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Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48
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28th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering

Life Cycle Primary Energy Demand and Greenhouse Gas Emission benefits
of vehicle lightweighting with recycled carbon fibre
Di Hea*, Vi Kie Sooa, Hyung Chul Kimb, Matthew Doolana
a
ARC Training Centre in Lightweight Automotive Structures, Research School of Electrical, Energy and Materials Engineering, Australian National University,
Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
b
Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan USA

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: di.he@anu.edu.au

Abstract

Recycled carbon fibre (rCF) is a potential material for sustainable vehicle lightweighting but its realistic environmental impacts are still unclear.
In this study, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) investigates the primary energy demand (PED) and global warming potential (GWP) of using rCF
reinforced Polyamide 66 (PA66) for a side-view mirror bracket, in comparison with its conventional cast aluminium counterpart. Results indicate
that using rCF+PA66 with 40wt% rCF in the US can achieve around 13% and 34% reduction in the PED/GWP of the cradle-to-gate phases and
the use phase, respectively. Scenario analysis is also carried out to understand the impact of geographical setting and fibre content in rCF+PA66.
It shows that replacing aluminium with 40wt% rCF+PA66 in the EU saves 31.5% and 29.7% more cradle-to-gate PED and GWP, respectively,
than in the US. A higher reduction of 43.4% and 41.2% in the cradle-to-grave PED and GWP compared to aluminium can be achieved by
increasing fibre mass fraction.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 28th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering.
Keywords: Recycled carbon fibre; vehicle lightweighting; primary energy demand; global warming potential; greenhouse gas emission;

1. Introduction and 50%, respectively, when replacing steel [2]. It is estimated

The transportation sector is a significant contributor of
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It accounts for nearly
a quarter of the global energy-related GHG emissions, of which
nearly 80% come from road vehicles [1]. Reducing the GHG
emissions of road vehicles is important to tackle the climate
change crisis.
Lightweighting is an effective approach to improve fuel
efficiency and reduce GHG emissions in the use phase of road
vehicles. It involves the substitution of low-carbon steel with
new materials that could satisfy the performance criteria for
application in a vehicle while providing a lower weight. Some
examples of these materials are advanced high strength steel
(AHSS), aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys. The weight
reduction potential of these materials is on average 20%, 45%
that a 6-8% fuel saving can be achieved as a result of a 10%
weight reduction of a vehicle [3]. The reduced fuel
consumption leads to a reduction in GHG emissions in the use
phase of a lightweight vehicle.
Despite the benefits in the use phase, lightweight materials
usually have higher energy consumption and GHG emissions
than steel in the production stage. For instance, the embodied
primary energy of AA6060 aluminium alloy and AZ61
magnesium alloy is 207.5 MJ/kg and 350.5 MJ/kg, respectively,
compared to 32 MJ/kg for steel [4]. Similarly, the embodied
CO2 emission of the aluminium and magnesium alloy is 12 kg
CO2 eq./kg and 22 kg CO2 eq./kg, compared to 2.5 kg CO2
eq./kg for steel [4]. Hence, despite reducing the environmental
impacts during the use phase of a vehicle, many lightweight

2212-8271 © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 28th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering.
10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.003

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 44 Di He et al. / Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48

