Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Decision Analytics Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dajour

A BERT encoding with Recurrent Neural Network and Long-Short Term

Memory for breast cancer image classification
Sushovan Chaudhury ∗, Kartik Sau
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Engineering and Management, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Computer-aided diagnostic systems developed with Artificial Intelligence (AI) are a major advancement in
Bidirectional Encoder Representations from healthcare analytics, assisting radiologists with a second opinion on cancer diagnosis. In this study, we explore
Transformers (BERT) two modalities of breast images, ultrasound, and histology, for their classification into cancerous and non-
Recurrent Neural Networks
cancerous categories. Traditionally Convolution Neural Networks (CNN) have done a commendable job of
Long Short-Term Memory
extracting features using convolution kernels from images with great accuracy. Also, the Bidirectional Encoder
Breast cancer
Ultrasound image classification
Representations from Transformers (BERT) has been widely used in Natural Language Processing (NLP) for
feature encoding and downstream tasks like segmentation and classification. We extract the power of Vision
Transformers (ViT) and implement transfer learning using BERT pre-training of Image Transformers (BEiT) as
a feature encoding technique. We use the encoded features for classification with Recurrent Neural Network
– Long short Term Memory (RNN-LSTM). The classification is performed on two modalities of breast image
datasets: BUSI1311 and breast histopathological images. Both modalities yielded competitive accuracies. The
BUSI1311 dataset produced 99 percent accuracy compared to 91 percent accuracy for breast histology images.

1. Introduction review by radiologists or pathologists is as yet important, which takes

The most predominant cause of casualty among ladies is Breast
Cancer (BC). As per the World Cancer Research Fund’s 2020 report,
there were multiple million new instances of BC analysed in 2018 [1]
and the number one cause of death from cancer among women. These
disturbing figures accentuate the need of suitably using current spe-
cialized forward leaps to find out powerful tools to diagnosis of breast
cancer in its nascent phases. To fabricate a more compelling computer-
aided diagnosis (CAD) framework for BC location, scientists have as
of late investigated the utilization of profound learning models in
an assortment of medical services applications [2–7] through health
analytics and precision Artificial Intelligence.
X-rays (mammography) [8], ultrasound (sonography) [4,7], ther-
mography [9], magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and histopathology
imaging are a portion of the imaging techniques that can be utilized
to identify and analyse BC [10]. During the time spent diagnosing BC,
ultrasound has turned into a normally utilized, reasonable, painless,
and non-radioactive imaging methodology. It is regularly trailed by
histological examination. The last option utilizes biopsy methodology
to get cell and tissue tests that are then mounted on a magnifying
lens slide, stained, and inspected under a magnifying lens. Histopatho-
logical finding has turned into the best quality level for all intents
and purposes all disease types with a serious level of certainty [11].
Regardless of the utilization of numerous imaging modalities, a visual
time and needs an elevated degree of radiological/obsessive expertise.
Besides, it has been shown in various examinations that when a similar
arrangement of photographs is seen by different trained professionals,
there is a significant degree of between onlooker changeability [12].
An AI- fuelled framework might have the option to lessen this assess-
ment conflict welcomed on by different human foundations, insightful
methodologies, and information, creating a more exact demonstrative
outcome to help clinical direction [13].
The field of medical care has been investigating advancements in
artificial intelligence, particularly in the area of deep learning [14,15].
Additionally, there has been a growing use of deep learning in the
recognition of breast cancer [13]. The author’s review of literature
found two similarities among previous efforts to classify breast cancer
images. Firstly, the learning models used, which include traditional
deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) structures, new CNNs, and
models that combine a CNN, are generally established. Though CNN-
based representation models are important, recent advancements have
led to the emergence of a new vision model called the Vision Trans-
former (ViT) [16], which has been found to be more accurate in various
public benchmarks. Few explores have investigated the utilization of
the ViT in BC classification, and its true capacity in this field has
not been totally analysed [17]. Second, most of exploration now in
presence depends on administered realizing, which requires total expla-
nation of each picture test in the dataset. Explanation takes time and

