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Fundamentals of Nursing Lecture Notes PDF - Compress
Fundamentals of Nursing Lecture Notes PDF - Compress
Fundamentals of Nursing Lecture Notes PDF - Compress
By nclexnursing.com
OVERVIEW
A. Nursing
B. Concepts of Health and Illness
C. Concepts of Stress
D. Homeostasis
E. Adaptation
F. Adaptation to Stress – Physiological Response (Hans Selye)
G. Physiologic Indicators of Stress
A. Chain of Infection
B. Modes of Transmission
C. Course of Infection
D. Inflammation
E. Immune Response
F. Nosocomial Infection
G. Factors Increasing Susceptibility to Infection
H. Diagnostic Tests Used to Screen for Infection
X. THEORIES OF PAIN
A. Specific Theory
B. Pattern Theory
C. Gate Control Theory
D. Current Developments in Pain Theory
A. Acute Pain
B. Chronic Pain
ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICATIONS
A. Nursing
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As by the INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF NURSES (ICN, 1973) as written by Virginia
Henderson: The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in
the performance of those activities contributing to health. It’s recovery, or to a peaceful
death that the client would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or
knowledge.
Theorist Description
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the sum of their parts; the distinctive properties of the whole
are significantly different from those of its parts.
SISTER CALLISTA Presented the Adaptation Model. She viewed each person
ROY as a unified bio-psychosocial system in constant
interaction with a changing environment. The goal of nursing
is to help the person adapt to changes in physiological
needs, self-concept, role function and interdependent
relations during health and illness.
LYDIA HALL Introduced the notion that nursing centers around three
components: person(core), pathologic state and
treatment(cure) and body(care).
a. Caregiver – the caregiver role has traditionally included those activities that
assist the client physically and psychologically while preserving the client’s
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dignity. Caregiving encompasses the physical, psychosocial, developmental,
cultural and spiritual levels.
b. Communicator – communication is an integral to all nursing roles. Nurses
communicate with the client, support persons, other health professionals, and
people in the community. In the role of communicator, nurses identify client
problems and then communicate these verbally or in writing to other members
of the health team. The quality of a nurse’s communication is an important
factor in nursing care.
c. Teacher – as a teacher, the nurse helps clients learn about their health and
the health care procedures they need to perform to restore or maintain their
health. The nurse assesses the client’s learning needs and readiness to learn,
sets specific learning goals in conjunction with the client, enacts teaching
strategies and measures learning.
d. Client advocate – a client advocate acts to protect the client. In this role the
nurse may represent the client’s needs and wishes to other health
professionals, such as relaying the client’s wishes for information to the
physician. They also assist clients in exercising their rights and help them
speak up for themselves.
e. Counselor – counseling is a process of helping a client to recognize and
cope with stressful psychologic or social problems, to developed improved
interpersonal relationships, and to promote personal growth. It involves
providing emotional, intellectual, and psychologic support.
f. Change agent – the nurse acts as a change agent when assisting others,
that is, clients, to make modifications in their own behavior. Nurses also often
act to make changes in a system such as clinical care, if it is not helping a
client return to health.
g. Leader – a leader influences others to work together to accomplish a specific
goal. The leader role can be employed at different levels; individual client,
family, groups of clients, colleagues, or the community. Effective leadership is
a learned process requiring an understanding of the needs and goals that
motivate people, the knowledge to apply the leadership skills, and the
interpersonal skills to influence others.
h. Manager – the nurse manages the nursing care of individuals, families, and
communities. The nurse-manager also delegates nursing activities to ancillary
workers and other nurses, and supervises and evaluates their performance.
i. Case manager – nurse case managers work with the multidisciplinary health
care team to measure the effectiveness of the case management plan and to
monitor outcomes.
