ASSIGNMENT-3

ROLL NO:19011A0348

1. At a sudden enlargement of water main from 240mm to 480mm diameter, the hydraulic
gradient rises by 10 mm, estimate the rate of flow?

Sol: Given,

Dia. of smaller pipe D1=240mm=0.24m

Area A1=π/4*D12=0.0448 m2

Dia. Of larger pipe D2=480 mm=0.48m

Area A2=π/4*D22=0.1808 m2

Rise of hydraulic gradient ,i.e.

(Z2+P2/ ρ g)-(Z1+P1/ ρ g)=10mm=0.01m (i)

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to both section,i.e., smaller pipe section, and large pipe section

P1/ρg + V1²/2g +Z1 = P2/ρg + V2²/2g +Z2+hc (1)

But head loss due to enlargement

hc= (V1-V2)2/2g (2)

From continuity equation, we have

A1V1=A2V2

V1=A2V2/A1=(π/4*D22)V2/(π/4*D12)

V1=(0.48/0.24)2V2=4V2

substituting this value in (2), we get

hc=9V22/2g

Now substituting the value of hc and V1 in equation (1)

P1/ρg + (4V2²)/2g +Z1 = P2/ρg + V2²/2g +Z2+9V22/2g

 16V22/2g-V22/2g-9V22/2g=(Z2+P2/ρg)-(Z1+P1/ρg)

6V22/2g=1/100

V2=√2g/600

V2=0.1805 m/s

Discharge Q=A2V2

Q=π/4*D22*V2

Q= π/4*0.482*0.1805

Q=0.0326 m3/s=32.6 lit/s

2.For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer as (u/U) = 3/2(y/d) - ½(y/d) 2 find the thickness
of the boundary layer and the shear stress 1.5 m from leading edge of plate. The plate is 2m long
and 1.4 m wide and is placed in water which is moving with a velocity of 200 mm per sec .Find the
total drag force on the plate if µ for water=0.01 poise?

Given :

Velocity distribution (u/U)=3/2(y/δ )-1/2(y/δ )

(i)Boundary layer thickness

δ
d
We know, τ0/ρU = ∫ u/U ¿ ¿ ) dy
2
dx 0

Substituting the value of u/U ,we get

δ
d
τ0/ ρ U2 = ∫ y /δ ¿ ¿) dy
dx 0

δ
d
= ∫ −
y
dx 0 δ
y 2
δ
dy ()
d
= (δ/2-δ/3)
dx

d
= (δ/6)
dx
 dδ
τ0 = 1/6ρU2 (1)
dx

According to newton’s law of viscosity,

τ0=µ ¿)y=0 (i)

But, u=U(y/δ)

du
=U/δ
dy

Substituing in (i)

τ0=µ(U/δ) (2)

Equating (1) and (2)

dδ
1/6ρU2 = µ(U/δ)
dx

δdδ=(6µ/ρU)dx

Integrating on both sides,

δ2/2=(6µ/ρU)x+C

By applying the boundary conditions, i.e., δ=0 at x=0

C=0

δ=√12µx/ρU

δ=√12x*x/ρUx/µ

δ=3.46x/Re

Re=ρUL/µ

Re=1000*0.2*2/0.001

Re=4*105

Therefore,

Boundary layer thickness at a distance of 1.5m from the leading edge of the plate is
 𝛿 =3.46 𝑥/√Re

𝛿 =3.46*1.5/√ 4*105

𝛿 =8.21*10-3m

Shear stress at distance 1.5 m from the leading edge of the plate is,

τ0= µ(U/δ)

τ0 =0.24 N

Drag force Fd=0.73*b*µ*U*√Re

Fd=0.002*632.45

Fd=1.2649 N

3.Derive the Darcy’s weisbach equation with a neat sketch?

It is an empirical equation in fluid mechanics named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach. The Darcy
Weisbach Equation relates the loss of pressure or head loss due to friction along the given length of pipe
to the average velocity of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid.

Hf= (4fLV2) /2gd

Where,

Hf is the head loss or pressure loss.

f is the coefficient of friction or friction factor.

v is the velocity of incompressible fluid.

L is the length of the pipe.

d is the diameter.

g is the acceleration due to gravity. (g = 9.8m/s2)

Step 1: Terms and Assumptions:

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe with fixed diameter d and area A, which allow a steady flow of
incompressible fluid.

For simplicity consider two sections; S1 and S2 of the pipe separated by the distance L.

At all the point of S1, The pressure is P1, velocity is V1.

At all the point of S2, the pressure is P2 and velocity is V2.