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sushovan.chaudhury@gmail.com (S. Chaudhury).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dajour.2023.100177
Received 15 November 2022; Received in revised form 23 January 2023; Accepted 28 January 2023
Available online 2 February 2023
2772-6622/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
requires information on the topic. Then again, semi-supervised learning
(SSL) [18] coordinates a bigger subset of unlabelled information during
preparing and just requires comment on a little subset of preparing
information. SSL can essentially diminish the turn out expected for
clarifying. SSL has not, nonetheless, been vigorously used in ongoing
BC identification research.
Our exploration looks to fill these systemic openings. We explicitly
propose a supervised learning and SSL-based ViT-based BC grouping
learning pipeline. We utilize an adaptive token sampling (ATS) strategy
to empower the first ViT model to powerfully choose the main picture
tokens [19]. Likewise, we give a custom-made consistency training (CT)
technique to join directed and solo learning with picture upgrade [20].
When utilized with an ATS-ViT (explicitly, ViT with ATS), the CT-based
SSL can altogether work on the presentation of the model. The recom-
mended strategy has been tried on two datasets, including the Breast
Cancer Histopathological Picture Arrangement (BreakHis) dataset and
the dataset of breast ultrasound images (BUS). When contrasted with
CNN models, the results of our methodology have been positive and
predominant. The project is accessible at TWO and is distributed under
the MIT License.
1.1. Problem statement
Every year, almost 1.5 million women worldwide are affected by
breast cancer, which also accounts for the majority of women who die
from the disease. As per patterns, 1 in each 8 ladies will get a breast
cancer finding during their lifetime. In recent years, breast cancer has
surpassed cervical cancer as the most prevalent type of cancer in Indian
metropolitan centres. Cervical cancer still ranks second in rural India.
Women are now being affected by cases at startlingly younger ages
than they were 25 years ago. The average age at which Indian women
develop breast cancer now is roughly 40, which is significantly younger
than the average age at which cancer strikes in other nations.
Damaged DNA and family history are the main genetic causes of
breast cancer. Other risk factors, notwithstanding, can be way of life or
natural related, like liquor utilization (concentrates on show that ladies
who drink three beverages each day have a 1.5 times higher risk of
being impacted), corpulence, hormonal therapies (an expanded degree
of estrogen because of chemical substitution treatment of conception
prevention pills can connection to breast cancer), and a stationary way
of life without customary activity. There may be additional causes, such
as childbearing later in life or inadequate lactation.
The largest causes, though, are a lack of knowledge about treatment
options and screening procedures. A key problem is the lack of skilled
radiologists and diagnostic facilities, as well as the delay in providing
necessary care. We expect to make deep learning models to recognize
dubious sores and thus convey expeditious and exact determination
with an end goal to help this growing reason.
One could comprehend that breast cancer has been the subject of
broad exploration and that comparative learning machines have been
made previously. We found that while these gadgets do exist, they are
nowhere near impeccable, and clinical assessments require more trust-
worthy administrations. Moreover, somewhat little review has been
finished utilizing Indian datasets. Just global patients approach by far
most of results and, as a matter of fact, all datasets. We see various
contrasts in the breast advancement and construction of Indian ladies,
like age contrasts in the beginning of cancer and breast. Indian breasts
have more sinewy tissues, making them more white and denser. We
believe that the same networks cannot produce accurate information
when used on Indian situations. Conventionally Convolution Kernels
have been used to extract features from the images but they are not
often very light weight models and suffer from inherent biases. We
observe that feature extraction techniques using BERT have done a
commendable job in NLP related problems. We therefore search for a
viable alternative to CNN based architecture and utilize the power of
pre-trained BEiT model from hugging face library for feature extraction
from the image patches.
2
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
Fig. 1. Left and right breasts as seen from the MLO and CC.
1.2. Objective
As opposed to CNN, we want to foster transformer-based breast
cancer growth recognition models that are better customized to breast
kind and that additionally utilize age, breast density, earlier history,
and other data that is promptly accessible.
(i) We aim to show that the transformer can be used as a viable
alternative in place of standard CNN techniques while spotting breast
cancer in both histological and ultrasound images.
(ii) Successfully utilize the power of Vision Transformers and a
BERT pre-trained model of Vision Transformer to extract meaningful
information from images which are fed into the transformer through a
combination of block wise mask and image patches.
(iii) Use of Attention based mechanism to form visual tokens as part
of Image encoding and feeding the encoded features into the classifiers.
(iii) Comparison of results from both ultra sound image data and
Histopathological data using RNN-LSTM as classifiers.
1.3. Terminology
The following are some key terms related to breast cancer:
1. Mammography: Similar to x-rays, mammograms are screening
tools. Images from a mammogram are used to find breast lesions and
tumours for the first time. White areas denote tissues, while fat is
represented by grey areas. For both breasts, mammograms are recorded
in the MLO (mediolateral-oblique) and CC (cranial-caudal) perspectives
(see Fig. 1).
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and ultrasound scans: These
are two more scanning techniques utilized in the evaluation of breast
cancer. If a suspicious lesion is discovered during the mammography,
an ultrasound is typically performed later. It aids in the distinction
between a solid mass and a benign fluid-filled cyst.
3. Biopsy: A biopsy involves surgically removing a sample of tissue,
and the cells are then examined. This can reveal the sort of cancer
present and whether the cells are malignant. The strongest evidence
yet for breast cancer is here.
4. Benign and Malignant: A lesion may be benign, malignant, or
neither. When the breast imaging shows no signs of a lesion, the breast
is regarded as normal. Malignant lesions are cancerous, but benign
lesions are not.
5. Mass and calcification: The two breast abnormalities that occur
most frequently are masses and calcifications. Calcium deposits, also
known as calcifications, show up in the breast as tiny dots specks. The
term ‘‘masses’’ refers to tissue lumps that are dense in the centre and
less dense on the edges. There are benign and malignant variations of
both masses and calcifications. Ourse, popcorn calcification, dispersed,
lucent-centred, and milk of calcium are examples of benign calcification
types, whereas fine and amorphous calcification are examples of ma-
lignant calcification types. Spiculated tumours, which alter the breast’s
architecture, are almost certainly malignant (see Fig. 2).
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 2. Mass, left; calcification, right.
2. Litrature review
This section summarizes previous research in two areas, namely SSL
used in biomedical image categorization and DNN-based BC detection
techniques.
2.1. Detection of breast cancer with deep neural networks
Even though the problem of breast cancer detection has been a
significant one studied for many years, research on the subject showed
that older approaches tended to use hand-crafted features like tissue
densities, age, and other characteristics of the breast and have applied
machine learning classifiers on the features. Deep learning automates
the feature extraction process and makes certain that it extracts the
features that are most pertinent to the task at hand. For breast cancer,
CNN-based methods have been used, but they only provide classifica-
tion, not detection. Image patches are frequently fed into classification
networks, and a binary classifier determines whether the patch is
benign or cancerous. But in order to help and support the field of cancer
detection, we must be able to provide a complete breast image and
precisely delineate the areas harbouring suspicious lesions. This is the
task of localization or detection. Lesion localization techniques based
on deep learning are currently under investigation, with only a few
popular papers establishing the gold standard.
Our goal is to successfully identify lesions in mammograms, pin-
point their location, and then determine whether they are cancerous or
benign.
Dezso have published a work in the Nature Scientific Reports titled,
‘‘Detecting and categorizing lesions in mammograms with Deep Learn-
ing’’. This study introduced a computer aided design framework in light
of Quicker R-CNN, one of the best item distinguishing proof systems.
Without the help of an individual, the innovation can recognize and
classify growths on a mammogram as harmless or threatening. On
the famous public INbreast computerized bosom mammography data
set, the recommended procedure accomplished cutting edge grouping
execution with an AUC of 0.95. With an AUC of 0.85 on the Fantasy
dataset, the procedure utilized by the creators of the exploration came
in runner up in the Computerized Mammography DREAM Challenge.
On the INbreast dataset, the framework accomplished great respon-
siveness with an exceptionally low number of bogus positive imprints
per picture when utilized as a locator. To affirm their recognitions,
the creators made a FROC bend that plots responsiveness against the
ordinary number of bogus positive imprints per picture utilizing ROC
bends to decide AUC. This document has served as our starting point
for all our efforts have gone into first replicating this article, then
suggesting our own ensemble network for enhanced breast cancer
detection performance (see Fig. 3).
For the characterization of breast tumours on ultrasound and
histopathological pictures, various prior and customized profound CNN
models have been applied. Deep neural network (DNN) models, like
3
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
CNNs, can learn discriminative examples with naturally removed ele-
ments to address a picture test, as opposed to include based learning
models that require hand-created highlights [7,21]. Masud [22] pro-
posed a novel CNN model for ultrasound imaging in contrast with a few
previous CNN models, like AlexNet [23], Darknet19 [24], GoogleNet
[25], MobileNet [26], ResNet18 [27], ResNet50, V [28]. Gathering
learning has furthermore been utilized instead of single models. By
joining the image portrayals, Moon [4] joined three CNN models:
VGGNet, ResNet, and DenseNet [29]. Like this, Eroğlu [6] joined
highlights from Alexnet, MobilenetV2 [30], and Resnet50, then utilized
a Base Overt repetitiveness Greatest Significance based include choice
system to choose a bunch of the main elements that were utilized to
train a feature-based classifier, for example, a support vector machine
(SVM) [31], or k-nearest With respect to histopathological imaging,
prior examinations utilized CNN models, which had progresses in
various regions. To join the prescient force of the intermittent CNN,
ResNet, with the Beginning organization, Alom [32] made a Beginning
Intermittent Remaining Convolutional Brain Organization (IRRCNN).
To incorporate CNN and CapsNet [33] with profound component com-