j. Research consumer – nurses often use research to improve client care. In a
clinical area nurses need to:
Have some awareness of the process and language of research
Be sensitive to issues related to protecting the rights of human subjects
Participate in identification of significant researchable problems
Be a discriminating consumer of research findings
Four Components
The individual is perception of susceptibility to an illness
The individual’s perception of the seriousness of the illness
The perceived threat of a disease
The perceived benefits of taking the necessary preventive
measures
a. 3 Stages of Illness
i. Stage of Denial – Refusal to acknowledge illness; anxiety, fear,
irritability and aggressiveness.
ii. Stage of Acceptance – Turns to professional help for assistance
iii. Stage of Recovery (Rehabilitation or Convalescence) – The patient
goes through of resolving loss or impairment of function
b. Rehabilitation
i. A dynamic, health oriented process that assists individual who is ill
or disabled to achieve his greatest possible level of physical,
mental, spiritual, social and economical functioning.
ii. Abilities not disabilities, are emphasized.
iii. Begins during initial contact with the patient
iv. Emphasis is on restoring the patient to independence or regain his
pre-illness/predisability level of function as short a time as possible
v. Patient must be an active participant in the rehabilitation goal
setting an din rehabilitation process.
c. Focuses of Rehabilitation
i. Coping pattern
ii. Functional ability – focuses on self-care: activities of daily living
(ADL); feeding, bathing/hygiene, dressing/grooming, toileting and
mobility
iii. Mobility
iv. Integrity of skin
v. Control of bowel and bladder function
C. Concepts of Stress
I. Stress (Theory by Hans Selye)
a. Non specific response of the body to nay demand made upon it
b. Any situation in which a non specific demand requires an individual to
respond or take action
d. Stress is a necessary part of life and is essential for normal growth and
development
e. Stress involves the entire body acting as a whole and is an integrated manner
a. Classification of Stressors
i. Internal Stressors – originate from within the body. E.g. fever,
pregnancy, menopause, emotion such as guilt
iii. Third Phase – The last phase is repair of tissue by regeneration or scar
formation. Regeneration replaces damaged cells with identical or similar
cells.
Stressor
Shock Phase
Epinephrine
Tachycardia Norepinephrine Cotisone
↑ Myocardial contractility ↓ Blood to kidney Protein catablism
↑ Blood clotting ↑ Renin Gluconeogenesis
↑ Metabolism
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Stage of Resistance
Adaptation Stage of Exhaustion
↓ ↓
Rest Death
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j. STRESSORS stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which in turn
stimulates the hypothalamus. The HYPOTHALAMUS releases
corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH). During times of stress, the
ADRENAL MEDULLA secretes EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE in
response to sympathetic stimulation. Significant body responses to
epinephrine include the following:
i. Increased myocardial contractility, which increases cardiac
output & blood flow to active muscles
ii. Bronchial dilation, which allows increased oxygen intake
iii. Increased blood clotting
iv. Increased cellular metabolism
v. Increased fat mobilization to make energy available & to
synthesize other compounds needed by the body.
c. The heart rate & cardiac output increase to transport nutrients and by-products of
metabolism more efficiently.
f. The rate & depth of respirations increase because of dilation of the bronchioles,
promoting hyperventilation.
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g. Urinary output may increase or decreases.
Physical signs include: Loss of appetite, weight loss, constipation, headache and
dizziness
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c. Self-Control (discipline) – assuming a manner of facial expression that
convey a sense of being in control or in change.
Coping – dealing with problems & situations or contending with them successfully.
According to Folk man and Lazarus, coping is “the cognitive & behavioral effort to manage
specific external and/ or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the
resources of the person”.
*If the duration of the stressors is extended beyond the coping powers of the
individual, that person becomes exhausted and may develop increased
susceptibility to health problems.
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*Reaction to long term stress is seen in family members who undertake the
care of a person in the home for a long period. This stress is called caregiver
burden & produces responses such as chronic fatigue, sleeping difficulties &
high BP.
D. Relaxation Techniques – used to quiet the mind, release tension & counteract the fight
or flight responses of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
I. Breathing Exercises
II. Massage
III. Progressive Relaxation
IV. Imagery
V. Biofeedback
VI. Yoga
VII. Meditation
VIII. Therapeutic Touch
IX. Music Therapy
X. Humor & Laughter
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSE
A. Task – Oriented Behaviors – Involve using cognitive abilities to reduce stress, solve
problems, resolve conflicts and gratify needs. It enables a person to cope realistically
with the demands of a stressor.
