Concept of Power System

ETHIOPIAN ELECTRIC POWER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER PS TRAINEE MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
Power system
Power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transmit and use electric power.
There are four functions on the supply-side:
 Generation;
 Transmission;
 Distribution and
 Supply
Modern power system
A modern power system can be subdivided into four major parts: Generation, Transmission and Sub
transmission, Distribution and Loads.
Components of power system
The components of power system are:-
 Generators
 Power transformers
 Transmission lines, Distribution
 Lines
 Loads
 Compensating devices like shunt, series, and static VAR compensator.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE POWER SYSTEM
An interconnected power system is a complex enterprise that may be
• Generation Subsystem
• Transmission and Sub transmission Subsystem
• Distribution Subsystem
Generation
Utilization Subsystem subdivided into the following major subsystems:
Generation Subsystem: - This includes generators and transformers.
Generators: - An essential component of power systems is the three-phase ac generator known as
synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators have two synchronously rotating fields: One
field is produced by the rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The other field is
produced in the stator windings by the three-phase armature currents. The dc current for the rotor windings is
provided by excitation systems. In the older units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on the same shaft,
providing excitation through slip rings. Current systems use ac generators with rotating rectifiers, known as
brushless excitation systems.
Electricity is produced by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy (electromechanical conversion
systems).
Energy Conversion Using Water
Perhaps the oldest form of energy conversion is by the use of water power. The technology behind hydropower
is fairlysimple, but taming the power of water is a major challenge. In a hydroelectric station, the energy is
obtained free of cost. This attractive feature has always been somewhat offset by the very high capital cost of
construction, especially of the civil engineering works. Hydropower plants are expensive to build but
inexpensive to operate also provide energy to produce steam for turbines In the majority of cases, the
mechanical energy is either obtained from thermal energy or provided by the flowing water. The main sources
of thermal energy sources are coal, natural gas, nuclear fuel and oil. The use of non-fossil fuels such as wind,
solar, tidal, and geothermal and biogas in electricity generation is also increasing. Hydro-power is the main non-
thermal source of mechanical energy used in electricity generation.
The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy is done using synchronous generators in the majority of
power plants. Few wind generation systems use induction generators. The power is usually generated at low
voltage, between 11 and 35 kV, and then fed into the transmission system using a step-up transformer. The
excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power flow. Because they lack the
commutator, ac generators can generate high power at high voltage, typically 30kV.
Compiled by:- MOHAMMED AWOL ( SENE 2014 E.C.) POWER SYSTEM Page 1
The source of the mechanical power, commonly known as the prime mover, may be hydraulic turbines, steam
turbines whose energy comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally
internal combustion engines burning oil. Steam turbines operate at relatively high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm.
The generators to which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor, two-pole for 3600rpm, or four-pole for 1800rpm
operation. Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating with a low pressure, operate at low speed. Their
generators are usually a salient type rotor with many poles. In a power station, several generators are operated
in parallel in the power grid to provide the total power needed. They are connected at a common point called a
bus.
With concerns for the environment and conservation of fossil fuels, many alternate sources are considered for
employing the untapped energy sources of the sun and the earth for generation of power. Some alternate
sources used are solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal power, and biomass.
Energy Conversion using Steam
The steam-electric power station is a power station in which the electric generator is steam driven. The
combustion ofcoal, gas or oil in boilers produces steam, at high temperatures and pressures, which is passed
through steam turbineswhich drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is
condensed in a condenser. The Greatest variation in the design of steam-electric power plants is due to the
different fuel sources.
Gas turbines
With the increasing availability of natural gas (methane, CH4) and its low emissions and competitive price,
prime movers based on the gas turbine cycle are being used increasingly. This thermodynamic cycle involves
burning the fuel in the compressed working fluid (air) and is used in aircraft with kerosene as the fuel and for
electricity generation with natural gas (methane). Because of the high temperatures obtained, the efficiency of
a gas turbine is comparable to that of a steam turbine, with the additional advantage that there is still sufficient
heat in the gas-turbine exhaust.
Solar Energy-Photovoltaic Conversion
PhotoVoltaic (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit (SHOW)
the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. A
photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising some solar cells, which generate electrical power.
The main process of the PV conversion occurs in a thin layer of suitable material, typically silicon when hole-
electron pairs are created by incident solar photons, and the separation of these holes and electrons at a
discontinuity in electrochemical potential creates a potential difference. Whereas theoretical efficiencies are
about 25%, practical values are lower. Single-crystal silicon solar cells have been constructed with efficiencies of
the complete module approaching 20%.
