Condensation

Evapotranspiration

Precipitation
1
Water body
 CHAPTER ONE. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE, WATER RESOURCES OF THE
WORLD AND SOCIETY

 Water is essential to life. Without it, the biosphere that exists on

the surface of the earth wouldn't be possible. Nicknamed the
"water" planet, Earth is covered by one of our most precious
resources.
 However, almost 93% is locked in the oceans, toxic to humans
and many plants and animals.
➢How do we obtain fresh water resources then?
➢Where does drinkable water come from?

To understand, we need to turn to the Hydrologic Cycle.

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 Cont’s
 Hydrology is the science of water, it is the study of
o occurrence,
o character and
o movement of water within and between the physical and
biological components of the environment.
The importance of hydrology is
▪ assessment,
▪ development,
▪ utilisation and management of the water resources

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 Cont’s
Important uses of water include:
o Agricultural use
o Industrial uses
o Power Production
o Domestic consumption
o Human Consumption
o Non Consumptive Uses such as recreation

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 The Hydrologic Cycle
o Water's molecular arrangement is very simple, two hydrogen atoms
to each oxygen atom.
o Water has many unique properties that agree it to be such a universal
material.
o One special characteristic of water is its ability to change state very
easily under Earth conditions.
o It can be found readily on the planet in all of its three forms, solid,
liquid, and gas. These forms also play a great part in the hydrologic
cycle.
o Now, exactly what is the hydrologic cycle? The hydrologic
cycle takes place in the hydrosphere
o The cycle is the movement of water through this hydrosphere. It is a
process through which Nature recycles the earth's water (endless)
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6
 Cont’s
The major components of the hydrologic cycle are:
o Evapotranspiration-
✓ Evapotranspiration is the combined net effect of two processes: evaporation and
transpiration.
✓ Evaporation is the process of returning moisture to the atmosphere
o Condensation
✓ Condensation is the cooling of water vapor until it becomes a liquid.
✓ Condensation occurs when the temperature of the air or earth changes.
✓ Water changes states when temperatures fluctuate
✓ As clouds form, winds move them across the globe, spreading out the water
vapor.
✓ When eventually the clouds cannot hold the moisture, they release it in the form
of precipitation, which can be snow, rain, hail,
o Precipitation
✓ Precipitation is moisture that falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow, sleet, or
hail.
✓ Precipitation varies in amount, intensity, and form by season and geographic
location.
✓ These factors impact whether

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 o Infiltration
✓ Infiltration is the entry of water into the soil surface.
✓ The rate of infiltration is influenced by
• the physical characteristics of the soil,
• soil cover (i.e. plants),
• water content of the soil
• soil temperature and rainfall intensity.
o Percolation
✓ Movement of water infiltrations to water table
o Runoff
✓ Movement of water to water bodies
✓ Influenced by rate of runoff include rainfall duration and intensity as well as the
ground's slope, soil type and ground cover
 The hydrologic cycle consists of Inflows, Outflows, and Storage.
I = O + ΔS
 Inflows add water to the different parts of the hydrologic system, while
outflows remove water. Storage is the retention of water by parts of the
system. Because water movement is cyclical, an inflow for one part of
the system is an outflow for another.

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 HYDROLOGICAL DATA
Some hydrological requirements for a river basin development are:
 Climatological data
 Stream-flow records
 Seasonal fluctuation of ground water table
 Evaporation data
 Cropping pattern
 Water quality data of surface streams and ground water
 Cropping pattern crops and their seasons
 Daily, monthly and annual evaporation from water surfaces in the basin
 Water balance studies of the basin
 Soil conservation and methods of flood control

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 Water Resources of the World
o Water is the single most important component of the environment
o water is a major controlling component of the earth’s climate.
o It is water that is largely responsible for shaping the earth’s surface
into the infinitely complex associations of erosional and depositional
landforms.
o Water makes life on earth possible, and, to a large extent, water
makes the earth itself.
o Approximately 96.5% of all the water is stored in the oceans, 1.7%
is stored underground and about 1.74% is frozen and stored in ice
caps and glaciers. In just three locations, we find 99.96% of the
water.
o Only 0.04% of the earth’s total water supply comprises all of the
water found in rivers, lakes, the soil and the atmosphere.
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 Table. Estimates of global water distribution
Water source Water volume in Percent of Percent of
cubic kilometers freshwater total water
Oceans, seas and bay 1,338,000, 000 -- 96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers and 24,064,000 68.7 1.74
Snow
Ground water 23,400, 000 -- 1.7
Fresh 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 12,870,000 -- 0.94
Soil Moisture 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice & 300,000 0.86 0.022
Permafrost
Lakes 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 85,400 -- 0.006
Atmosphere 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 2,120 0.006 0.0002
11 Biological Water 1,120 0.003 0.0001
Total 1,386,000,000 - 100
 Importance of Hydrology to Society
 Determining the water balance of a region

