PE ZC213 / TA ZC233

Engineering Measurements L-1

BITS Pilani Swapna Kulkarni

Pilani |Dubai |Goa |Hyderabad WILP Division, BITS-Pilani, Pilani

1
Course Objectives - Learning Outcomes
Course Objectives:
 To get familiar with standards and importance of measurements and calibration in
experimental measurements.
 To classify measurement systems, and the instruments and sensors used within them, in
a wide variety of domestic and industrial activities.
 To apply the advanced measurement system in real time applications

Learning Outcomes:
 To understand various concepts/measurement techniques to problems encountered in
the work environment.
 To identify the right instrument/measurement system for a given process and
understand their limitations and trade-offs involved.
 Demonstrate working knowledge of operation of measuring devices and their
underlying electrical principles.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Text Book / References
Text Book (T1) Reference (R1)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Purpose of measurement
system

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Measurement?
What is Measurement?
 It is comparison between the quantity whose magnitude is
unknown with a similar quantity whose magnitude is
known.
 The known magnitude is called standard
 Measurement is the assignment of a number to a
characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared
with other objects or events.
 The scope and application of a measurement is dependent
on the context and discipline.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Measurement…
 Measurement (also called metrology) is the science of
determining values of physical variables.
 A method to obtain information regarding the physical values
of the variable.
 Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or
result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude
is unknown) and predetermined or predefined standards.
 Two quantities are compared and the result is expressed in
numerical values.
 Instrumentation
 Devices used in measurement system

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Objectives of Engineering Measurement

 Measurement of system parameter information.

 Automatic control of a system.

 Simulation.

 Experimental design.

 To perform various manipulation.

 Testing of materials and quality control.

 Verification of scientific theories.

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 Physical Variables
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Light intensity
 Displacement
 Speed
 Level
 Flow-rate etc

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 Why Do We Measure?

 In the engineering industry accuracy is critical .

 In the case of process industries and industrial manufacturing
measurement is undertaken to..
o improve the quality of the product
o improve the efficiency of production
o maintain the proper operation.

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 Linear measurement

 Linear measurement is a distance between two points.

Examples are the distance in a straight line from your home
to your workplace, the diameter of a pipe, or the length of a
flat bar. In engineering terms, length is usually measured in
millimetres but it can also be in centimetres, metres,
kilometres, feet, inches or miles.

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 Angular measurement

Angular measurement is the size of the angle between two

straight lines that meet at one point. The angle looks like a wedge
out of a pie - the bigger the piece of pie, the bigger the angle
between the two straight sides. Angular measurements are
normally given in degrees, minutes and seconds. For some higher
level calculations you will use radians and gradians to measure
angles.

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Units and dimensions

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
 Derived Quantities are physical quantities derived from
combination of base quantities through multiplication or division or
both
 Ex- Area, volume, density
 Area=Length*Length
 Density=mass/Volume
 Instruments classification:
 Mechanical Instruments
 Reliable for static condition
 Can’t respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic condition.
 Electrical Instruments
 It is more rapid than mechanical Instrument.
 It uses mechanical meter as an indicating device.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
– Electronic instruments
• Use semiconductor devices
• Very fast response.
Instruments classification
– Absolute Instruments
• Doesn’t give direct reading.
• Gives the value to be measured in terms of Instrumental
physical constants.
– Secondary Instruments
• Indicating Recording Integrating
(Ammeter) (X-Y Plotter) (Energy meter)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards
 It is necessary to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time,
temperature, and electrical quantities.
 NIST has the primary responsibility for maintaining these standards
 The standard meter was defined as the length of a platinum-iridium bar
maintained at very accurate conditions at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures
 The kilogram was defined in terms of a platinum-iridium mass maintained
at this same bureau
 In 1960 the General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the
standard meter in terms of the wavelength of the orange-red light of a
krypton-86 lamp. The standard meter is thus
 1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths
 In 1983 the definition of the meter was changed to the distance light travels
in 1/299,792,458ths of a second

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards (Contd…)
 The standard for the volt was changed in 1990 to relate to a
phenomenon called the Josephson effect which occurs at liquid
helium temperatures.
 At the same time resistance standards were based on a
quantum Hall effect
 The Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures
adopted a definition of the second as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the fundamental
state of the atom of cesium-133.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Measurement Basics

 Length: is the distance of something measured.