Wind Generators
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to provide the mechanical power to turn electric
generators.Wind power generation is a serious alternative to burning fossil fuels; there is plentiful, renewable,
widely distributed,clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, consumes no water, and
uses little land. A wind turbine(WT) or alternatively referred to as a wind energy converter, is a device that
converts the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy.
A wind farm (WF) consists of many individual WTs, which are connected to the electric power transmission
network.
Energy Storage
The tremendous (great) difficulty in storing electricity in any large quantity has shaped the architecture of
power systems as they stand today. Various options exist for the large-scale storage of energy to ease
operation and affect overall economies. However, energy storage of any kind is expensive and incurs significant
power losses. Care must be taken in its economic evaluation. There are many energy storage technologies
already available:
 Pumped Storage
 Compressed-Air Storage
 Secondary Batteries
 Fuel Cells
 Hydrogen Energy Systems

 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Stores (SMES)
 Flywheels
 Super capacitor
Transformers
The transformer transfers power with very high efficiency from one level of voltage to another. The power
transferred to the secondary is almost the same as the primary, except for losses in the transformer.
Using a step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line, which makes the transmission of power over long
distances possible. Insulation requirements and other practical design problems limit the generated voltage to
low values, usually 30kV. Thus, step-up transformers are used for transmission of power. At the receiving end
of the transmission lines step-down transformers are used to reduce the voltage to suitable values for
distribution or utilization. The electricity in an electric power system may undergo four or five transformations
between generator and consumers.
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively
coupled conductors- the transformer's coils.
A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and
thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load
is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will
be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs.) is in proportion to the primary
voltage (Vp), and isgiven by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary ( Ns) tothe number of turns in the
primary ( N p) as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thusallows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be
"stepped up" bymaking Ns greater than N p, or "stepped down" by making NsLessthan N p.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils woundaround a ferromagnetic core, air-core
transformers being a notableexception.Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling
transformerhidden inside a stagemicrophone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
portions of power grids. Alloperate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While
new technologieshave eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found innearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.
Transformers are essential forhigh-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance
transmission economically practical.
TAP-CHANGING AND REGULATING TRANSFORMERS

Transformers which provide a small adjustment of voltage magnitude, usually in the range of ± 10%, and others
which shift the phase angle of the line voltages are important components of a power system. Some
transformers regulate both the magnitude and phase angle.
Almost all transformers provide taps on windings to adjust the ratio of transformation by changing taps when
the transformer is DE energized. A change in tap can be made while the transformer is energized and such
transformers recalled load-tap-changing (LTC) transformers or tap-changing-under-load (TCUL) transformers.
The tap changing is automatic and operated by motors which respond to relays set to hold the voltage at the
prescribed level. Special circuits allow the change to be made without interrupting the current.
A type of transformer designed for small adjustments of voltage rather than large changes in voltage levels is
called a regulating transformer Each of the three windings to which taps are made is on the same magnetic
core as the phase winding whose voltage is 90° out of phase with the voltage from neutral to the point
connected to the center of the tapped winding. For instance, the voltage to neutral
PHASE-SHIFTING TRANSFORMER
The voltage drop in a transmission line is simulated in a line drop compensator, which senses the remote
secondary voltage and adjusts the voltage taps. The voltage taps, however, do not change the phase angle of
the voltages appreciably. A minor change due to change of the transformer impedance on account of tap
adjustment and the resultant power flow through it can be ignored.
The real power control can be affected through phase-shifting of the voltage. A phase-shifting transformer
changes the phase angle without appreciable change in the voltage magnitude; this is achieved by injecting a
voltage at right angles to the corresponding line-to-neutral voltage.
EFFECTS OF REGULATING TRANSFORMERS
The transformer with the higher tap setting is supplying most of t h e reactive power to the load.
The real power is dividing equally between the transformers. If both transformers have the same impedance,
they would share both the real and reactive power equally if they had the same turns ratio. When two
transformers are in parallel, we can vary the distribution of reactive power between the transformers by
adjusting the voltage-magnitude ratios. When two paralleled transformers of equal kilovolt amperes do not
share the Kilovolt amperes equally because their impedances differ, the kilovolt amperes may be more nearly
equalized by adjustment of the voltage-magnitude ratios through tap changing.
Transmission system
The transmission system that carries the power from the generating centers to the load centers.
Transmission lines voltage 400,230 and 132 kV.