bination and improved directing, Wang et al. made FE-BkCapsNet. To
tackle the assembly issue during preparing, Mewada [3] recommended
consolidating the spatial properties of a CNN with the ghastly data
of a wavelet change. New training procedures have also been created
in addition to the model improvements. Block-wise fine-tuning was
employed by [5], enabling the CNN’s final few residual blocks to be
more domain-specific. Despite the fact that DNN-based models for BC
location have gotten significant review, other model sorts have not
yet been totally explored. As an as of late made and noticeable vision
model, the ViT has attracted impressive interest different exercises.
Approving the ViT’s effect on imaging-based BC discovery is alluring.
Our review is such a work.
2.2. Semi-supervised learning-based classification of biological images
How much training instances required for a completely managed
learning system can be diminished with the assistance of SSL. It might
require an investment to gather information in the biomedical domain,
especially in the field of cancer research where it might require months
or even a very long time to evaluate a patient’s last condition [34].
Thus, prior examinations utilized SSL to utilize the unlabelled informa-
tion. For BC identification, Zemmal [34] utilized a Semi-Directed Help
Vector Machine (S3VM) with custom highlights. Pseudo names on the
Fix Camelyon-level were utilized by Jaiswal [35] to recognize cancer
cells that had spread through histology. Shi and Zhang [36] performed
quality articulation based result expectation for cancer recurrence using
low-density separation, a SSL procedure. Proclivity network combina-
tion and brain networks are consolidated in Mama and Zhang [37] SSL
model to execute not many shot realizing, which altogether upgrades
the model’s learning limit with less preparation information. Different
purposes of SSL incorporate colorectal cancer detection, skin cancer
diagnosis, bladder cancer grading, and cancer survival analysis [38,39],
and [40]. To the extent that we know, CT has not been read up for
BC location; subsequently our exploration means to fill this hole. More
related papers can be viewed as in [41–43].
3. Methodology
3.1. Dataset
Ultra Sound Images: A dataset should, in general, be available to
be used in the development of a deep learning healthcare system. In this
investigation, two different sets of breast ultrasound datasets are used.
BUSI dataset was collected and acquired over time from US systems
with a range of requirements. The dataset BUSI-1311 Images contains
ultrasound breast images collected at baseline by females between the
ages of 25 and 75. The data are divided into three categories: normal,
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 3. Outline of a CAD model based on faster RCNN.
Fig. 4. Sample breast histology images.
benign, and malignant. Despite the fact that it was intended for lesion
detection rather than classification, our work uses it to classify lesions.
Histopathological Image Data: The original dataset consisted of
images of Breast Cancer (BC) specimens with three sets of data such
as testing, training, and validation data from the Kaggle repositories. :
Breast Histopathology Images, Kaggle
3.2. Pre-processing
The layouts of the breast are first distinguished during the un-
derlying pre-handling of ultrasound breast images, and afterward the
commotion content is eliminated without influencing the picture’s
basic data. We carried out experiments on the BUSI-1311 dataset. The
training set of the dataset BUSI-1311 Images consists of various images,
whereas the test set consists of ultrasound breast images obtained at
baseline from females between the ages of 25 and 75. In order to
reduce the impact of stains on biological tissues in medical imaging,
special image normalizing techniques must be used. A standardized
method for the quantitative examination of tissue slices was put forth
by Bejnordi [44] and it takes into account the staining procedures used
to make the tissue slices. First, the image’s colour is converted into an
optical density via a logarithmic transformation. The OD tuple is then
subjected to singular value decomposition to produce a 2D projection
with a high variance. The original image is then transformed using
the produced colour space. The image’s histogram is then dynamically
expanded to cover more than 90% of the data. Histological images
were pre-processed through augmentation techniques [45] to reduce
4
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
class imbalances among the various variants of the image classes and
were reduced to small patches. Figs. 4 and 5, show the sample histology
images of Breast and Breast Ultra sound images after finding the region
of interest from the masks. Fig. 7A, 7B and 7C shows the pre-processing
techniques and that data is broken down in train-test ratio of 80–20.
3.3. Feature extracting using BERT (Transformer encoder)
A transformer is a neural architecture that utilizes mainly two
things, namely sequence to sequence learning and attention and an
Encoder–Decoder based architecture. The attention-mechanism looks
at an input sequence and decides at each step which other parts of
the sequence are important. [46]. Transformer is an architecture for
converting one sequence into another with the aid of two compo-
nents (Encoder and Decoder), similar to LSTM, but different from the
previously described/existing sequence-to-sequence models in that it
does not use any recurrent networks [47]. Specialists investigated a
transformer’s true capacity in PC vision in the wake of finding out about
how well it acted in NLP undertakings. One of the implementations
was the ViT (Vision Transformers). To fulfil the information necessity
of the transformer, a picture is lumped into an assortment of picture
patches. The supposed picture fix implanting process is basically a to-
tally associated layer that goes through a straight change. Specifically,
we might lay out that  = HW/P^2 assuming an information picture
of size H (height) × W (width) × C (channels) is partitioned into 
patches (i.e., tokens), every one of size P × P × C, (P, P) being the
resolution of each Patch. Then, a vector of size D is made by conveying
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 5. Sample ultrasound images from BUSI1311 dataset with mask and specific ROI.
each fix. The information is thus changed over into a 2D tensor of
size NXD. Moreover an extra [CLS] token is added to transformer to
encode the order related information and remove any possible biases
unlike in CNN based architecture. Other pre-training frameworks, like
the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT),
much of the time utilize this strategy [48]. A position encoding vector
is furthermore added to each fix installing to keep up with the general
position connection between different patches, making a token insert-
ing that is utilized by the primary layer of the transformer encoder.
Fig. 6A shows the overall flow of this research work and that we have
used BERT for feature encoding, in particular we use BEiT (Bert Pre
training of Image transformers) [49] from Hugging face library. The
BEiT pre-training task is adapted from [49] and shown in Fig. 6B.
The images have two views of representations in our method, namely,
image patch, and visual tokens. The two types serve as input and output
representations during pre-training, respectively [49]. The image data
is tokenized using a tokenizer [50]. The image is also broken down
into smaller patches of proportionate sizes as explained above and those
patches are masked in between. The block wise patches along with the
masked areas are flattened as shown in Fig. 6B. Position embedding is
5
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
performed on the flattened embedded patch and fed into the BEiT and
are linearly projected, which is similar to word embedding in BERT.
Encoder which in turns uses attention mechanisms using the Masked
Image modelling head to encode the most important features into the
visual tokens. The features are thus encoded using pre-trained BEiT and
can be used after suitable downstream tasks like classifications after
doing some fine-tuning and feeding into the RNN-LSTM classifier.
Figs. 7A, 7B and 7C shows the preprocessing coding for Histology
and Ultra sound images. For ultrasound images, the code converts the
images to grayscale, normalizes the pixel values, and applies histogram
equalization to enhance the contrast.
For histology images, the code normalizes the pixel values and
applies adaptive histogram equalization to enhance the contrast.
The below code snippet shows how pretrained model is used to
extract features using pretrained Visual Transformers.[Fig. 8]
The following code explains how BEiT is used for Feature extrac-
tion:[Fig. 9]
Figs. 8 and 9, clearly depicts the steps to do feature encoding using
Visual Transformers and BEiT. The pretrained visual transformer mod-
els are loaded from hugging face library and features are extrated from
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 6A. Proposed flow chart.
the breast ultrasound and histology images to feed them in RNN-LSTM
based classifier as shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
3.4. Training model(RNN- LSTM)
One of the more advanced varieties of RNN is the LSTM network,
which can depend on order learning in tasks involving sequence pre-
diction. The goal of the LSTM architecture network is to create an
appropriate BP training mechanism. It is an upgraded RNN architec-
ture. As was already noted, the LSTM model was created first to handle
the fading gradient that is mostly present in standard RNN [51].
However, by implementing permanent error movement across per-
sistent error carrousels via superior components and preventing ‘‘back
into time’’ collapsing of the error stream, the LSTM technique will
lessen the issue. For a very long time, [52] were aware of the challenges
involved in training RNN to capture long-term dependencies. There
have, however, been some effective strategies for overcoming this
crucial problem, such as altering the state-to-state function transition
to encourage the hidden neurons to organize long-term memory and
produce routes in the time-unfolded RNN (see Fig. 10).
As numerous gates control their input and output, the LSTM ap-
proach substitutes memory cells for the hidden neurons that make up
the sigmoid or tanh functions. Information flow to hidden neurons is
controlled by these gates. High complexity in the buried layer is a
problem for LSTM. The quantity of boundaries in a LSTM is multiple
6
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
times more noteworthy than a RNN. Different methodologies, including
Framework LSTM and Complex organizations, have been attempted
to resolve the issue of long haul association [53]. The latest LSTM
adjustment was given by [54]. As portrayed in Fig. 5, Ct represents
the memory cell units in the LSTM, addressing the info entryway, the
neglect door, and the result door.
It is essential to discover the information that will be erased from
the cell state. As exhibited in the situation beneath, this sort of decision
is made utilizing the neglect entryway and a sigmoid capability:
( )
 =   .ℎ−1 +   +  (1)
The neglect layer, the sigmoid actuation capability in the neglect
door, the weight association with prior secret expresses, the weight
association with the information designs, and the predispositions at
the neglect layer are totally addressed by the images in the situation.
Finding extra data that can be kept in the cell state is likewise pivotal.
The info entryway layer, which chooses the qualities to be refreshed,
and the transitory cell state layer, which makes new applicant values
as vectors that could be added to the state as expressed in conditions
(2) and (3), attempt this cycle.
( )
 =   .ℎ−1 +   +  (2)
( )
̃ = ℎ  .ℎ−1 +   +  (3)
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Fig. 6B. BEiT pre-training.