materials lead to increased environmental burdens on the
vehicle manufacturer.
Virgin carbon fibre (vCF) is another lightweight material
with a high weight reduction potential, but is highly energy
intensive in the production stage. Carbon fibre has a high
specific stiffness and specific strength, making it suitable for
structural applications without adding a large weight burden
[5]. It is estimated that using carbon fibre reinforced polymers
(CFRP) can achieve 50-70% of weight saving when compared
to conventional steel [2]. Nonetheless, the embodied energy for
PAN-based vCF is up to 286 MJ/kg, almost 10 times higher
than steel [6]. This is partly due to the high energy consumption
of the conversion process from precursor Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) fibre to carbon fibre [5].
Compared with vCF, the use of recycled carbon fibre (rCF)
can achieve similar lightweighting while avoiding the high
energy consumption associated with vCF production. It is
estimated that nearly one million tonnes of CFRP waste will be
generated by 2050 from the aerospace and wind industry
combined [7]. This usually comes as off-cuts from the
production of CFRP products, which has a scrap rate of more
than 30% [8]. By using the current pyrolysis recycling
technique, rCF can be recovered from CFRP waste with similar
mechanical properties compared to vCF [6]. However, the
energy consumption of recycling carbon fibre is reportedly
only 10% of the energy required for vCF production [9].
Therefore, rCF has a significant lightweighting potential but a
low energy intensity associated with the production stage.
The life cycle environmental impacts of rCF used in actual
vehicle components are not clear in the literature. Despite a
functional unit is a side-view mirror bracket satisfying the
criterion on Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)
performance. The die cast aluminium part weighs 0.773kg and
the rCFRP part weighs 0.364kg, after design optimisation. The
mirror bracket is assembled with mirrors, control devices,
wirings and plastic casing (Fig 1b). Only the mirror bracket is
analysed in this study, while the other components are
considered out of the scope. The lifetime travel distance of the
vehicle depends on the geographical setting, which will be
discussed in Section 2.3.
(a). (b).
Fig. 1. (a) Conventional aluminium mirror bracket (left) and rCFRP mirror
bracket (right); (b) an assembled side-view mirror.
2.2. System boundary
This LCA covers the life cycle of the mirror bracket, which
includes the material production, part manufacturing, use and
end-of-life (EOL) phases. The transportation, assembly and
maintenance phases are excluded in this study. An overview of
the processes included in the system boundary in each material
case is shown in Fig 2.
Aluminium scrap

number of studies that have investigated this topic, these

Secondary Primary
studies investigated the use of rCF in either generic or Aluminium Aluminium
ingot ingot
hypothetical vehicle components, with assumptions on the Energy production production 66% scrap Emission to air

material properties and performance [10–13]. With rCF being

Die casting
increasingly adopted in the automotive industry, it is important
Emission to water

Al cast part
to understand the realistic life cycle environmental impacts of Resources Emission to land

lightweighting with rCF, based on primary lightweighting data. Use phase

This study will investigate the life cycle environmental

EOL
impacts of lightweighting a side-view mirror bracket for a light (a).
duty truck with rCF. Through industry collaboration, data on
Post-industrial CFRP waste
the development of an rCF+PA66 rCFRP mirror bracket was from aerospace industry

obtained. A comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was scrap Size

conducted for the component to understand its life cycle Disposal
gas/oil
reduction
Virgin
PA66

environmental impacts, in comparison with the conventional Energy production

Pyrolysis
Energy recovery Emission to air
aluminium counterpart. A scenario analysis was also carried Char PA66
pellets
removal
out to understand the impact of geographical setting (US & EU) 1%
rCF Emission to water
Extrusion compounding
and fibre content in the rCFRP. The results of this study would Resources
Scrap
disposal Emission to land
enhance the understanding on the potential of rCF as a
Injection moulding
2%
rCFRP part

sustainable lightweight material for the automotive industry. Use phase

2. Methodology
2.1. Goal and scope definition
The goal of this LCA is to understand the life cycle
environmental impacts of an rCF+PA66 rCFRP side-view
mirror bracket, replacing the conventional die cast aluminium
design (Fig 1a) in a gasoline light-duty truck. The LCA is
conducted in accordance with the ISO 14040 series. The
EOL
(b).
Fig. 2. Detailed processes included in the system boundary of (a) the
aluminium part and (b) the rCFRP part.
The material production phase consists of primary and
secondary material productions. In the aluminium case,
primary and secondary aluminium productions are modelled.
Primary aluminium production includes bauxite mining,
alumina production, anode production, aluminium smelting
and ingot casting [14]. Secondary aluminium production
includes scrap processing, remelting and ingot casting [14].