Transmission of electric power by high voltage d.c. system is superior to that by high voltage ac system in many
respects.
Comparison b/n d.C. and a.c. System for Transmission
I. It requires only two conductors for transmission ascompared to three for ac transmission.
ii. Noinductance, capacitance and phase displacement problem in dc transmission.
iii. There is no skin effect in dc system .therefore entire cross-section of the line conductor is utilized.
iv. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication ckts.
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of dc system than that in ac
system. Therefore dc line requires less insulation.
vi. The high voltage dc.Transmission is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in the case of cables.
v. In dc transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties.
Disadvantage of dc transmission
i. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc voltage due to communication problems.
ii. The dc voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission ofpower at high voltage.
iii. The dc switches andckt breakers have their own limitations.
Ac transmission now a day, electrical energy is almost exclusively, generated, transmitted and distributed in the
form of AC.
Advantage of ac transmission
i. The power can be generated at high voltages.
ii. The maintenance of ac substation is easy and cheaper.
iii. The ac voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformer with easy and efficiency .this permits to
transmit power at high voltages and distribute it a safe potentials.
The transmission of electric power is carried at high voltages due to the following reasons;
i. Reduces volume of conductor material. Consider the transmission of electric power by a three phase line
Loadcurrent, I =P
√3 VcosQ
Electrical Substation
An electrical substation is a subsidiary (minor) station of an electricity generation, transmission and

distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to low or the reverse using transformers .
Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be
changed involtage in several steps.
A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-
down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution.
Substations generally have:
1. Switching equipment
2. Protection equipment
3. Control equipment
4. One or more transformers
In a large substation: Circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overloads currents that may
occur on the network.
In smaller distribution stations: Recloser circuit breakers or fuses may be used for protection of distribution
circuits.
Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation.
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose buildings.
Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. In case where all transmission lines have
the same voltage: the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for
fault clearance or maintenance.
A transmission station may have:
1. Transformers to convert between two transmission voltages.
2. Voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAR compensators.
3. Phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.
Transmission substations can range from simple to complex.
The large transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels,
many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and control equipment.
Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub transmission lines.
Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV depending on the size of the area
served and the practices of the local utility.
Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits
(several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
Collector substation
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required, which is similar
to a distribution substation although power flows in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into
the transmission grid.
For economy of construction, the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation steps up
voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid.
The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering and control of the
wind farm.
Switching substation
A switching substation is a substation which does not contain transformers and operates only at a single
voltage level.
Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations.
Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure.
One-line diagram should include principal elements:
 Lines
 Switches
 Circuit breakers
 Transformers
 Incoming lines should have a disconnect switch and a circuit breaker.
A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current.
A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents automatically.
Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally or remotely from a supervisory control center.
Switching function
Switching is the operation of connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and
from the system.
Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned". A transmission line or other component may need to be
de- energized for maintenance or for new construction.
To maintain reliability of supply, it is not cost efficient to shut down the entire power system for maintenance.
All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping
the whole system running. Also, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component.
The function of the substation is to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time.
DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Four basic methods exist for substation construction:
1. Wood
2. Steel lattice
3. Steel low profile
4. Unit.
Wood pole substations are inexpensive, and can easily use wire bus structures. Wood is suitable only for
relatively small, simple substations because of the difficulty of building complex bus and switch gear support
structures from wood.
Lattice steel provides structures of low weight and high strength. Complex, lattice steel is reasonably
economical and is the preferred material for substation construction whenever possible.
Solid steel low profile substations are superior to lattice or wood constructed substations. However, low profile
construction is more expensive than either wood or lattice steel, and requires more land because multilevel bus
structures cannot be used.
The unit substation is a relatively recent development. A unit substation is factory built and tested, then
shipped in modules that are bolted together at the site.
Unit substations usually contain high and low voltage disconnect switches, one or two three-phase
transformers, low voltage breakers, high voltage fusing, bus work, and relays.
Pole-mounted power distributiontransformer with center-tappedsecondary winding (note use ofgrounded
conductor, right, as one legof the primary feeder). It transformsthe high voltage of the overheaddistribution
wires to the lower voltage used in house wiring.
A balanced three phase system is always analyses on per phase basis by considering one of the three phase
lines and neutral.
Switching Scheme of Substation
Layout
Following the switching components, the lines are connected to one or more buses. An electrical bus, derived
from bus bar, is a common electrical connection between multiple electrical devices.