 Determining the agricultural water balance

 Mitigating and predicting flood hazards, landslide, and drought risk

 Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity

 Providing drinking water

 Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation

 Designing bridges

 Designing sewers and urban drainage system

 Predicting geomorphological changes, such as erosion or sedimentation

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 Branches of Hydrology
Branches of hydrology:
o Chemical hydrology- is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.
o Ecohydrology- is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.
o Hydrogeology- is the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers.
o Hydroinformatics- is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water
resources applications.
o Hydrometeorology- is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water
body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
o Isotope hydrology- is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.
o Surface hydrology- is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the Earth’s
surface.
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 Reflection
1. The hydrological cycle
a. has beginning but does not end b. has both beginning and end
c. occurs continuously in nature d. is a water transfer cycle
e. has three phases- precipitation, evaporation and runoff

2. Hydrology deals with

a. occurrence of water and formation of snow
b. movement of water on earth and water vapour in atmosphere
c. occurrence of floods and droughts
d. consumptive use of crops and crop planning
e. prevention of drought
f. the hydrologic cycle
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 Soil
moisture
Subsurface
flow
Groundwater flow
Groundwater
outflow

Impervious strata

Hydrolog ic cycle
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 Definition of Irrigation

Irrigation is:
❖ Water is used for survival but also make comfortable life
❖ Amount and timing of rain fall are not adequate to meet moisture requirement
✓ any process, other than natural precipitation, which supplies water to crops for
their successful growth.
✓ the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of crop production
✓ the artificial application of water to the soil to meet the crop water needs for its
vegetative development and for production
✓ the application of water to the soil to supplement natural precipitation and
provide an environment that is optimum for crop production.

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 Cont…….
o Irrigation may be defined as
➢ science of artificial application of water to the soil,
➢ in accordance with the crop requirements
➢ throughout the crop period
➢ for full-fledged nourishment of the crops
According to an eminent engineer N.D. Gulhati, Irrigation is the
"science of survival" for the ever increasing mankind.
Objective of irrigation
✓ To ensure enough moisture essential for plant life.
✓ To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
✓ To cool the soil and atmosphere to provide a favourable
environment for plant growth.
✓ To wash out or dilute harmful salts in the soil 17
 Phases of Irrigation
• Irrigation can be divided in two main phases, namely:
❖ Engineering Phases: The engineer has the responsibility of designing and
building the structures essential to the storage, diversion, conveyance,
delivery, and distribution of water to irrigators.
❖ Agricultural Phases: The agricultural phases of irrigation are essentially
concerned with the use of irrigation water on the farm or with irrigation
practices.
✓ Determination of the proper quantity of water to uniformly apply to
the soil in

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 Necessity of Irrigation
o There is no single requirement for plant life, which is more vital than
provision of water.
o Adequate quantities of water should be readily available within the root-
zone. If water it is not present in the soil naturally it may be applied by
irrigation
o Even today, rainfall is beyond the control of a man. Rainfall process fulfil
following characteristics:
✓ Rainfall should be sufficient to make good moisture deficiency in the root-
zone.
✓ Rainfall frequency should be such as to replenish soil moisture deficiency
in time so that plants do not suffer from drought.
✓ Rainfall intensity should be low to permit the soil to absorb water to the
maximum extent.

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The factors, which necessitate irrigation, can be summarized as
follows:
✓Inadequate rainfall
✓Uneven distribution of rainfall
✓Increasing the yield of crops
✓Growing a number of crops
✓ Growing perennial crops.
✓Growing higher crops
✓ Insurance against drought
✓Controlled water supply

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 Advantage and disadvantage of Irrigation
1. The following are the possible advantages of irrigation.
✓ Increase in Food Production
✓ Optimum Benefits
✓ General Prosperity
✓ Elimination of Mixed Cropping
✓ Domestic water supply
✓ Facilities for communications
✓ Inland Navigation
✓ A forestation