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 Di He et al. / Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48 45

The primary/secondary ratio depends on the geographical index (MI), based on the material selection methodology by
setting and will be discussed in Section 2.3. In the rCFRP case, Ashby [24]. A higher material index indicates the capability of
primary PA66 production and rCF production are modelled. a material to satisfy a particular functional requirement with a
Primary PA66 production includes all processes from the lower weight. The ratio between the MI of two materials
extraction of crude oil to the production of Hexamethylene indicates the inverse of the expected material substitution ratio.
diamine, adipic acid, and finally PA66 pellets [15]. The rCF For instance, an MI ratio between material A and B of 2
production follows the pyrolysis recycling technique, which indicates that material A would require half of the mass of
includes a pyrolysis process to decompose the resin in CFRP material B to satisfy the functional requirement of the part. The
waste, followed by a char removal process in air to recover MI for NVH performance in the application of mirror brackets
clean fibres [6]. Energy recovery from the pyrolysis by- can be derived by:
products such as oil and gases is also modelled. The current
fibre mass fraction in the rCFRP is 40%.
య
భ మ
ாయ
The part manufacturing phase includes the die casting ‫ ܫܯ‬ൌ ቆ ఘ ቇ (1)
process in the aluminium case. This is modelled with a scrap
rate of 66% [16]. Aluminium scrap from this process is
where E is the stiffness of the material and ρ is the density. A
recycled in a closed-loop. In the rCFRP case, the part
discussion on the reliability of this approach will be presented
manufacturing phase includes compounding and injection
in Section 3.2 based on the actual cases.
moulding. The compounding process combines short rCF with
PA66 to produce pellets. The injection moulding process
2.4. Life cycle inventory data
produces the rCFRP component with a scrap rate of 2% [16].
For the use phase, the mass induced fuel consumption
The life cycle inventory data in this analysis is obtained
method is used to estimate fuel savings as a result of the
from part suppliers, industry reports, GaBi professional
component lightweighting [17].
database, GREET model and literature studies. Primary and
The EOL phase is modelled with the Recycled Content
secondary aluminium production processes in GaBi are used
approach. This is considered the most appropriate approach for
[25], with data from Aluminium Association [26] (for US) and
this study, where the material production has a high recycled
European Aluminium Association [14] (for EU). The die
content, to ensure the recycling credit is not double-counted.
casting process is modelled with foreground data from the
GaBi and the industry partner. In the rCFRP case, the PA66
2.3. Scenario analysis
production is modelled with foreground data from
PlasticsEurope [15]. The rCF production is modelled with
The differences in the benefits of lightweighting with rCF in
foreground data obtained from literature studies [10,11,27].
the EU and US, the two major markets for commercial light-
The manufacturing processes for rCFRP are modelled with
duty trucks, are investigated. The first major difference
foreground data from GaBi and the industry partner. For the
between the two regions is the 25% higher secondary content
use phase, data from EPA and U.S. Department of Energy
in cast aluminium in the US (Table 1). Moreover, the lifetime
[28,29] are used to calculate the fuel consumption following
travel distance of this vehicle, as a commercial light-duty truck,
the mass induced fuel consumption method. The emission
is 38% shorter in the EU than in the US. The modelling of
factors for the operation of a light duty truck are obtained from
background energy and feedstock supply is also region-
the GREET model [18]. All background processes are
specific.
modelled with data from GaBi to ensure consistency in the
Table 1. Scenario analysis on geographical setting and fibre mass fraction. background assumptions.
Scenario analysis Details
2.5. Life cycle impact assessment
Geographical setting US: 85% secondary Al [18], lifetime
travel distance = 363,494km [19]
Primary Energy Demand (PED) and Global Warming
EU: 60% secondary Al [20], lifetime
Potential (GWP) are the two environmental impact categories
travel distance = 223,945km [21]
investigated in this study.
Fibre mass fraction in rCFRP 20%, 40% (current), 60%

3. Results and discussion

The impact of fibre content in the rCFRP on the life cycle
environmental impacts of the part is also investigated. Two
3.1. Process-level PED and GWP intensity
hypothetical rCFRP parts with a fibre mass fraction of 20% and
60%, respectively, are modelled (Table 2). 20% fibre mass
To understand the different life cycle impacts of
fraction is more easily achievable and also commercially
lightweighting with rCF in the EU and US, a starting point is
available [22]. The 60% fibre mass fraction represents a future
to first compare the energy and GHG emission intensities of the
scenario where higher fibre mass fractions are achievable in
production and manufacturing processes in the two regions.
rCFRP as a result of improvements in the processing of rCF to
Table 2 lists the PED and GWP intensity per kg of material
enhance packing density and arrangement. This has been
processed for all cradle-to-gate processes. All processes except
achieved under small-scale laboratory conditions [23]. The
the primary aluminium production process have a larger PED
weight of the hypothetical parts is estimated using material