Consider the fluid flow as shown in the figure (1) Thus, the pressure at S 1 is greater than the pressure at
S2 i.e.,( P1> P2) This pressure difference makes the fluid flow along the pipe.

When fluid flows there will be the loss of energy due to friction. Thus we can apply Bernoulli’s
principle.

Bernoulli’s principle

Bernoulli’s principle states that a decrease in the pressure or potential energy of the fluid increases the
velocity/speed of the fluid flow or in other words, “For incompressible fluid, the sum of its potential
energy, pressure, and velocity remains constant.”

Step 2: Applying Bernoulli’s principle

On applying Bernoulli’s equation at section; S1 and S2 we get-

P1 + ρV1²/2 +ρgh1 = P2 + ρV2²/2 +ρgh2+Hf (1)

Where,

Hf is the head loss due to friction

On dividing above equation (1) by 𝜌g we get-

P1/ρg+V12/2g+h1=P2/ρg+V22/2g+h2+Hf——-(2)
For horizontal pipe (That is, the inlet of pipe and the outlet of the pipe are at the same level from the
reference plane)

h1=h2.

Here, the diameter is uniform, for uniform diameter-

V1=V2

On substituting them, the equation(2) becomes

P1/ρg= P2/ρg+Hf (3)

Thus, on rearranging equation (3) for the head loss we get-

Hf=(P1-P2)/ ρg

Step 3: Find frictional resistance

Due to the combined effect of wet surface and surface roughness, the resistance is offered to the flow of
fluid due to friction. As a result, speed is reduced. The Froude was the first person to observe the
dependency of frictional resistance with surface roughness.

The frictional resistance is well expressed through Froude’s formula.

Let f’ be the frictional resistance per unit area(wet) per unit velocity.

Frictional resistance F = f’ × wet area × (velocity)2

= f’ × 2𝜋rL × v2

= f’ × 𝜋dL × v2

F = f’ × PL × v2 ——-(5)

[here, diameter; d=2r and perimeter; P=𝜋d]

Step 4: Net force acting on the fluid at section S1and S2

The net force is the sum of Force due to pressure at S1, S2, and Fluid friction.

At S1, pressure is given by-

P1=F1A
Which implies, The net force F1= P1A

For our convenience consider the direction of the force due to pressure as +ve.

At S2, the pressure is given by-

P2=F2A

Which implies, The net force F2= P2A

here, the direction of the force due to pressure as -ve.

Fluid Frictional force(F): It is a resistive force, thus the direction as -ve.

Thus, resolving all the forces along horizontal direction we get-

P1A – P2A – F = 0

P1A – P2A = F

(P1– P2)A = F

P1−P2=FA ——(6)

Substitute the values for F and (P1– P2) from equation (5) and (4) respectively.

ΡgHF=(f′PL V2 ) /A

On rearranging the terms we get-

HF=(f′PL V2)/Aρg F=(f′/ρg)×L V2×P/A —–(7)

But, P/A=Wetted perimeter/Area=πd/(πd2/4)=4/d

Substituting P/A=4/d in equation(7),

(7)⇒HF=(f′/ρg)×(4L V2) /d ——-(8)

Now substitute f′/ρ=f/2

Where,

f’ is a frictional resistance

⍴ is the density of the fluid.

f is the coefficient of friction

Because the fluid is incompressible, which means that with the application of the external force there
will not be any change in the density.

(8)⇒HF=(f/2g)×(4L V2) /d

Thus, On rearranging, we finally arrive at Darcy Weisbach Equation

HF= (4fL V2) /2gd

4. Explain Reynold’s experiment with a neat sketch?

Value for Reynolds number might be calculated with the help of following formula

Re = ρ V D /μ

Where,

V = Flow velocity of the Hydraulic fluid i.e. liquid (m/s)

D = Diameter of pipe (m)

μ = viscosity (poise)

Reynold had explained this concept with one experiment, which is explained here, in 1883. Reynold had
concluded that transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow in a pipe depends not only on the velocity
but also it depends on the diameter of the pipe and viscosity of the fluid flowing through the pipe.

Reynolds experiment apparatus

Apparatus for Reynolds experiment are as mentioned here

A tank containing water at constant head

A small tank containing some dye

A glass tube with bell-mouthed entrance at one end and a regulating valve at other end
Now we will allow water to pass through the glass tube from the water tank. Regulating valve is
provided here to vary the velocity of water flowing through the glass tube.

We will introduce a liquid dye, of having same specific weight as of water, in to the glass tube as
displayed here in following figure.

