amino acids. Amino acids are joined together by a peptide
bond. The type of protein formed in the body depends on the sequence of amino acids.

Formation of a protein molecule from amino acids

E.g. of protein produced in the body based on functions are;

i. Enzymes- which speed up chemical reaction in the body.

ii. Antibodies- binds and destroys antigens on body surface.

iii. Haemoglobin- binds and transports oxygen round the body.

 3. Fats (lipids)

Lipids consist of the following elements; carbon, hydrogen and small amount of oxygen. A molecule
of fat is made up of one glycerol and three fatty acids attached to it.

Uses

1. Energy storage in the body

2. Thermal insulation in the body

Chemical Tests for Biological Molecules

Practicals: Food Test

Make an extract from the material you are testing by grinding a small amount of the material with a
pestle and mortar or using a blender and make a solution of it.

N/B: It is important to carry out these tests on pure form of the compounds.

Also, always wear gloves and eye protection because some chemicals are corrosive.

Test for Starch

i. Half fill a test-tube with extract containing starch

ii. Add 2 to 3 drops of iodine solution

iii. A positive result gives blue-black coloration with iodine.

Test for Reducing Sugar (simple sugar)

i. Add a known volume of extract (test solution) into a test-tube

ii. Add the same volume of Benedict’s solution (bright blue) into the test-tube containing the
extract.

iii. Place the test-tube into a hot water or water bath

iv. A positive result gives red or orange colour.

N/B: If the colour turns green, the extract contains few amount of reducing sugar.

If the colour turns deep orange, the extract large amount of reducing sugar.

If the colour remains blue, it does not colour any reducing sugar.
Test For Protein

i. Half fill a test-tube with the test solution (extract)

ii. Add 5 to 6 drops of biuret solution (blue in colour)

iii. A positive result gives purple or violet colour

I f the solution remains blue, no protein is present.

Test for Fats

Dissolves fat in ethanol

Add solution of fat in ethanol to water, a cloudy white emulsion is formed.

Test for Vitamin C

i. Put a known volume of DCPIP solution (blue liquid) in a test-tube

ii. Fill a syringe or dropping pipette with an orange juice

iii. Add the liquid one drop at a time into the DCPIP solution

iv. If the colour of DCPIP disappears, the test is positive.

N/B: Vitamin C decolourises DCPIP solution.

Structure of a DNA Molecule

A nucleotide
How bases pair up in DNA

Assignment: Describe the structure of a DNA molecule

DNA is made up of two polynucleotides strands or chains that twist or wrap around each other to form a
double helix (similar to a ladder). Each strand has a sugar-phosphate backbone which forms that outer part
of the helix and hydrogen bonds existing between bases on opposite strand to determine the alignment of
the helix. The paired bases lie in a plane perpendicular to the helix axis and they are complementary.
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) by two hydrogen bonds; Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) by three
hydrogen bonds. The two strands or chains run in antiparallel directions to each other.

Structure and Action of Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of chemical (metabolic)
reaction in living organisms.

How Enzymes Work

i. They break down large molecules into small molecules. E.g. digestive enzymes

ii. They build up large molecules from small ones. E.g. formation of starch for storage, cellulose
for cell wall formation in plants.

iii. They convert one molecule into another by adding or removing atoms or group of atoms.
E.g. respiratory enzymes

Glucose  Glucose-6-phosphate

Characteristics of Enzymes

i. They are proteinous in nature

ii. Each enzyme catalyses a specific reaction

iii. They remain unchanged after reaction

iv. They are sensitive to pH

v. They are influenced by temperature (they are heat labile)

N/B: A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction and remains unchanged
at the end of the reaction
Enzyme + substrate  Enzyme-substrate CompleEnzyme + Product

Active site is the part or region of the enzyme where substrate binds to for a reaction to take place.

The shape of the part of the enzyme where reaction occurs must be complementary to the substrate
so that they can fit together for reaction to take place.

The ‘lock and key’ model of enzyme states that enzyme and substrate combine like a key entering a
lock to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Enzyme kinetics is the rate of change of substrate to product per unit time.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

Enzyme + Substrate Enzyme-substrate complex  Enzyme + Product

Enzymes catalyse reactions in which substrate are converted to products.

Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity

Increasing the temperature of an enzyme-controlled reaction will increase the rate of reaction up to
a maximum due to increase in the kinetic energy and effective collision between the enzyme and
substrate molecules. At higher temperature, heat denaturation and subsequent loss of
conformational shape of the enzyme’s active site occurs. This decreases the activity of the enzyme as
substrate can no longer fit into the active site.

N/B: The temperature at which maximum amount of the substrate is converted to product per unit
time is called the optimum temperature.

Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

The activity of an enzyme is influenced by the pH of its surroundings. Most enzymes work best at
optimum pH. At an extreme pH value, the 3- dimensional shape of the active site of the enzyme is
altered, as the chemical bonds that hold the enzyme molecule in shape are broken by changes in pH.
This decreases substrate binding and catalytic activity of the enzyme.

Most enzymes have an optimum pH of around 7 (neutral). However, some prefer acidic or basic
conditions.
Effect of Concentration

As substrate concentration increases, the initial rate of reaction correspondingly increases. At lower
concentration of substrate, some enzyme molecules are remaining idle. As more substrate is added,
all enzyme molecules are saturated so that further increase substrate cannot make any effect in the
reaction velocity.

Enzymes and their Uses

1. Seeds to germinate: Enzymes turn insoluble food stores to soluble ones which nourish the
embryo in the seeds.

2. Biological washing powders: Enzymes are added to washing powders to help remove stains. For
example: Lipase for lipids from fatty foods and greasy fingerprints

Protease for proteins from blood stains

3. Food industry:

Isomerase converts glucose to fructose which is sweeter, so less is needed to give a sweet taste.

Pectinase helps break down cell walls in fruit juice production so it increases yield, lowers viscosity
and reduces cloudiness.

Plant nutrition
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture their food (glucose) from simple
inorganic raw materials like carbondioxide and water using light energy from the sun.
Photosynthesis takes place in the green pigment called chlorophyll which is found in the chloroplast
of plants. The final product of photosynthesis is simple sugar (glucose) and oxygen is liberated as a
by- product. Photosynthesis is an anabolic process.

Word Equation For Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyll)

Chemical Equation 0f Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

During photosynthesis, the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecule into
hydrogen ion component and hydroxyl ion component. The H + is used to reduce CO2 to simple sugar
(glucose). The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll then becomes the chemical energy in the simple
sugar. The simple sugar or glucose is converted to starch as a store of energy in leaves and other
parts of the plants.

Energy produced via photosynthesis is used by plants and other organisms that feed on plants
directly or indirectly for food. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. It is used for respiration by
plant (itself) and other organisms.

N/B: If too much sugar is dissolved in the cell sap of plant cells (very concentrated), water moves
into the cell, swells and becomes turgid. To prevent turgidity, glucose molecules are converted into
starch (insoluble and does not have effect on osmosis).

Requirements for Photosynthesis

I. Light energy from the sun

II. Chlorophyll absorb by light

III. Carbondioxide from the air

IV. Water from the soil

V. Enzyme

VI. Suitable temperature

Fates of Glucose Produced after Photosynthesis

Glucose is the product of photosynthesis. It is broken down via respiration to release energy. It is
also used to make cellulose for cell wall formation. Excess glucose can also be converted to useful
substances like starch, sucrose and fats, which are stored in various parts of the plants. When
animals feed on plants, the stored materials in plants are broken down into basic and absorbable
units which are utilized by animals for their up keep.

Importance of photosynthesis

1. Production of food: All green plants manufacture food via photosynthesis, while animals
depends on green plants for their food.

2. Purification of the atmosphere to maintain constant balance of carbon and oxygen

concentration. Waste products like carbon dioxide released during respiration and
combustion are removed from the atmosphere by plants during photosynthesis.

3. Release of oxygen to the atmosphere: oxygen needed for respiration by living organisms is
released into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

4. Photosynthesis provides the building block (carbon-skeleton) on which other food

substances such as protein, fats and oil are built.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

We determine how fast or slow photosynthesis occurs by measuring how much starch or oxygen is
made. Environmental conditions like light intensity, temperature and concentration of CO2 influence
the rate of photosynthesis.

Light intensity: As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis initially increases, and
thereafter, levels off to a plateau. Higher light intensity initially causes more electrons in the
chlorophyll molecules to become excited (gain energy). As more and more electrons are excited, the
light reactions occur more rapidly. At a certain light intensity, however, all the available electrons
are excited and a further increase in light intensity will not increase the rate of photosynthesis.
Temperature

High temperature accelerates various chemical reactions of photosynthesis. As a result, the rate of
photosynthesis increases over a certain range of temperature and then decreases due to
denaturation of enzymes in the chloroplasts.

N/B: As temperature increases, the stomata begin to close to limit water loss. This will have the
effect of stopping the carbon dioxide from entering the leaf. This will also decrease the rate of
photosynthesis. Also, enzymes do not function well at too high temperature.

Carbon dioxide: Increasing levels of carbon dioxide around the plant stimulates photosynthesis
until it reaches a plateau. This graph would resemble that of light intensity.