 Volume/Capacity: how much something can hold
( generally liquid).
 Weight: how much something weighs.
 Mass: how much space something takes up.

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Systems of Measurement
 US/Customary System.
o The US/Customary system has many different units of measurement
o Each unit has a completely different name
o They also have completely different conversion factors

 Metric system which is used all over the world

o SI Units (Systemes Internationales d’Unites)
o Two different units are defined
o Fundamental Units
o Derived Units

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Metric Units of Measurement
 Meters: Measures length

 Liters: Measures volume or capacity

 Grams: measures weight/mass

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Fundamental units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Derived units

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 Metric system Prefixes

 Mili- 1/1000, which means that 1000mm=1m

 Centi- 1/100, which means that 100cg=1g

 Deci- 1/10, which means that 10dl=1l

 Deka- 10, which means that 1dkm=10m

 Hecto- 100, which means that 1hg=100g

 Kilo- 1000, which means that 1kl=1000l

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 Methods of Measurement

 Direct comparison:
 Compare unknown quantity (measurand) against a known
quantity (standard). Eg: tape measure.
 Direct comparison not always possible or practical. Eg:
measuring sound levels.
 Indirect comparison (calibrated system):
 Makes use of a sensor or transducing device (transducer) to
transform the measurand into an analogous form.
 The sensor is connected to a series of instruments which
convert the output of the sensor into a useful analogous form
which presents the measurand in a useful and practical format.

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 Generalized Measurement System

 A detector-transducer stage, which detects the physical

variable and performs either a mechanical or an electrical
transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.
In the general sense, a transducer is a device that transforms
one physical effect into another.
 Intermediate stage, which modifies the direct signal by
amplification, filtering, or other means so that a desirable
output is available.
 A final or terminating stage, which acts to indicate, record,
or control the variable being measured. The output may also be
digital or analog.

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Generalized Measurement System

• Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

• Intermediate stage (signal conditioning)
• Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

 Function: to detect or sense the measurand without affecting it.
 Ideally, must also be insensitive to other variables. Eg: Pressure
sensor must be insensitive to acceleration, strain gauge must be
insensitive to temperature.
 Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error.
Noise: high frequency (fast)
Drift: low frequency (slow)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Signal conditioning stage

 Function: to modify (improve) the transduced information for
compatibility with the terminating (readout / recording/
processing) stage
 These include amplification (most common) , filtering (noise
removal), offset adjustment, differentiation, integration,
telemetry….
 Sometimes also used to provide electrical power or excitation
signal required by sensor

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

 Function: to provide information on measurand in a format suitable
for the application.
 For (immediate) human recognition, the display usually comprises:
 A relative displacement indicator. Eg: needle, / pointer, trace in a screen
(oscilloscope), stylus on a chart, a level change (thermometer)…
 In digital (numeric) form. Eg: counter (odometer), numeric LCD etc..
 For recording or processing purposes, the terminating stage may
comprise of magnetic recorders, chart (paper) recorders, digital
recorders (PC-based data acquisition systems, digital storage
oscilloscopes), process controllers (PLCs, computer-based control
systems).

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Assessing Experimental Data : Errors
 Remember: no measurement is perfect – errors always exist.
 Measurement error is defined as the difference between the
true value and the measured value.
 We can only estimate the size of the error or its likelihood that
it exceeds a certain value.
 Errors can be estimated statistically when large number of
measurements are taken.
 However, must ensure that measurement systems are
calibrated.

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 Types of Error
 Most errors can be put into two classes: Bias errors and Precision
errors.
 Bias errors are also referred to as systematic errors and remain the
same for every measurement made.
 Precision errors are also called random errors and are different for
each measurement made. However, the average value of the random
error is zero.
 If enough measurements are repeated, the distribution of precision
errors will be revealed and the likely size of the error can be
estimated statistically.
 Because bias errors are fixed and do not produce a statistical
distribution, they cannot be estimated using statistical techniques.
 They can only be estimated by comparison with a standard or
another instrument or even by experience and common sense.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Types of Error

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Thank you

34 BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act