Source: Adapted from [49].

Fig. 7A. Preprocessing.

7
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 7B. Preprocessing.
Fig. 7C. Preprocessing.
Eq. (4) can be used to determine the LSTM’s output at the conclu-
sion.
ℎ =  ∗ tanh( ) (4)
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Classification using RNN-LSTM training
We proposed RNN-LSTM, a deep fully connected and convolu-
tional layer-based architecture for the discriminator and generator in
Transformer encoding. Our proposed architecture generates samples of
higher quality than conventional architectures on a variety of bench-
mark picture datasets. As illustrated in Fig. 6, we demonstrated that
RNN-LSTM learns faster than conventional architecture and can pro-
duce recognizable, high-quality photographs after just a few training
rounds. Before the convolution layers in the generator, we utilized a
number of deep fully connected layers to convert the low-dimensional
8
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
noise vector into a high-dimensional representation in the features of
the image. The discriminator transforms the high-dimensional features
retrieved by convolutional layers before classification using several
deep fully connected layers (see Fig. 11).
The reason for concatenating the pre-processed ultrasound and
histology images is to use them together as input to the RNN-LSTM
classifier and benefit from the advantages of both modalities. The
ultrasound images may not be as informative as histological images, but
they are much faster and cheaper to acquire, and they are non-invasive.
By combining both modalities, the overall performance of the classifier
can be improved. Furthermore, by concatenating the images, it allows
the model to learn from both modalities and make predictions based
on both, which is particularly useful when the data from one modality
is not enough to make a decision, and the model can rely on the data
from the other modality to make a decision.
Transformer encoding, which is based on an RNN-LSTM model,
learns the distribution more quickly than the CNN model does. The
Transformer encoding, which is based on RNN-LSTM, provides easily
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Fig. 8. Feature extraction using pretrained visual transformers.