Water

Lack of water can also slow down the rate of photosynthesis. Stomata can close from water loss.
Due to this, most xerophytes like the cactus have developed some features to prevent water loss in
dry, desert climates.

Use of Plant Products

i. Provision of food for man and livestock

ii. Provision of raw materials for industry. E.g. timber and cotton.

iii. Provision of medicine

iv. Provision of habitat for wildlife and micro-organisms.

Limiting Factor

A limiting factor is something or a factor present in the environment in such short supply that it
restricts life processes.

Temperature, light intensity CO2 concentration are limiting factors that influence the rate of
photosynthesis.

i. Temperature influences the activity of enzymes in the chloroplast. Chemical reactions catalysed by
enzymes increase with temperature. The rate of photosynthesis increases until a certain
temperature and then decreases due to denaturisation of enzymes in the chloroplasts.
ii. Light intensity determines the energy available to photosynthesis. If light intensity is low (no
matter the amount of CO2 and H2O), the rate of photosynthesis will be slow.

iii. CO2 at high concentration is used by the chloroplast enzymes to make carbohydrate (simple
sugar).

Glasshouse Production

Conditions inside a glasshouse allow plants to grow earlier in the year. They grow in places where
they would not normally grow. Factors like CO2, concentration, light intensity, humidity and
temperature are controlled in modern glasshouse systems to give optimum conditions. This ensures
that the rate of photosynthesis is kept high so that plant produce maximum yield.

Temperature: Sunlight heats up the inside of the glasshouse. The glass prevents the heat from
escaping. Electric heaters are used to generate heat in cold weather.

Ventilator flaps are opened to cool the glasshouse on hot days.

Light: Sunlight penetrates the glasshouse and artificial lighting system can be used when light
intensity gets too low.

CO2: CO2 can be pumped into glasshouse to increase CO2 concentration. Butane or natural gas can
be burnt to increase the concentration of CO2 and provide heat to raise the temperature of
glasshouse in cold weather.

Water: Most glasshouses have automatic watering system that use sprinklers and humidifiers to
water crop plants.

N/B: All these factors and monitored and controlled by computers, so few workers are required.
There are sensors for CO2 concentration, humidity, light intensity and temperature that detect
changes in these limiting factors.

Adaptation of a Leaf to Photosynthesis

1. The leaf stalk is best positioned to receive maximum amount of sunlight. The leaf is covered
with a waxy coat called cuticle which prevents dehydration or water loss.

2. The flat leaf blade provides large surface area for efficient absorption of sunlight.

3. Cells at the palisade mesophyll contains numerous chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis.

4. The numerous stomata at the lower epidermis permit the entry and exit of gases and water
vapour from the leaf.

5. The thin structure and intercellular spaces ensure even distribution and diffusion of gases
(CO2) and water vapour throughout the leaf.

6. Presence of veins or transport tissues (xylem and phloem) ensure distribution of water and
nutrients.

7. The guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomata.

 Leaf Structure

Cuticle: waxy layer that prevents water loss from top of the leaf by transpiration.

Upper epidermis: It allows light penetration to the palisade cell. It has no chloroplast.

Lower epidermis: It contains stomata but no thick cuticle covering it.

Palisade mesophyll layer: Found at the top of the leaf structure and contains numerous chloroplasts
for photosynthesis. Most photosynthetic activity occur here.

Spongy mesophyll layer: It contains irregularly shaped cells with a lot of air spaces which allows
diffusion of gases in the leaf. It contains few chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

Vein/Vascular Bundle: made up of xylem and phloem

Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved minerals or ions and has lignified walls made of
cellulose. Phloem: Transports nutrients manufacture food substances like sucrose and amino acids.

Stomata: little holes that opens and closes to allow gaseous exchange to take place. The stomata
close to prevent water loss and open to let gases come in and out. When guard cells lose water, the
stoma closes (at night), while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water & swell (during the day).

N/B: Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata.

In sunlight (during the day)

i. CO2 diffuses in for photosynthesis.

ii. Oxygen made in photosynthesis diffuses out.
iii. Water vapour diffuses out.

Mineral Requirement of Plants

Apart from light, carbondioxide and water for healthy growth, plants also need mineral salts (plant
nutrients) which they absorb from the soil in small quantities as ions via active transport in the roots.

Plant Nutrients

Plant’s major nutrients include nitrate, magnesium, phosphate, sulphate, calcium, iron and
potassium ions or salts.

These nutrients are needed for a variety of purposes in plants. If any of them is lacking in the soil,
plants will show a deficiency symptom for that particular nutrient.

Plants need nitrate ion to make amino acids which are used for protein synthesis.