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4. TYPES OF NURSING DIAGNOSES
II. High-risk
a. A problem is likely to develop based on assessment of risk factors
b. Nurse intervenes to reduce risk factors or increase protective factors
c. Example: encourage smoking cessation
III. Wellness
a. Client is presently healthy but wishes to achieve a higher level of function
b. Nurse intervenes to promote growth or maintenance of the healthy
response
B. Collaborative Problems
I. Definition: a potential problem the nurse manages using both independent and
interdependent interventions
IV. Clients with similar disease or treatment will have the same potential for
complications, which must be managed collaboratively; however, their
responses to the condition will vary, so a broad range of nursing diagnoses will
apply.
a. Example: a client with asthma will always be at risk for lowered oxygen
saturation; however, the client’s response to this condition will be unique
based on his/her developmental level, past experiences and family
configuration
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5. METHODS USED for ASSESSMENT
II. Interview
a. The purpose of an interview is to gather and provide information, identify
problems of concerns, and provide teaching and support.
b. The goals of an interview are to develop a rapport with the client and to
collect data
c. An interview has 3 major stages
i. Opening: purpose is to establish rapport by creating goodwill
and trust; this is often achieved through a self – introduction,
nonverbal gestures (a handshake), and small talk about the
weather, local sports team, or recent current event; the purpose
of the interview is also explained to the client at this time.
ii. Body: during this phase, the client responds to open and closed-
ended questions asked by the nurse.
iii. Closing: either the client or the nurse may terminate the
interview, it is important fro the nurse to try to maintain the
rapport and trust that was developed thus far during the
interview process.
d. Types of questions
i. Closed questions used in directive interview
Re____ short factual answers; e.g. “Do you have pain?”
Answers usually reveal limited amounts of information
Useful with clients who are highly stressed and/or have
difficulty communicating
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Can result in client giving inaccurate data to please the
nurse
Can limit client choice of topic for discussion
b. Subjective data
i. May be called “covert data”
ii. Not measurable or observable
iii. Obtained from client (primary source), significant others, or
health professionals (secondary sources).
iv. For example, the client states, “I have a headache”
c. Objective data
i. May be called “overt data”
ii. Can be detected by someone other than the client
iii. Includes measurable and observable client behavior
iv. For example, a blood pressure reading of 190/110 mmHg.
General assessment
Integumentary system
Head, ears, eyes, nose, throat
Breast and axillae
Thorax and lungs
Cardiovascular system
Nervous system
Abdomen and gastrointestinal system
Anus and rectum
Genitourinary system
Reproductive system
Musculoskeletal system
V. Psychosocial assessment
a. Helpful framework for organizing data
b. A suggested format for psychosocial assessment is found below:
Vocation/education/financial
Home and Family
Social, leisure, spiritual and cultural
Sexual
Activities of daily living
Health Habits
Psychological
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c. The developmental of Erickson, Freud, Havighurst, Kohlberg and Piaget
may also be helpful for guiding data collection
VI. Consultation
a. The nurse collects data from multiple sources: primary (client) and
secondary (family members, support persons, healthcare professionals
and records)
b. Consultation with individuals who can contribute to the client’s database is
helpful in achieving the most complete and accurate information about a
client
c. Supplemental information from secondary sources (any source other then
the client) can help verify information, provide information for a client who
cannot do so, and convey information about the client’s status prior to
admission
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B. Documentation – anything written or printed that is relied on as a record of proof fro
authorized persons.