Fig. 9. Feature extraction using pretrained BEiT.

recognizable numbers after a limited number of epochs, in contrast

to the CNN model. After epoch 150, all models produce good im-
ages (Fig. 6), but Transformer encoding built on RNN-LSTM models
continues to outperform the CNN model in terms of image quality.

4.2. Confusion matrix for ultra sound image dataset

A couple of boundaries registered for this RNN-LSTM classifier, for

example, Accuracy rate, sensitivity, specificity and error rate with their
qualities are, 99, 100, 100 and 1%.
The sensitivity rate, accuracy, and efficiency of the LSTM classifier
are demonstrated by the confusion matrix in Fig. 7 (see Fig. 14).
A variety of performance indicators have been used to assess the
suggested approach’s correctness. They consist of precision, recall;
recall rate, recall accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, error rate, positive
predictive value, positive likelihood, negative predictive value, and
negative likelihood.
According to the results of the multi-class confusion matrix, the
Fig. 10. Structure of LSTM.
trained model employed 43, 21, and 35 images for the three separate
classes.
They can be stated in the following way:

  =   ∕(  +   ) (5)

9
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 11. Training and data validation for prediction of accuracy.
 =   ∕(  +  )
( )
1 +  2 ∗  ∗  
 1  −   =
 2 ∗ ( ∗  )
 = (  +  )∕(  +   +   +  )
      = (,  ) =
∩
∪
Where, X, Y=Regions
( )
 ∗ + − (+ ∗ + )
    = (10)
2 − (+ ∗ + )
Where the sum is the sum of all rows in the matrix, M (i+) represents
the sum of marginal rows, M (+i) represents the sum of marginal
columns, and o represents the number of observations.
4.3. Confusion matrix for histopathological image dataset
A couple of boundaries registered for this RNN-LSTM classifier, for
example, Accuracy rate, sensitivity, specificity and error rate with their
qualities are, 91, 100, 68.28 and 9.01%.
The sensitivity rate, accuracy, and efficiency of the LSTM classifier
are demonstrated by the confusion matrix in Figs. 8 and 9 of training
and testing data (see Figs. 15 and 16).
4.4. Comparison of ultra sound image and histopathological image dataset
classification using RNN-LSTM
A comparison of the accuracy scores of the recommended Trans-
former encoding based on RNN-LSTM method for both Ultra Sound
Image and Histopathological Data shows that he suggested Ultra Sound
data gives better accuracy and precision compared to histopathological
data (Table 1).
4.5. Comparison of the proposed system to the current one for evaluation
A comparison of the accuracy scores of the recommended Trans-
former encoding based on RNN-LSTM method and the available picture
classifying models in the literature shows that the suggested model
achieves successful results (Table 2).
In Table 2, the suggested method is compared to the state-of-the-art
methods. The accuracy percentage for the writers of [55]’s ultrasound
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
(6) scans was 98.26%. The adaptive histogram equalization method, which
was used in [56] to enhance ultrasound pictures, had an accuracy rate
(7) of 93.04 [59]. Explains a ResNet system for tumour identification that
combines composites of various CNN models with imaging data from
(8) various image formats. The accuracy rate for this data collection was
(9) 95.32 [57]. States those fuzzy boosting methods were applied following
bilateral filtering to the underlying breast ultrasound image. Accuracy
of 95.48% was reached. The semi-supervised -GAN model’s accuracy,
as utilized by the authors in [58], was 90.41%. The suggested method
achieved a 99% accuracy rate when tested against a BUSI-1311 pictures
upgraded dataset (Table 2).
4.6. Setting optimized parameters and coefficients for the classifier
There are a few different ways to set optimal parameters for an
RNN-LSTM based classification model, some of the common ways are:
Grid Search: This method involves defining a set of possible parame-
ter values, and then training and evaluating the model with all possible
combinations of these values. This can be computationally expensive,
especially for models with many parameters, but it can be useful for
finding a good set of starting parameters.
Random Search: This method is similar to grid search, but it in-
volves randomly sampling from the parameter space instead of trying
all possible combinations. This can be less computationally expensive
than grid search and can still yield good results.
Bayesian Optimization: This method uses a probabilistic model to
model the relationship between the parameters and the model’s perfor-
mance. It can be more efficient than grid search or random search as it
uses the information from previous evaluations to guide the search for
optimal parameters.
Hyperopt : is a library for model selection and hyperparameter tun-
ing. It includes a set of optimization algorithms such as TPE and Tree
of Parzen Estimators, it uses the information from previous evaluations
to guide the search for optimal parameters.
Optuna: is another library for model selection and hyperparameter
tuning. It uses a tree-structured Parzen estimator (TPE) algorithm to
optimize the model’s parameters.
Manually tuning: This method involves manually adjusting the pa-
rameters based on the results of the model’s performance on a valida-
tion set. This can be time-consuming, but it can be useful for gaining
10
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Fig. 12. —Classification using RNN-LSTM.

Table 1
Result of proposed model.
Parameters Performance of LSTM in % Performance of LSTM in %
ultra sound image - dataset histopathological - dataset
Accuracy 99% 90.98%
Sensitivity 100 100
Specificity 100 68.28%
Error rate 1 9.01
Positive predictive value 1 0.8882
Negative predictive value 1 1
Positive likelihood NaN 3.1520
Negative likelihood 0 0
Overall Precision 99.1% 84.5%
Overall Recall 98.5% 94.4%
1 Score Value 98.8% 89.18%

a deeper understanding of the model and the relationship between the
parameters and the model’s performance.
Ultimately, the best method for finding optimal parameters will
depend on the specific model and dataset you are working with. It is
important to have a good understanding of the model and its param-
eters, as well as a good sense of what performance to expect, to set
optimal parameters.
Once we have determined the optimal parameters for an RNN-
LSTM based classification model, the next step is to set the optimal
coefficients, also known as weights. There are several ways to do this,
some of the most common methods include:
Random Initialization: This method involves initializing the model’s
coefficients with random values, and then training the model using the
optimal parameters determined earlier.
Pre-trained models: Another way to set the model’s coefficients is
to use pre-trained models, which have already been trained on large
amounts of data. This can be useful if you have a similar dataset and
task as the pre-trained model.