Its deficiency will show poor or stunted growth of plants.

Magnesium ions are used by plants for manufacturing chlorophyll and its deficiency show yellowing
of leaves (chlorosis).

Phosphate ions are used for making compounds like DNA and for respiration. Its deficiency shows
poor weedy growth, stems and leaves turn purplish; mottling of lower leaves.

N/B: Fertilizer is usually added to soil to replenish its deficient nutrients.

Water Culture (hydroponics) is used to study the effects of deficiency of minerals on the growth of
plants. It is made up of distilled water containing all the necessary elements in the correct quantities.

. These minerals needed by plants are;

Macronutrients/minerals Micronutrients/minerals

i. Nitrogen i. Manganese

ii. Phosphorus ii. Zinc

iii. Sulphur iii. Copper

iv. Potassium iv. Boron

v. Calcium v. Molybdenum

vi. Magnesium vi. Chlorine

 vii. Iron

Investigation of Photosynthesis

If too much sugar is dissolved in the cell sap of plant, water moves into the cell, swells and becomes
turgid. To prevent turgidity, glucose molecules are converted into starch (which is insoluble and has
no effect on osmosis).

Testing a Leaf for Starch

i. Place a leaf in boiling water-To kill the protoplasm of the leaf.

ii. Put the leaf into a test-tube of ethanol and stand it in a beaker of hot water for 10 minutes-
To decolorize the leaf or to extract the chlorophyll.

iii. Wash the decolorized leaf in cold water- To remove the ethanol and soften the leaf.

iv. Spread the leaf in a flat white surface and add few drops of iodine solution on it.

v. If the leaf turns blue-black, starch is present.

Practicals

Expt 1: To show that Chlorophyll is Necessary for Photosynthesis

i. Take a destarched, variegated plant.

ii. Place the plant in sunlight for 6 hours

iii. Plug one variegated leaf from the plant and test for starch.

Result: The green part of the leaf turns blue-black while the white part does not turn blue-black. This
shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

EXP 2: To Show that Carbondioxide is Necessary for Photosynthesis

i. Take a de-starched plant and enclose it in a plastic bag with a chemical that absorbs
carbondioxide (soda lime)

ii. Leave the plant in sun light for a few hours and test for starch.

Result: The leaf of the plant shows no blue-black with iodine because it has been deprived of
carbondioxide by the soda lime.

Set up a control experiment without soda lime.

EXP 3: To Show That Light is Necessary for Photosynthesis

i. Take a de-starched plant, cover part of the leaf with an aluminium foil to prevent light
penetration.

ii. Leave the plant in the light for a few hours

iii. Test the leaf for starch.

Result: Only parts of the leaf that were uncovered show blue-black. The parts that were covered did
not show blue-black.

Exp4: To show that Oxygen is released during photosynthesis

Materials: Beaker, test tube, glass funnel, aquatic plant and water

Method/Procedure:

i. Place an aquatic plant (Elodea) in a beaker that is half-filled with water

ii. Invert a glass funnel over the plant

iii. Invert a test tube filled with water over the stem of the glass funnel
 iv. Place the set up in sunlight

v. Set up a control experiment in a similar way but place it in a dark cupboard

Observation: Some gas bubbles are seen escaping into the test tube. No gas is seen in the control
experiment

Result: The gas rekindles a glowing splinter.

Conclusion: Oxygen is given off during photosynthesis. Since oxygen is the only colourless gas that
rekindles a glowing splinter, the released gas is oxygen.

Gas Exchange Plants

All living organisms (including plants) carry out respiration all the time.

During the day, plants carry out both photosynthesis and respiration.

In bright light, when there is an increase rate of photosynthesis, some oxygen produced by plants is
used by their mitochondria for aerobic respiration while the rest diffuses into the surroundings.

The carbondioxide then produced by the mitochondria is used by chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
However, this is not enough, so carbondioxide diffuses in from the surroundings.

Therefore, in bright light (day time), plants use carbondioxide in photosynthesis and release oxygen.
At night, plants produce only carbondioxide by respiration.

N/B: Hydrogen-carbonate indicator solution is used to detect changes in CO2 concentrations as a

result of gas exchange by aquatic plants. It is prepared by bubbling atmospheric air via it. This gives
the indicator red colour.

Increase in atmospheric CO2 is due to burning of fuels, deforestation and increased in human
population.

Assignment

1. Explain the mechanisms of the opening and closing of stomata.

2. State FOUR differences between photosynthesis and respiration

3. State the deficiency symptoms of the following mineral salts or ions in plants;

i. Nitrate

ii. Magnesium

iii. Phosphate

iv. Sulphate

v. Iron

vi. Potassium