Purposes of Records:
I. Communication
II. Planning Client Care
III. Auditing Health Agencies
IV. Research
V. Education
VI. Reimbursement
VII. Legal Documentation
VIII. Health Care Analysis
C. Documentation Systems
I. Source – Oriented Record
a. The traditional client record
b. Each person or department makes notations in a separate section or
sections of the client’s chart
c. It is convenient because care providers from each discipline can easily
locate the forms on which to record data and it is easy to trace the
information
d. Example: the admissions department has an admission sheet; the
physician has a physician’s order sheet, a physician’s history sheet &
progress notes
e. NARRATIVE CHARTING is a traditional part of the source-oriented record
Disadvantages of POMR:
Caregivers differ in their ability to use the required charting
format
Takes constant vigilance to maintain an up-to-date problem
list
Somewhat inefficient because assessments & interventions
that apply to more than one problem must be repeated.
V. Charting by Exception
a. Documentation system in which only abnormal or significant findings or
exceptions to norms are recorded
b. Incorporates three (3) key elements:
i. Flow sheets
ii. Standards of nursing care
iii. Bedside access to chart forms
E. KARDEX widely used, concise method of organizing & recording data about a client,
making information quickly accessible to all health professionals. Consists of a series of
cards kept in a portable index file or on computer generated forms. Information may be
organized into sections:
I. Pertinent information about the client
II. List of medications
III. List of IVF
IV. List of daily treatments & procedures
V. List of Diagnostic procedures
VI. Allergies
VII. Specific data on how the client’s physical needs are to be met
VIII. A problem list, stated goals & list of nursing approaches to meet the goals
7. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A. Purposes
B. Preparation of Examination
I. Environment – A physical examination requires privacy. An examination room
that is well equipped for all necessary procedures is preferable
II. Equipment – Hand washing is done before equipment preparation and the
examination. Hand washing reduces the transmission of microorganisms
III. Client
a. Psychological Preparation – clients are easily embarrassed when forced
to answer sensitive questions about bodily functions or when body parts
are exposed and examined. The possibility that the examination will find
something abnormal also creates anxiety so reduction of this anxiety may
be the nurse’s highest priority before the examination
b. Physical Preparation – the client’s physical comfort is vital to the success
of the examination. Before starting, the nurse asks if the client needs to
use the toilet.
c. Positioning – during the examination, the nurse asks the clients to assume
proper positions so that body parts are accessible and clients stay
comfortable. Client’s abilities to assume positions will depend on their
physical strength and degree of wellness.
C. Order of Examination
I. General Survey – includes observation of general appearance and behavior,
vital signs, height and weight measurement
II. Review of systems
III. Head to toe examination
II. Palpation – the hands can make delicate and sensitive measurements of
specific physical signs, so palpation is used to examine all accessible parts of
the body. The nurse uses different parts of the hand to detect characteristics
such as texture, temperature and the perception of movement.
III. Percussion – examination by striking the body’s surface with a finger, vibration
and sound are produced. This vibration is transmitted through the body tissues
and the character of the sound depends on the density of the underlying tissue
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IV. Auscultation – is listening to sound created in body organs to detect variations
from normal. Some sounds can be heard with the unassisted ear, although
most sounds can be heard only through a stethoscope.
a. Bowel sounds
b. Breath sounds
i. Vesicular
ii. Bronchovesicular
iii. Bronchial
E. Examples of Adventitious Breath Sounds
I. Crackles (previously called rales)
II. Rhonchi
III. Wheeze
IV. Friction rub
A. Chain of Infection
I. The chain of infection refers to those elements that must be present to cause
an infection from a microorganism
II. Basic to the principle of infection is to interrupt this chain so that an infection
from a microorganism does not occur in clients
VI. Portal of entry: the means of a pathogen entering a host: the means of entry
can be the same as one that is the portal of exit (gastrointestinal, respiratory,
genitourinary tract).
VIII. Portal of exit: the means in which the pathogen escapes from the
reservoir and can cause disease; there is usually a common escape route for
each type of microorganism; on humans, common escape routes are the
gastrointestinal, respiratory and the genitourinary tract.