11
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
Fig. 13. Code to generate confusion matrix.
Fig. 14. Confusion Matrix testing dataset of ultra sound images.
Transfer Learning: This method involves using a pre-trained model
as a starting point, and then fine-tuning the model on your specific
dataset. This can be useful if you have a small dataset and want to
leverage the knowledge learned from a pre-trained model.
Using Optimization Algorithms: Optimization algorithms such as
Stochastic Gradient Descent, Adam, and L-BFGS can be used to optimize
the coefficients of the model. These algorithms use the gradients of the
loss function to update the model’s coefficients.
Bayesian optimization: This method uses a probabilistic model to
model the relationship between the coefficients and the model’s per-
formance. It can be more efficient than grid search or random search
as it uses the information from previous evaluations to guide the search
for optimal coefficients.
12
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
5. Conclusion
We proposed an automated method for ordering breast cancer
growth utilizing ultrasound imaging and breast histological biopsy im-
ages. Due to the fact that Breast Ultra sound images have been masked
with a definite Region of Interest (ROI) demarked, the BUSI dataset
gave better accuracy, on the contrary because of close colour combina-
tions due to the use of stains in biopsy images, the results of classifica-
tion in breast histology was comparatively less. The histology images
would work better with Auto-encoders and distinguishable colour maps
to make the system understand that which part of the coloured stains
are responsible for graded classification of the images into benign and
malignant. Out of numerous tests, the proposed technique, with Pre-
trained BEiT and a RNN-LSTM classifier, had the highest accuracy of
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Fig. 15. Confusion Matrix of training dataset of histopathological images.

Fig. 16. Confusion Matrix of testing dataset of histopathological images.

99% and 91 percent respectively for BUSI1311 and Breast histology framework yields superior outcomes. The best features were chosen to
datasets. When compared to more current techniques, the proposed eliminate unneeded features, the dataset augmentation improved the