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 46 Di He et al. / Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48

intensity in the US than in the EU. The GWP intensity of all the PED and GWP intensities are higher in the US, in
processes is higher in the US than in the EU. comparison with the EU (Table 2). This is because the energy
source for these processes is either the general electricity mix,
Table 2. PED and GWP intensity of the production and manufacturing or the thermal energy from natural gas, or a combination of the
processes for the aluminium and rCFRP mirror bracket.
two [14,15]. Both these energy supplies have a higher PED as
Impact category PED intensity GWP intensity well as GWP intensity in the US than in the EU (Table 3).
(MJ/kg) (kg CO2 eq./kg)
Understanding the comparison of process-level PED and GWP
EU US EU US intensity between the two regions provides a good basis for
Aluminium Primary aluminium 159.3 147.2 8.3 9.0 pinpointing the differences in the life cycle impacts, which will
part production be discussed in the coming section.
Secondary aluminium 8.2 12.1 0.4 0.7
production 3.2. Cradle-to-gate impacts
Aluminium die casting 13.1 14.6 0.5 0.7
rCFRP part rCF production 51.4 55.3 4.2 4.7 The weight and the cradle-to-gate PED/GWP of the rCFRP
PA66 production 150.1 162.8 6.5 7.7 mirror bracket are sensitive to the fibre mass fraction. Table 4
shows the material indices (MI) calculated by Equation (1) for
Compounding 5.1 5.4 0.2 0.3
the four material cases, and the estimated part weights for the
Injection moulding 7.4 7.8 0.3 0.4
rCFRP cases with 20wt% and 60wt% rCF. The ratio between
the MI of rCFRP with 40wt% rCF and the aluminium case
The differences observed in the PED and GWP intensity of
(4.03/1.86 = 2.17) is close to the inversed ratio of the part
primary aluminium production can be attributed to the different
weights of these actual cases (0.773/0.364 = 2.12). This denotes
energy efficiency and GHG emission intensity of the
confidence that the material indices can closely reflect the
background energy supply processes between the EU and the
actual material substitution. The weight of the hypothetical
US. The energy consumption in primary aluminium production
rCFRP cases with 20wt% and 60wt% rCF is then estimated
is mainly in the smelting process, which is electricity driven
(Table 4). As expected, a larger weight saving is achievable at
[14,26]. In both the US and the EU, the electricity used in the
a higher fibre mass fraction. In terms of environmental impacts,
smelting process is not drawn from the general electricity grid,
larger reductions in cradle-to-gate PED and GWP can be
but rather, a dedicated electricity supply with a high fraction of
achieved at higher fibre mass fractions. The best case is 60wt%
hydroelectric power. The share of hydroelectric power in the
rCF in the EU, where 60.1% reduction in cradle-to-gate PED
smelter electricity mix in the EU is at 64.8% [14], which is
and 55.2% reduction in cradle-to-gate GWP can be achieved,
lower than 75.1% in North America (NA) [26]. Large-scale
compared to the aluminium case (Fig. 3a and 4a). While in the
hydroelectric power generation has an efficiency at around
worst case with 20wt% rCF, the cradle-to-gate PED and GWP
90%, much higher than other power sources [25,30]. A larger
of the rCFRP part in the US are 26.4% and 16.9% more than
share of hydro power would improve the efficiency and reduce
the aluminium part, respectively (Fig. 3b and 4b). Since the
the PED intensity of the overall electricity supply. Hence, the
PED and GWP intensity of PA66 production is around 2.9
PED intensity of the smelter mix is higher in the EU, in
times and 1.6 times higher than rCF production (Table 2),
comparison with the NA (Table 3). This results in an 8.2%
respectively, PA66 production is an environmental hotspot in
higher PED intensity of primary aluminium production in the
the cradle-to-gate phases of the rCFRP part. Increasing fibre
EU compared to the US, as shown in Table 2. However, the EU
mass fraction in rCFRP can reduce the overall cradle-to-gate
smelter electricity mix has a 29.2% lower GWP intensity
PED and GWP of an rCFRP mirror bracket.
compared to the US smelter electricity mix (Table 3). This is
due to an 11.1% lower share of coal-fired power generation but Table 4. The material index and the part weight in all material cases.
a 10.6% larger share of natural gas power generation and a Material case Material index Part weight (kg)
9.5% larger share of nuclear power in the EU smelter electricity (MI) for NVH
mix [14]. Hence, the primary aluminium production in the EU performance
is less GWP intensive than in the US. Aluminium 1.86 0.773 (actual)