Modes of Transmission
1. Direct contact: describes the way in which microorganisms are
transferred from person to person through biting, touching, kissing, or
sexual intercourse; droplet spread is also a form of direct contact but
can occur only if the source and the host are within 3 feet from each
other; transmission by droplet can occur when a person coughs,
sneezes, spits, or talks.
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2. Indirect contact: can occur through fomites (inanimate objects or
materials) or through vectors (animal or insect, flying or crawling); the
fomites or vectors act as vehicle for transmission
3. Air: airborne transmission involves droplets or dust; droplet nuclei can
remain in the air for long periods and dust particles containing
infectious agents can become airborne infecting a susceptible host
generally through the respiratory tract
B. Course of Infection
I. Incubation: the time between initial contact with an infectious agent until the
first
Signs of symptoms - - > the incubation period varies from different
Pathogens; microorganisms are growing and multiplying during this
stage
II. Prodromal Stage: the time period from the onset of nonspecific symptoms
to the
Appearance of specific symptoms related to the causative pathogen
- - > symptoms range from being fatigued to having a low-grade fever
with
Malaise; during this phase it is still possible to transmit the pathogen to
Another host
III. Full Stage: manifestations of specific signs & symptoms of infectious agent;
referred to as the acute stage; during this stage, it may be possible to
transmit the infectious agent to another, depending on the virulence of the
infectious agent
IV. Convalescence: time period that the host takes to return to the pre-illness
stage; also called the recovery period; - - >the host defense mechanisms
have responded to the infectious agent and the signs and symptoms of the
disease disappear; the host, however, is more vulnerable to other pathogens at
this time; an appropriate nursing diagnostic label related to this process would
be Risk for Infection
C. Inflammation – The protective response of the tissues of the body to injury or infection;
the physiological reaction to injury or infection is the inflammatory response; it may be
acute or chronic
Body’s response
I. The “inflammatory response” begins with vasoconstriction that is followed by a
brief increase in vascular permeability; the blood vessels dilate allowing plasma
to escape into the injured tissue
II. WBCs (neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages) migrate to the area of injury
and attack and ingest the invaders (phagocytosis); this process is responsible
for the signs of inflammation
III. Redness occurs when blood accumulates in the dilated capillaries; warmth
occurs as a result of the heat from the increased blood in the area, swelling
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occurs from fluid accumulation; the pain occurs from pressure or injury to the
local nerves.
D. Immune Response
I. The immune response involves specific reactions in the body to antigens or
foreign material
II. This specific response is the body’s attempt to protect itself, the body protects
itself by activating 2 types of lymphocytes, the T-lymphocytes and B-
lymphocytes
III. Cell mediated immunity: T-lymphocytes are responsible for cellular immunity
a. When fungi , protozoa, bacteria and some viruses activate T-lymphocytes,
they enter the circulation from lymph tissue and seek out the antigen
b. Once the antigen is found they produce proteins (lymphocytes) that
increase the migration of phagocytes to the area and keep them there to
kill the antigen
c. After the antigen is gone, the lymphocytes disappear
d. Some T-lymphocytes remain and keep a memory of the antigen and are
reactivated if the antigen appears again.
IV. Humoral response: the ability of the body to develop a specific antibody to a
specific antigen (antigen-antibody response)
a. B-lymphocytes provide humoral immunity by producing antibodies that
convey specific resistance to many bacterial and viral infections
E. Nosocomial Infection
I. Nosocomial Infections: are those that are acquired as a result of a healthcare
delivery system
II. Iatrogenic infection: these nosocomial infections are directly related to the
client’s treatment or diagnostic procedures; an example of an iatrogenic
infection would be a bacterial infection that results from an intravascular line or
Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia as a result of respiratory suctioning
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III. Exogenous Infection: are a result of the healthcare facility environment or
personnel; an example would be an upper respiratory infection resulting from
contact with a caregiver who has an upper respiratory infection
III. Cultural practices: healthcare beliefs and practices, as well as nutritional and
hygiene practices, can influence a person’s susceptibility to infectious diseases
V. Stress: stressors, both physical and emotional, affect the body’s ability to
protect against invading pathogens; stressors affect the body by elevating
blood cortisone levels; if elevation of serum cortisone is prolonged, it decreases
the anti-inflammatory response and depletes energy stores, thus increasing the
risk of infection
VI. Rest, exercise and personal health habits: altered rest and exercise patterns
decrease the body’s protective, mechanisms and may cause physical stress to
the body resulting in an increased risk of infection; personal health habits such