Symbolic representation of a bus:- The thick line is the bus, which represents three wires. The slash through the
bus arrow and the "3" means that the bus represents 3 wires.
The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the substation.
Once having established buses for the various voltage levels, transformers may be connected between the
voltage levels. These will again have a circuit breaker in case a transformer has a fault.
A substation always has control circuitry to operate the various breakers to open in case of the failure of some
component.
Bus scheme
1. Single Bus scheme with Bus Section Breaker.
2. Single Bus scheme with Bypass Isolator.
3. Single Bus scheme with Bypass Switch between Two adjacent
Bays.
4. Mesh Scheme.
5. Ring Bus Scheme.
6. Transfer Bus Scheme.
7. Duplicate Bus Scheme
TWO MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS
A
schematic diagram of Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme
Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme

Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme is also known as Main cum Transfer Bus Scheme. In this scheme, two bus
bars, four Isolators / Disconnect Switch, One Earth Switch and one Circuit Breaker is used in one Bay for
switching purpose.
Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme-purpose of bus coupler breaker
In Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme, two buses Bus-I and Bus-II are used to supply feeders. One bus serves as
Main bus whereas other bus serves as main as well as transfer bus. Generally Bus-I acts as Main Bus whereas
Bus-II acts as main cum transfer bus. This is the reason, Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme is also known as
Main cum Transfer Bus Scheme.
The breaker and a half is a reasonably economical, versatile,Reliable

and as a result is very popular.
A bus or feeder fault can easily be isolated while the station remains in
service.
The breaker and a half is usually used in substations with more than
four.
SUBSTATION
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to
low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions
Infinite bus bar
A large system whose voltage and frequency remain constant, independent of the power exchange between
synchronous machine and bus, and independent of the excitation of the synchronous machine.
Bus coupler
It is a device which is used to couple one bus to the other without any interruption in power supply and
without creating hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is a breaker used to couple two busbars in order to perform
maintenance on other circuit breakers associated with that busbar.
FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
FACTs controllers: Structures & Characteristics of following FACTs Controllers
The FACTS (FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM) controllers can be classified as—
1. Shunt connected controllers
2. Series connected controllers
3. Combined series-series controllers
4. Combined shunt-series controller
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
Static Var compensator is a static Var generator whose output is varied so as to maintain or control specific
parameters (e.g. voltage or reactive power of bus) of the electric power system. In its simplest form it uses a
thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) in conjunction with a fixed capacitor (FC) or thyristor switched capacitor
(TSC). A pair of anti-parallel thyristors is connected in series with a fixed inductor to form a TCR module while
the thyristors are connected in series with a capacitor to form a TSC module. An SVC can control the voltage
magnitude at the required bus thereby improving the voltage profile of the system. The primary task of an SVC
is to maintain the voltage of a particular bus by means of reactive power compensation (obtained by varying
the firing angle of the thyristors). It can also provide increased damping to power oscillations and enhance
power flow over a line by using auxiliary signals such as line active power, line reactive power, line current, and
computed internal frequency. Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected FACTS controller whose main
functionality is to regulate the voltage at a given bus by controlling its equivalent reactance. Basically it consists
of a fixed capacitor (FC) and a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR).
A TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator, which consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor
controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance. Even through a TCSC in
the normal operating range in mainly capacitive, but it can also be used in an inductive mode. The power flow
over a transmission line can be increased by controlled series compensation with minimum risk of sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR).TCSC is a second generation FACTS controller, which controls the impedance of
the line in which it is connected by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. A TCSC module comprises a series
fixed capacitor that is connected in parallel to a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR).
A TCR includes a pair of anti-parallel thyristors that are connected in series with an inductor. In a TCSC, a Metal
Oxide Varistor (MOV) along with a bypass breaker is connected in parallel to the fixed capacitor for overvoltage
protection. A complete compensation system may be made up of several of these modules. TCSC controllers
use thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) in parallel with capacitor segments of series capacitor bank. The
combination of TCR and capacitor allow the capacitive reactance to be smoothly controlled over a wide range
and switched upon command to a condition where the bidirectional thyristor pairs conduct continuously and
insert an inductive reactance into the line.
TCSC is an effective and economical means of solving problems of transient stability, dynamic stability, steady
state stability and voltage stability in long transmission lines. A TCSC is a series controlled capacitive reactance
that can provide continuous control of power on the ac line over a wide range.
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
A SSSC is a static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as a series
compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and controllable independently of the line current for
the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling
the transmitted electric power. The SSSC may include transiently rated energy source or energy absorbing
device to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power system by additional temporary real power
compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real voltage drop across the line.