Table 3. PED and GWP intensity of the background energy supply processes rCF+PA66 (40wt% rCF) 4.03 0.364 (actual)
in the EU and the US (North America (NA)). rCF+PA66 (20wt% rCF) 3.23 0.453 (estimated)
Impact category PED GWP intensity rCF+PA66 (60wt% rCF) 4.73 0.310 (estimated)
intensity (kg CO2
(MJ/kg) eq./kg) A more significant reduction in cradle-to-gate PED and
EU smelter electricity mix 1.70 0.051 GWP can be achieved by substituting aluminium with rCFRP
NA smelter electricity mix 1.68 0.072 in the EU than in the US. At 40% fibre mass fraction, the
EU general electricity mix 2.94 0.110 percentage reduction in cradle-to-gate PED and GWP in the EU
is 31.5% and 29.7% more than in the US, respectively (Fig. 3
US general electricity mix 3.08 0.152
and 4). Firstly, this is due to the higher environmental impacts
EU thermal energy from natural gas 1.25 0.067
of cast aluminium production in the EU. As discussed in
US thermal energy from natural gas 1.42 0.073 Section 2.3, the secondary aluminium content in EU is 25%
lower than in the US. From Table 2, the PED and GWP
For all processes other than primary aluminium production,

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 Di He et al. / Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48 47

intensity of primary aluminium production is on average 19.3
times and 12.2 times higher than secondary aluminium
production, respectively. Hence, the total aluminium
productions in the EU consume 112% more PED and emit 86%
more GHG than in the US (Fig. 3 and 4). Secondly, the cradle-
to-gate PED and GWP of the rCFRP parts in the EU are on
average 7.4% and 15.5% lower than in the US (Fig. 3 and 4),
respectively. This is attributed to the higher PED and GWP
intensity of the general electricity grid mix and the supply of
thermal energy from natural gas in the US, compared to the EU
(Table 3). Hence, the use of rCFRP to replace aluminium for
the mirror bracket provides more PED and GWP reduction
benefits in the EU, compared to the US. Nonetheless, this is
highly sensitive to any improvement in the recycled cast
aluminium content in the EU.
3.3. Total life cycle impacts
The life cycle PED and GWP of the mirror bracket are
EU
100
‐19.4%
80
‐44.2%
60
MJ
shown in Fig 5 and 6. The life cycle PED and GWP are reduced
by up to 43.4% and 41.2%, depending on the fibre mass
fraction of the rCFRP. Not surprisingly, this is largely
attributed to the PED and GWP reduction in the use phase of
the mirror bracket, as a result of fuel saving. At 60% fibre mass
fraction, around 38% reduction is achieved in the use phase
PED and GWP in both the EU and the US. At 20% fibre mass
fraction, despite the increased cradle-to-gate impacts (Fig. 3
and 4), the life cycle PED and GWP of the rCFRP part are still
around or more than 20% lower than the aluminium part in both
regions.
The life cycle PED and GWP are reduced by a larger
percentage in the EU, in comparison to the US. The percentage
reduction in life cycle PED and GWP in the EU is on average
4.9% and 3.7% more than in the US, respectively. This is
mainly attributed to the larger percentage reduction in cradle-
to-gate impacts in the EU, as discussed in section 3.2. For the
use phase, the percentage reduction in the PED and GWP is
similar in the two regions.
Primary energy demand (gross cal. value)
US
100
+26.4%
80
‐12.6%
‐60.1% 60 ‐37.6%

MJ

40 40
20 20
0 0
Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66
(60wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF) (85wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF)
recycled) recycled)
(a). (b).
Fig. 3. The cradle-to-gate primary energy demand of aluminium and rCFRP mirror bracket with different fibre mass fraction in (a) the EU and (b) the US.
Global warming potential
EU US
5 5
+16.9%
4 ‐23.7% 4
‐13.4%
kg CO2 eq.

kg CO2 eq.