as poor nutrition and unhealthy lifestyle habits increase the risk of infectious
over time by altering the body’s response to pathogens
II. Symptoms related to systemic infections include fever, increased pulse &
respirations, lethargy, anorexia, and enlarged lymph nodes
III. Certain diagnostic tests are ordered to confirm the presence of an infection.
9. THEORIES OF PAIN
A. Specific Theory
I. Proposes that body’s neurons & pathways for pain transmission are specific,
similar to other senses like taste
II. Free nerve endings in the skin act as pain receptors, accept input & transmit
impulses along highly specific nerve fibers
III. Does not account for differences in pain perception or psychologic variables
among individuals.
B. Pattern Theory
I. Identifies 2 major types of pain fibers; rapidly & slowly conducting
II. Stimulation of these fibers forms a pattern; impulses ascend to the brain to be
interpreted as painful
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III. Does not account for differences in pain perception or psychologic variables
among individuals.
D. Current Developments in Pain Theory – Indicate that pain mechanisms & responses are
far more complex than believed to be in the past.
I. Pain may modulated at different points in the nervous system.
a. First-order neurons at the tissue level
b. Second-order neurons in the spinal cord that process nociceptor
information
c. Third-order tracts & pathways in the spinal cord & brain that relay/process
this information
II. The role of the pain experience in the development of new nociceptors and/or
reducing the threshold of current nociceptor is also being investigate
b. Visceral: arises from body’s organs; dull & poorly localized because of
minimal nociceptors; accompanied by nausea & vomiting, hypotension &
restlessness
c. Referred pain: pain that is perceived in an area distant from the site of
stimuli (e.g. pain in a shoulder following abdominal laparoscopic
procedure).
II. Acute pain initiates the “fight-or-flight” response of the Autonomic Nervous
System and is characterized by the following symptoms:
a. Tachycardia
b. Rapid, shallow respirations
c. Increased BP
d. Sweating
e. Pallor
f. Dilated pupils
g. Fear & Anxiety
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B. Chronic Pain
I. Prolonged, lasting longer than 6 months, often not attributed to a definite cause,
often unresponsive to medical treatment.
A. TOOLS/INTRUMENTS USED
I. A VERBAL REPORT using an intensity scale is a fast, easy & reliable method
allowing the client to state pain intensity & in turn, promotes consisted
communication among the nurse, client & other healthcare professionals about
the client’s pain status; the 2 most common scales used are “0 to 5” or “0 to
10”. With 0 specifying no pain & the highest number specifying the worst pain
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III. A GRAPHIC RATING SCALE is similar to the visual analog scale but adds a
numerical scale with the word modifiers, usually the numbers “0 to 10” are
added to the scale.
IV. FACES PAIN SCALE children, clients who do not speak English & clients with
communication impairments may have difficulty using a numerical pain intensity
scale; the FACES pain scale may be used for children as young as 3 years old;
this scale provides facial expressions (happy face reflects no pain, crying face
represents worst pain)
II. Intensity – It is important to quantify pain using a standard pain intensity scale.
When clients cannot conceptualize pain using a number, simple word
categorizes can be useful (e.g. no pain, mild, moderate, severe).
III. Quality
a. Nociceptive pain are usually related to damage to bones, soft tissues, or
internal organs; nociceptive pain includes somatic & visceral pains.
i. Somatic pain is aching, throbbing pain; example arthritis
ii. Visceral pain is squeezing, cramping pain; example: pain
associated with ulcerative colitis
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IV. Pattern – pain may be always present for a client; this is often termed baseline
pain. Additional pain may occur intermittently that is of rapid onset & greater
intensity than the baseline pain; known as breakthrough pain. People at end-of-
life often have both types of pain. Cultural beliefs regarding the meaning of pain
should be examined
ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICATIONS
II. Generic Name – is given by the manufacturer who first develops the drug
before it receives official approval. Protected by law, the generic name is given
before a drug receives official publications.