2. Disadvantage and Ill-effects of Irrigation

✓ Raising water table
✓ Formation of marshy (swampy) land
✓ Water pollution
✓ Dampness.
✓ Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself.
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 Requirements for successful irrigation:
❖Land Capability
✓ Irrigation should be confined to soils that are capable of producing
sustained high yields of adapted crops
❖AdequateWater Supply
✓ A supply of water adequate to meet the needs of the crops being irrigated
must be available when needed.
❖Adequate Labor
✓ Irrigation requires more labor than rain-fed agriculture.
❖Climate
✓ The climate is a very important factor in any sort of cultivation
❖Adequate Capital
❖Enough initial capital to install, operate and maintain irrigation project is
required
❖ Others: Effective management of soil and water 22
 Economics of Irrigation
❖ Irrigation is introduced for the purpose of increasing profits to the
cultivators.
❖ Higher production will ultimately lower prices of food grains for the
consumers.
❖ It will result in more consumption of food and will raise the standard of'
living of the masses.
❖ It has, however, to be remembered that every irrigation project calls for
substantial investment.
❖ It is, therefore, necessary to ensure that the benefits growing from the
scheme are equal with the investment.
❖ Besides technical feasibility, each scheme has to be evaluated from the
point of view of economic justification.
❖ The best way to achieve this is making economical use of irrigation water.

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 Scope of Irrigation
❖ Irrigation practiced, is not confined only to the application of water to the
land for raising crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from
the watershed to the agricultural fields.
❖ It deals with hydrology, river engineering, the design and construction of
dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures.
❖ It also deals with the problems of sub-surface drainage, soil reclamation,
irrigation practices and water-soil-crop relationships.
❖ The various aspects of irrigation can be divided into sub-heads.
✓ Water Resources and Hydrology
✓ Engineering aspect
✓ Agricultural aspect
✓ Management aspect

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 Types of Irrigation
1. Full Irrigation
o Under adequate water supply (i.e., full irrigation), the crop water
requirement is fully met.
ETa = ETm.
o No water stress develops under such conditions, and crop yield (Ya) is
expected to be potential yield (Ym), i.e. Ya = Ym (if other production
factors are not limiting).

2. Deficit Irrigation
o Under limited water supply (i.e., water stress or water deficit):
o The level of soil water status within the plant root zone is less than what
would be under full irrigation.
o Crop water consumption in this case (ETa) falls below maximum
evapotranspiration (ETm), i.e.
ETa < ETm.
o Under such conditions, water stress will develop in the plant, which will
adversely affect crop growth, I’e, Ya <Ym.
3. . Supplemental Irrigation
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 Types of Irrigation Schemes Systems
❖ Irrigation schemes may be classified in different ways as indicated below :
1. Classification Based on the Level of the Available Water
✓ Flow Irrigation system
✓ Lift Irrigation System
2. Classification Based on the Duration of Irrigation
✓ Perennial Irrigation System
✓ Non-Perennial Irrigation system:

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 Classification Based on Size of Command Area
Small- scale irrigation schemes
➢ Built by Government agencies with farmer participation
o Areas extending from 20 to 200 ha.
o Were developed after the catastrophic drought of 1973 as a
means to improve food security and peasant livelihoods.
o There are 288 modern communal schemes in Ethiopia that are
capable of irrigating a total of approximately 30,000 ha
o They are generally based on run-of-river diversion of streams and
rivers, and may also involve micro-dams for storage.
o Beneficiary farmers usually operate and maintain them through
users’ associations

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Medium- to large-scale: private enterprise
➢ Owned and operated by private investors
o Private estates founded the development of medium and large-
scale irrigation projects in the Upper Awash region during the
1950s and 1960s.
o They were unexpectedly nationalized in the mid-1970s.
o During the 1990s some private schemes, mostly in the form of
limited companies, re-emerged with the adoption of market-
based economic policy but have expanded relatively slowly.
o Currently 18 modern private irrigation projects are operating in
some form over a total area of 6,000 ha.

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Large-scale: public schemes
➢owned and operated by public enterprises, as state farms.
o relatively recent, having started late in the 1970s.
o Gode West, Omo Ratti, and Alwero-Abobo, began late in the
1980s and early in the 1990s, but have not yet been completed.
o Most large-scale schemes, excepting the Finchaa Sugar Estate
(currently operating successfully), have been suspended
o Area over 3,000 ha
o The recently issued water management policy has, however,
committed the Federal and regional Government to small- and
large-scale project development in the new millennium

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 Feasibility studies of irrigation projects
For irrigation project plan the data to be collected at feasibility study stage are
1. Physical data: Location, size, physiography (description of landform, which i
ncludes only physical aspects), climate.
2. Hydrological data: Ppt, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment,
water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: Land classification, CWR, types of crops etc
4. Geological data: Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data:Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data:Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data: Means of transportation, market, land taxes etc.
9. Legal data:Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project:Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion: Opinions of different section of the society
12. Flood control data: Records of past flood, extent of damage caused,
drainage Requirements etc
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