3 ‐43.0% 3 ‐32.4%
‐55.2%
2 2
1 1
0 0
Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66
(60wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF) (85wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF)
recycled) recycled)
(a). (b).
Fig. 4. The cradle-to-gate global warming potential of aluminium and rCFRP mirror bracket with different fibre mass fraction in (a) the EU and (b) the US.
Primary energy demand (gross cal. value)
EU US
500 500 ‐19.8%
400 400 ‐31.1% ‐38.1%
‐24.1%
300 ‐36.0% ‐43.4% 300
MJ

MJ

200 200 ‐26.3%

‐25.8% ‐33.7% ‐38.2%
100 ‐33.2% ‐37.7% 100
0 0
Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66
(60wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF) (85wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF)
recycled) recycled)
(a). (b).
Fig. 5. The life cycle primary energy demand of aluminium and rCFRP mirror bracket with different fibre mass fraction in (a) the EU and (b) the US.
Global warming potential
EU US
40 40
30 30 ‐21.8%
‐31.6%
kg CO2 eq.

kg CO2 eq.

‐37.6%
‐35.2% ‐25.5%
20 ‐41.2% 20
10 ‐33.7% ‐26.3%
‐33.4% ‐26.0% 10 ‐38.2%
‐37.9%
0 0
Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 Aluminium rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66 rCF+PA66
(60wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF) (85wt% (40wt% rCF) (20wt% rCF) (60wt% rCF)
recycled) recycled)
(a). (b).
Fig. 6. The life cycle global warming potential of aluminium and rCFRP mirror bracket with different fibre mass fraction in (a) the EU and (b) the US.

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 48 Di He et al. / Procedia CIRP 98 (2021) 43–48
4. Conclusion
The use of recycled carbon fibre (rCF) can lead to reduced
environmental impacts not only in the use phase of a side-
view mirror bracket, but also in the cradle-to-gate phases.
Using PA66 and rCF at the current 40% fibre mass fraction
to replace cast aluminium in the US can achieve around 13%
and 34% reduction in the primary energy demand
(PED)/global warming potential (GWP) of the cradle-to-gate
phases and the use phase, respectively.
The environmental benefits of using rCF varies under
different geographic settings and different fibre mass
fractions of rCFRP. A larger percentage reduction in
PED/GWP can be achieved in the EU, in comparison to the
US. At 40% fibre mass fraction, the percentage reduction in
cradle-to-gate PED and GWP in the EU is 31.5% and 29.7%
more than in the US, respectively. However, this is sensitive
to potential changes in the recycled content of cast
aluminium in the EU. More significant reductions in
PED/GWP of the rCFRP part are also possible at higher fibre
mass fractions. The best case is 60wt% rCF, where life cycle
PED and GWP are reduced by up to 43.4% and 41.2%,
compared to the aluminium counterpart.
Future research in developing rCFRP vehicle component
should focus on increasing fibre mass fraction and reducing
the environmental impacts associated with the production of
plastic matrix. This study has identified PA66 production as
an environmental hotspot of the life cycle of an rCFRP
component. Improving fibre mass fraction in rCFRP can not
only achieve a larger fuel saving in the use phase, but also
reduce the environmental impacts in the cradle-to-gate
phases by reducing the amount of PA66 required. This will
require advancements in the processing of rCF in order to
improve the fibre packing density and arrangement on an
industrial scale. In addition, reducing the environmental
impacts of PA66 production, or switching to another plastic
resin with lower embodied energy/emission as the matrix
material is also helpful in further reducing the environmental
impacts of rCFRP production. Both approaches can further
improve the value of rCF as a lightweight material for
vehicles that can provide environmental benefits in both the
use phase and the production/manufacturing phase.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Australian Research
Council (ARC Training Centre in Lightweight Automotive
Structures, grant no. IC160100032). The authors would like
to acknowledge Patrick Blanchard, Timothy J. Wallington,
Robert De Kleine and Patricia C. Tibbenham at Ford Motor
Company for their comments.
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