III. Official Name – is the name under which drug is listed in official publication
IV. Trade, Brand or Propriety Name – is the name under which a manufacturer
markets.
C. Forms – Drugs are available in a variety of forms preparations. The form of the drug
determines its route o administration. For example, a capsule is taken orally and a
solution may be given intravenously. The composition drug is designed to enhance its
absorption and metabolism within the body. Many drugs are available in several forms
such as tablets, capsules, elixirs and suppositories. When administering a medication,
the nurse must be certain to give the metabolism in the proper form.
III. Nurses who administer medications are responsible for their own actions.
Question any order that you can consider incorrect.
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IV. Be knowledgeable about medications that you administer
VII. Return liquid that are cloudy or have changed in color to the pharmacy
X. If the client vomits after taking an oral medication, report this to the nurse in
charge and/or physician
XII. When a medication is omitted for any reason, record the fact together
with the reason
I. Physiologic Needs – needs such as air, food, water, shelter, rest, sleep, activity
and temperature maintenance are crucial for survival
II. Safety and Security Needs – the need for safety has both physical and
physiologic aspects
III. Love and Belonging Needs – the third level of needs includes giving and
receiving affection, attaining a place in a group and maintaining the feeling of
belonging
IV. Self-Esteem Needs – the individual needs both self-esteem and esteem from
others
V. Self-Actualization – when the need for self-esteem is satisfied, the individual
strives for self-actualization, the innate need to develop one’s maximum
potential and realize one’s abilities and qualities
C. Structure and Function – the heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circulation by
way of the right ventricle and to the systemic circulation by way of the left ventricle
I. Myocardial Pump – the “pumping action” of the heart is essential to maintain
oxygen delivery
II. Myocardial Blood Flow – to maintain adequate blood flow to the pulmonary and
systemic circulations, myocardial blood flow must sufficiently supply oxygen
and nutrients to the myocardium itself
III. Coronary Artery Circulation – blood flow to the atria and ventricles does not
supply oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium itself. It is the branch of the
systemic circulation that supplies oxygen and nutrients and removal of waste
from the myocardium
IV. Systemic Circulation – the arteries and veins of the systemic circulation deliver
nutrients and oxygen and remove wastes from the tissues. Oxygenated blood
flows from the left ventricle by way of of the aorta and into the large systemic
arteries
V. Regulation of Blood Flow – the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle
each minute is the cardiac output. The circulating volume of blood changes
according to the oxygen and metabolic needs of the body. For example, during
exercise, pregnancy and fever, the cardiac output increases but during sleep,
the cardiac output decreases.
III. Metabolism – sum of all physical and chemical processes by which a living
organism is formed and maintained and by which energy is made available
IV. Storage – some nutrients are stored when not used to provide energy; e.g.
carbohydrates are stored either as glycogen or as fat
V. Elimination – process of discarding unnecessary substances through
evaporation, excretion
B. Nutrients
I. Carbohydrates – the primary sources are plant foods
Types of Carbohydrates
a. Simple (sugars) such as glucose, galactose, and fructose
b. Complex such as starches (which are polysaccharides) and fibers
(supplies bulk or roughage to the diet)
III. Lipids – organic substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol
and ether.
a. Fatty acids – the basic structural units of all lipids and are either saturated
(all the carbon atoms are filled with hydrogen) or unsaturated (could
accommodate more hydrogen than it presently contains)
b. Food sources of lipids are animal products (milk, egg yolks and meat) and
plants and plant products (seeds, nuts, oils)
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IV. Vitamins – organic compounds not manufactured in the body and needed in
small quantities to catalyze metabolic processes
a. Water-soluble vitamins include C and B-complex vitamins
b. Fat-soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and K and these can be stored in
limited amounts in the body
VI. Water – the body’s most basic nutrient need; it serves as a medium for
metabolic reactions within cells and a transporter fro nutrients, waste products
and other substances
A. Purposes
I. To relieve urinary retention
II. To obtain a sterile urine specimen from a woman
III. To measure the amount of residual urine in the bladder
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IV. To obtain a urine specimen when a specimen cannot secure satisfactory by
other means
V. To empty bladder before and during surgery and before certain diagnostic
examinations
***Several BASIC FACTS about the lower urinary tract system should be borne in mind
when considering catheterization.