13
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177

Table 2 [4] W.K. Moon, Y.W. Lee, H.H. Ke, S.H. Lee, C.S. Huang, R.F. Chang, et al.,
Comparative evaluation of the state-of-the-art approaches and the suggested approach. Computer-aided diagnosis of breast ultrasound images using ensemble learning
Methods Accuracy (%) Ref. from convolutional neural networks, Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 190
(2020) 105361, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2020.105361.
ResNet-18, (ICS-ELM) 98.26 [55]
[5] S. Boumaraf, X. Liu, Z. Zheng, X. Ma, C. Ferkous, A new transfer learning based
CNN 93.04 [56] approach to magnification dependent and independent classification of breast
Transfer learning 95.48 [57] cancer in histopathological images, Biomed. Signal Process. Control 63 (2021)
102192, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2020.102192.
GAN-CNN 90.41 [58]
[6] Y. Eroğlu, M. Yildirim, A. Çinar, Convolutional neural networks based classifica-
Inception ResNet V2 95.32 [59] tion of breast ultrasonography images by hybrid method with respect to benign,
Bilateral Knowledge 96.0 [45] malignant, and normal using mRMR, Comput. Biol. Med. 133 (2021) 104407,
Distillation in breast http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104407.
histology dataset [7] A.K. Mishra, P. Roy, S. Bandyopadhyay, S.K. Das, Breast ultrasound tumour
classification: A machine learning—radiomics based approach, Expert Syst. 38
Breast Cancer Calcification 97.8 [60] (2021) e12713, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/exsy.12713.
Identification using K [8] L. Abdelrahman, M.Al. Ghamdi, F. Collado-Mesa, M. Abdel-Mottaleb, Con-
Means, GLCM and HMM volutional neural networks for breast cancer detection in mammography: A
classifier survey, Comput. Biol. Med. 131 (2021) 104248, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
Hybrid dilated Ghost Model 99.3 [61] compbiomed.2021.104248.
[9] D. Singh, A.K. Singh, Role of image thermography in early breast cancer
Segmentation approach on 96.0 [62]
detection-past, present and future, Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 183
Breast
(2020) 105074, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2019.105074.
Mammograms using CLAHE
[10] Y. Benhammou, B. Achchab, F. Herrera, S. Tabik, BreakHis based breast
and Fuzzy SVM
cancer automatic diagnosis using deep learning: Taxonomy, survey and insights,
SVM Kernel trick and Hyper 99.1 [63] Neurocomputing 375 (2020) 9–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2019.09.
parameter tuning in WBCD 044.
VisionTransformer 99.00 Our proposed model [11] A. Das, M.S. Nair, S.D. Peter, Computer-aided histopathological image analysis
(ViT)encoding using techniques for automated nuclear atypia scoring of breast cancer: A review,
pre-trained BEiT and J. Digit. Imaging 33 (2020) 1091–1121, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10278-019-
RNN-LSTM for BUSI dataset 00295-z.
[12] C. Kaushal, S. Bhat, D. Koundal, A. Singla, Recent trends in computer assisted
diagnosis (CAD) system for breast cancer diagnosis using histopathological
images, Irbm 40 (2019) 211–227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.irbm.2019.06.001.
[13] G. Hamed, M.A.E.R. Marey, S.E.S. Amin, M.F. Tolba, Deep learning in breast
training strength, and the combination technique improved accuracy
cancer detection and classification, in: The International Conference on Artificial
consistency. These elements work together to strengthen this study. The Intelligence and Computer Vision, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2020, pp. 322–333.
limitation of this model is that it is performed on a pre-trained model [14] A.L. Beam, I.S. Kohane, Big data and machine learning in health care, JAMA
and not compared with other Image transformers’ result as explained 319 (2018) 1317–1318, http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.18391.
in base paper [49,50]. The pre-trained model’s accuracy ranges from [15] G. Li, Z. Xiao, Transfer learning-based neuronal cell instance segmentation with
pointwise attentive path fusion, IEEE Access (2022).
80 to 86 percent only and hence it is not used for classification task [16] A. Dosovitskiy, L. Beyer, A. Kolesnikov, D. Weissenborn, X. Zhai, T. Unterthiner,
in our model. In our model we have used LSTM-RNN as the classifier. et al., An image is worth 16x16 words: Transformers for image recognition at
The optimal coefficients (type of optimizers used, learning rate etc.) can scale, 2020, arXiv Prepr. arXiv:2010.11929.
only be modified for the down-streamed task of LSTM based classifier [17] B. Gheflati, H. Rivaz, Vision transformer for classification of breast ultrasound
images, 2021, arXiv Prepr. arXiv:2110.14731.
over top of transfer learning. Future work will focus on two essential [18] J.E. Van Engelen, H.H. Hoos, A survey on semi-supervised learning, Mach. Learn.
tasks: (i) Training a Vision Transformer from scratch and/or fine tune 109 (2020) 373–440, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10994-019-05855-6.
the BEiT model for down streamed tasks like segmentation and classi- [19] M. Fayyaz, S.A. Kouhpayegani, F.R. Jafari, E. Sommerlade, H.R.V. Joze, H.
fications (ii) Use of Variational Auto-encoders for tokenizing the image Pirsiavash, et al., Ats: Adaptive token sampling for efficient vision transformers,
2021, arXiv:2111.15667 [cs].
data and representing most relevant patches using understandable
[20] Q. Xie, Z. Dai, E. Hovy, T. Luong, Q. Le, Unsupervised data augmentation for
heat maps. We will discuss our proposed approach with professionals consistency training, Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 33 (2020) 6256–6268.
in ultrasound imaging, radiologists and medicine to implement it in [21] Z. Li, F. Liu, W. Yang, S. Peng, J. Zhou, A survey of convolutional neural
hospitals. networks: Analysis, applications, and prospects, IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn.
Syst. 2021 (2021) 1–21, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TNNLS.2021.3084827.
[22] M. Masud, A.E. Eldin Rashed, M.S. Hossain, Convolutional neural network-
Declaration of competing interest based models for diagnosis of breast cancer, Neural Comput. Appl. (2020)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05394-5.
[23] A. Krizhevsky, I. Sutskever, G.E. Hinton, Imagenet classification with deep
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
convolutional neural networks, Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 25 (2012).
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to [24] J. Redmon, S. Divvala, R. Girshick, A. Farhadi, You only look once: Unified,
influence the work reported in this paper. real-time object detection, in: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer
Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016, pp. 779–788.
[25] C. Szegedy, W. Liu, Y. Jia, P. Sermanet, S. Reed, D. Anguelov, et al., Going
Data availability
deeper with convolutions, in: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer
Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2015, pp. 1–9.
Data will be made available on request. [26] A.G. Howard, M. Zhu, B. Chen, D. Kalenichenko, W. Wang, T. Weyand,
et al., Mobilenets: Efficient convolutional neural networks for mobile vision
applications, 2017, arXiv Prepr. arXiv:1704.04861.
References [27] K. He, X. Zhang, S. Ren, J. Sun, Deep residual learning for image recognition, in:
Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,
[1] F. Bray, J. Ferlay, I. Soerjomataram, R.L. Siegel, L.A. Torre, A. Jemal, et al., 2016, pp. 770–778.
Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality [28] F. Chollet, Xception: Deep learning with depthwise separable convolutions, in:
worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries, Ca. Cancer J. Clin. 68 (2018) Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,
394–424, http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492. 2017, pp. 1251–1258.
[2] Q. Hu, H.M. Whitney, M.L. Giger, A deep learning methodology for improved [29] G. Huang, Z. Liu, L.Van.Der. Maaten, K.Q. Weinberger, Densely connected
breast cancer diagnosis using multiparametric MRI, Sci. Rep. 10 (2020) 10536, convolutional networks, in: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67441-4. Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2017, pp. 4700–4708.
[3] H.K. Mewada, A.V. Patel, M. Hassaballah, M.H. Alkinani, K. Mahant, Spectral– [30] M. Sandler, A. Howard, M. Zhu, A. ZhmogiNov, L.C. Chen, Mobilenetv2: Inverted
spatial features integrated convolution neural network for breast cancer residuals and linear bottlenecks, in: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on
classification, Sensors 20 (4747) (2020) http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20174747. Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2018, pp. 4510–4520.