Observation I

When velocity of water flow is low, dye filament will be in the form of straight line in the glass tube. It
could be seen in the glass tube that dye filament is in the form of straight line and parallel to the wall of
glass tube. Above condition is the example of laminar fluid flow. Therefore at lower velocity of water
flow through the glass tube, the type of water flow will be laminar. Following figure, displayed here as
figure a, indicates the case of water flow through the glass tube at low velocity of water flow.

Observation II

Now velocity of flow is increased with the help of regulating valve. Dye filament will not be in the form
of straight line in the glass tube. It could be seen in the glass tube that dye filament is in the form of
wavy one now. Above condition is the example of transition of fluid flow. Therefore when velocity of
water flow through the glass tube is increased, the type of water flow will be transition flow. Transition
flow means the flow between laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Observation III

Now velocity of flow is increased again with the help of regulating valve. Wavy dye filament will be
broken and finally diffused in the water as displayed here in following figure. It could be seen in the
glass tube that particles of dye filament liquid are moving in random and irregular fashion at this higher
velocity of water flow. Mixing of particles of water and dye filament is intense and water flow will be
random, irregular and disorderly. Above condition is the example of turbulent fluid flow. Therefore
when velocity of water flow will be higher, the type of water flow will be turbulent flow.
In case of laminar fluid flow, loss of pressure head will be proportional to the velocity of fluid flow.
While in case of turbulent fluid flow, loss of pressure head will be approximately proportional to the
square of velocity of fluid flow.

5.Find the frictional drag on one side of the plate 200mm width and 500 mm long placed
longitudinally in a stream of crude oil (G=0.925;kinematic viscosity=0.9stoke)flowing with a
undisturbed velocity of 5m/s. Also find the boundary layer thickness and the shear stress at the
trailing edge of the plate?

As no velocity distribution is not given in the problem; Hence Blasiu’s equation will be used

Given;

Length of the plate i.e. L=200mm=0.2m

Width of the plate i.e. b=500 mm=0.5m

Specific gravity i.e. G=0.925

Density of the liquid =925kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity v= 0.9*10-4 m2/s

Velocity i.e. U = 5m/s

From the given data Reynolds number is

Re = (U*L)/v

Re = (5*0.2)/0.9*10-4 =1.11*10-4 which is less than 5*105

Therefore, boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of plate ρ

From the Blasiu’s equation

(i)Frictional drag on one side of the plate FD

1
FD = ρAU2 *CD
2

Where CD from blasiu’s equation is CD = 1.328/√Re = 0.0126

1
FD = *925*0.2*0.5*25*0.0126
2

FD=14.64 N

(ii) Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate

𝛿= (4.91*x)/√Re

𝛿= (4.91*0.2)/√1.11*104

𝛿= 0.0093mm=9.32m

(iii) shear stress at the trailing edge

τ0=(0.332𝜌∗𝑈2)/√Re

τ0 =(0.332*925*25)/√1.11*104

τ0= 72.871 N

6.Define the following terms boundary layer thickness, momentum, energy, displacement
thickness, drag force, lift force with expressions?

Boundary layer thickness (δ): The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the
distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream
velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow).[citation needed] Displacement thickness is an
alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to
inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the
inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The boundary layer thickness, , is the
distance normal to the wall to a point where the flow velocity has essentially reached the 'asymptotic'
velocity, .
Momentum thickness (θ ): Momentum thickness is defined in relation to the momentum flow rate
within the boundary layer. This rate is less than the rate that would occur if no boundary layer existed,
when the velocity in the vicinity of the surface, at the station considered, would be equal to the
mainstream velocity.

δ
θ = ∫ u /U ¿ ¿ ) dy
0

Energy thickness (δe): Energy thickness (de) is defined as the thickness of an imaginary layer in free
stream flow which has energy equal to the deficiency of energy caused to actual mass flowing inside the
boundary layer.

δe = ∫ u /U ¿ ¿ ) dy
0

Displacement thickness(δ*): The displacement thickness for the boundary layer is defined as the
distance the surface would have to move in the y-direction to reduce the flow passing by a volume
equivalent to the real effect of the boundary layer.

δ=
*
∫ ¿ ¿ ) dy
0

Drag force: Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft's motion through the air. ... Drag is
generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and the fluid. There must be motion
between the object and the fluid. If there is no motion, there is no drag.

Fd=0.73*b*µ*U*√Re

Lift force: A fluid flowing around the surface of an object exerts a force on it. Lift is the component of
this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. ... Lift conventionally acts in an upward
direction in order to counter the force of gravity, but it can act in any direction at right angles to the
flow.