An indwelling catheter has a balloon which is inflated after the catheter is inserted
into the bladder. Because the inflated balloon is larger than the opening to the urethra,
the catheter is retained in the bladder.
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VI. Tape the catheter along the interior aspect of the thigh fro a female patient. Be
sure there is no tension on the catheter when it is taped to the patient
VII. Hang the drainage bag on the frame of the bed below the level of the
bladder
B. Oil-Retention Enemas: Lubricates the rectum and colon; the feces absorb the oil and
become softer and easier to pass
A. Nasogastric Tubes
II. Salem Sump Tube – double lumen (smaller blue lumen vents the tube & prevents
suction on the gastric mucosa, maintains intermittent suction regardless of suction
source)
a. Suctioning gastric contents
b. Maintaining gastric decompression
Key Points:
a. Prior to insertion, position the client in High-Fowler’s position if
possible.
b. Use a water-soluble lubricant to facilitate insertion
c. Measure the tube from the tip of the client’s nose to the earlobe and
from the nose to the xiphoid process to determine the approximate
amount of tube to insert to reach the stomach
d. Flex the client’s head slightly forward; this will decrease the chance of
entry into the trachea
e. Insert the tube through the nose into the nasopharyngeal area; ask the
client to swallow, and as the swallow occurs, progress the tube past
the area of the trachea and into the esophagus and stomach. Withdraw
tube immediately if client experiences respiratory distress
f. Secure the tube to the nose; do not allow the tube to exert pressure on
the upper inner portion of the nares
g. Validating placement of tube.
Aspirate gastric contents via a syringe to the end of the tube
Measure ph of aspirate fluid
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Place the stethoscope over the gastric area and inject a small
amount of air through the NGT. A characteristic sound of air
entering the stomach from the tube should be heard
b. Miller-Abbot Tubes
i. Approximately 10 feet long
ii. Double lumen
iii. One lumen utilized for aspiration of intestinal contents
iv. Second lumen utilized to instill mercury into the rubber bag after
the tube has been inserted into the stomach
I. 3 Phases of Grief
a. Protest: lack of acceptance, concerning the loss, characterized by anger,
ambivalence and crying
b. Despair: denial and acceptance occurs simultaneously causing
disorganized behavior, characterized by crying and sadness
c. Detachment: loss is realized; characterized by hopelessness, accurately
defining the relationship with the lost individual and energy to move
forward in life.
C. Anticipatory Grief – expression of the symptoms of grief prior to the actual loss, grief
period following the lost may be shortened and the intensity lessened because of the
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previous of grief; for example, a child told that a family move is expected may grieve
about losing friends prior to actually living
D. Complications of Bereavement
I. Chronic Grief – symptoms of grief occur beyond the expected time frame and
the severity of symptoms is greater; depression may result.
II. Delayed Grief – when symptoms of grief are not expressed and are
suppressed, a delayed reaction of grief occurs, the nurse should discuss the
normal process of grieving with the client and give permission to express these
symptoms
1. Help client accept that the loss is real by providing sensitive, factual information
concerning the loss
3. Support efforts to live without the diseased person or in the face of disability; this
promotes a client’s sense of control as well as a healthy vision of the future
5. Allow time to grief, the work of grief may take longer for some; observe for a
healthy progression of symptoms.
8. Be alert for signs of ineffective coping such as inability to carry out activities of
daily living, signs of depression, or lack of expression of grief.
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