14
S. Chaudhury and K. Sau
[31] D.A. Pisner, D.M. Schnyer, Support vector machine, in: Machine Learning,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2020, pp. 101–121.
[32] M.Z. Alom, C. Yakopcic, M.S. Nasrin, T.M. Taha, V.K. Asari, Breast cancer
classification from histopathological images with inception recurrent residual
convolutional neural network, J. Digit. Imaging 32 (2019) 605–617, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1007/s10278-019-00182-7.
[33] S. Sabour, N. Frosst, G.E. Hinton, Dynamic routing between capsules, Adv. Neural
Inf. Process. Syst. 30 (2017).
[34] N. Zemmal, N. Azizi, N. Dey, M. Sellami, Adaptive semi supervised support vector
machine semi supervised learning with features cooperation for breast cancer
classification, J. Med. Imaging Health Inf. 6 (2016) 53–62, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1166/jmihi.2016.1591.
[35] A.K. Jaiswal, I. Panshin, D. Shulkin, N. Aneja, S. Abramov, Semi- supervised
learning for cancer detection of lymph node metastases, 2019, arXiv Prepr.
arXiv:1906.09587.
[36] M. Shi, B. Zhang, Semi-supervised learning improves gene expression-based
prediction of cancer recurrence, Bioinformatics 27 (2011) 3017–3023, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btr502.
[37] T. Ma, A. Zhang, Affinity network fusion and semi-supervised learning for
cancer patient clustering, Methods 145 (2018) 16–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ymeth.2018.05.020.
[38] Y. Liang, H. Chai, X.Y. Liu, Z.B. Xu, H. Zhang, K.S. Leung, et al., Cancer survival
analysis using semi-supervised learning method based on cox and AFT models
with L1/2 regularization, BMC Med. Genomics 9 (2016) 11, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1186/s12920-016-0169-6.
[39] A. Masood, A. Al-Jumaily, K. Anam, Self-supervised learning model for skin
cancer diagnosis, in: 2015 7th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural
Engineering (NER), 2015, pp. 1012–1015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/NER.2015.
7146798.
[40] G. Yu, K. Sun, C. Xu, X.H. Shi, C. Wu, T. Xie, et al., Accurate recognition of col-
orectal cancer with semi-supervised deep learning on pathological images, Nature
Commun. 12 (2021) 6311, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26643-8.
[41] J. Chaki, M. Woźniak, Deep learning for neurodegenerative disorder (2016 to
2022) : a systematic review, Biomed. Signal Process. Control 80 (Pt. 1) (2023)
1–20, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104223.
[42] M. Wieczorek, J. Siłka, M. Woźniak, S. Garg, M.M. Hassan, Lightweight con-
volutional neural network model for human face detection in risk situations,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 18 (7) (2022) 4820–4829, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
TII.2021.3129629.
[43] M. Woźniak, J. Siłka, M. Wieczorek, Deep neural network correlation learning
mechanism for CT brain tumor detection, Neural Comput. Appl. (2021) http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00521-021-05841-x.
[44] B.E. Bejnordi, G. Litjens, N. Timofeeva, I. Otte-Höller, A. Homeyer, N.
Karssemeijer, J.A. van der Laak, Stain specific standardization of whole-slide
histopathological images, IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 35 (2015) 404–415.
[45] Sushovan. Chaudhury, Nilesh. Shelke, Kartik. Sau, B. Prasanalakshmi, Moham-
mad. Shabaz, A novel approach to classifying breast cancer histopathology biopsy
images using bilateral knowledge distillation and label smoothing regularization,
Comput. Math. Methods Med. (2021) http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/4019358,
Article ID 4019358, 11 pages, 2021.
[46] A. Vaswani, N. Shazeer, N. Parmar, J. Uszkoreit, L. Jones, A.N. Gomez, et al.,
Attention is all you need, Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 30 (2017).
[47] J. Chung, C. Gulcehre, K. Cho, Y. Bengio, Empirical evaluation of gated recurrent
neural networks on sequence modeling, 2014, arXiv Prepr. arXiv:1412.3555.
15
Decision Analytics Journal 6 (2023) 100177
[48] J. Devlin, M.W. Chang, K. Lee, K. Toutanova, Bert: Pre-training of deep
bidirectional transformers for language understanding, 2018, arXiv Prepr. arXiv:
1810.04805.
[49] H. Bao, L. Dong, F. Wei, Beit: Bert pre-training of image transformers, 2021,
arXiv preprint arXiv:2106.08254.
[50] H. Touvron, M. Cord, A. Sablayrolles, G. Synnaeve, H. Jégou, Going deeper with
image transformers, in: Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF International Conference on
Computer Vision, 2021, pp. 32–42.
[51] Juergen. Schmidhuber, D. Wierstra, M. Gagliolo, F. Gomez, Training recurrent
networks by evolino, Neural Comput. 19 (3) (2007) 757–779, PDF (preprint).
Compare Evolino overview (since IJCAI 2005).
[52] Sepp. Hochreiter, Yoshua. Bengio, Paolo. Frasconi, Juergen. Schmidhuber, Gra-
dient flow in recurrent nets: the difficulty of learning long-term dependencies,
in: S.C. Kremer, J.F. Kolen (Eds.), A Field Guide to Dynamical Recurrent Neural
Networks, IEEE press, 2001.
[53] Q.V. Le, N. Jaitly, G.E. Hinton, A simple way to initialize recurrent networks of
rectified linear units, 2015, arXiv preprint arXiv:1504.00941.
[54] Wojciech. Zaremba, Ilya. Sutskever, Recurrent neural network regularization,
2014, arXiv:1409.2329v5 [cs.NE] 19 Feb.
[55] S.S. Chakravarthy, H. Rajaguru, Automatic detection and classification of mam-
mograms using improved extreme learning machine with deep learning, IRBM
43 (2021) 49–61.
[56] E.M. El Houby, N.I. Yassin, Malignant and nonmalignant classification of breast
lesions in mammograms using convolutional neural networks, Biomed. Signal
Process. Control 70 (2021) 102954.
[57] Z. Zhuang, Z. Yang, A.N.J. Raj, C. Wei, P. Jin, S. Zhuang, Breast ultrasound tumor
image classification using image decomposition and fusion based on adaptive
multi-model spatial feature fusion, Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 208
(2021) 106221.
[58] T. Pang, J.H.D. Wong, W.L. Ng, C.S. Chan, Semi-supervised GAN-based radiomics
model for data augmentation in breast ultrasound mass classification, Comput.
Methods Programs Biomed. 203 (2021) 106018.
[59] M.A. Al-Antari, S.-M. Han, T.-S. Kim, Evaluation of deep learning detection and
classification towards a computer-aided diagnosis of breast lesions in digital X-ray
mammograms, Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 196 (2020) 105584.
[60] Sushovan. Chaudhury, Manik. Rakhra, Naz. Memon, Kartik. Sau,
Melkamu Teshome Ayana, Breast cancer calcifications: Identification using
a novel segmentation approach, Comput. Math. Methods Med. (2021)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/9905808, Article ID 9905808, 13 pages,
2021.
[61] Edwin Ramirez-Asis, Romel Percy Melgarejo Bolivar, Leonid Alemán Gonza-
les, Sushovan Chaudhury, Ramgopal Kashyap, Walaa F. Alsanie, G.K. Viju, A
lightweight hybrid dilated ghost model-based approach for the prognosis of
breast cancer, Comput. Intell. Neurosci. (2022) 9325452, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1155/2022/9325452, 10 pages, 2022.
[62] Sushovan. Chaudhury, Alla.Naveen. Krishna, Suneet. Gupta, K. Sakthi-
dasan Sankaran, Samiullah. Khan, Kartik. Sau, Abhishek. Raghuvanshi, F.
Sammy, Effective image processing and segmentation-based machine learning
techniques for diagnosis of breast cancer, Comput. Math. Methods Med. (2022)
6841334, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/684133, 6 pages, 2022.
[63] Chaudhury. Sushovan, Shelke. Nilesh, Rashid M. Zahraa, Sau. Kartik, Effect of
grid search and hyper parameter tuned pipeline with various classifiers and
PCA for breast cancer detection, Curr. Signal Transduct. Therapy 17 (2022)
e150722206811, http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1574362417666220715105527.