A SSSC incorporates a solid state voltage source inverter that injects an almost sinusoidal voltage of variable
magnitude in series with a transmission line. The SSSC has the same structure as that of a STATCOM except that
the coupling transformer of an SSSC is connected in series with the transmission line. The injected voltage is
mainly in quadrature with the line current. A small part of injected voltage, which is in phase with the line
current, provides the losses in the inverter. Most of injected voltage, which is in quadrature with the line
current, emulates a series inductance or a series capacitance thereby altering the transmission line series
reactance. This reactance, which can be altered by varying the magnitude of injected voltage, favorably
influences the electric power flow in the transmission line.
SSSC is a solid-state synchronous voltage source employing an appropriate DC to AC inverter with gate turn- off
thyristor. It is similar to the STATCOM, as it is based on a DC capacitor fed VSI that generates a three - phase
voltage, which is then injected in a transmission line through a transformer connected in series with the
system. In SSSC, the resonance phenomenon has been removed. So SSSC is having more superior performance
as compare to TCSC. The main control objective of the SSSC is to directly control the current, and indirectly the
power, flowing through the line by controlling the reactive power exchange between the SSSC and the AC
system. The main advantage of this controller over a TCSC is that it does not significantly affect the impedance
of the transmission system and, therefore, there is no danger of having resonance problem.
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
A STATCOM is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static var compensator whose
capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of the ac system voltage. A STATCOM is a
solid state switching converter capable of generating or absorbingindependently controllable real and reactive
power at its output terminals, when it is fed from an energy source or an energy storage device of appropriate
rating. A STATCOM incorporate a voltage source inverter (VSI) that produces a set of three phase ac output
voltages, each of which is in phase with, and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage via a relatively
small reactance. This small reactance is usually provided by the per phase leakage reactance of the coupling
transformer. The VSI is driven by a dc storage capacitor. By regulating the magnitude of the output voltage
produced, the reactive power exchange between STATCOM and the ac system can be controlled. The Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a power electronic-based Synchronous Voltage Generator (SVG) that
generates a three-phase voltage from a dc capacitor in synchronism with the transmission line voltage and is
connected to it by a coupling transformer.
Transmission and Subtransmission Subsystem
An overhead transmission network transfers electric power fromgenerating units to the distribution system
which ultimately supplies the load.Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which allow
theeconomic dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, and the transfer of power between
regions during emergencies.Standard transmission voltages are established in the United States by
theAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage linesoperating at more than 60 kV are
standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161kV, 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV line-to-line. Transmission
voltagesabove 230 kV are usually referred to as extra-high voltage (EHV).High voltage transmission lines are
terminated in substations, which arecalledhigh-voltage substations, receiving substations,orprimary
substations.
The electricity is generated in bulk in the generating stations and then transmitted over long distances to the
load ordemand points. The transmission system interconnects all the generating stations and major load
centers in the system.
It forms the backbone of the power system. Since the power loss in a transmission line is proportional to the
squareof line current (Ploss = RTL|I|2), the transmission lines operate at the highest voltage levels, usually 275 kV
andupwards. Usually, the transmission network has a meshed structure in order to provide many alternate
routes for thepower to flow from the generators to the load points. This improves the reliability of the system.
High voltage (HV) transmission lines are terminated at substations (see Fig. 1.5). Very large industrial
customersmay be provided power directly from these substations. At these substations, the voltage is stepped
down to a lowerlevel and fed into the sub-transmission system. This part of the transmission system connects
the high voltage `substation through the step-down transformers to distribution substation. Typically, the sub-
transmission voltagelevels are from 66 kV to 132 kV. Some large industrial consumers may be served directly
from the sub-transmission. The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of service;they are
referred to as switching stations. At the primary substations, thevoltage is stepped down to a value more
suitable for the next part of the flowtoward the load. Very large industrial customers may be served directly
fromthe transmission system.The portion of the transmission system that connects the high-
voltagesubstations through step-down transformers to the distribution substations iscalled the
subtransmission network. There is no clear distinction betweentransmission and subtransmission voltage
levels. Typically, the subtransmissionvoltage level ranges from69 to138kV. Some large industrial customers
maybe served from the subtransmission system.
Capacitor banks and reactor banksare usually installed in the substations for maintaining the transmission
linevoltage.
Transmission line Conductors
Commonly used conductor materials:
The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are copper, aluminum, steel cordaluminum,
galvanized steel and cadmium copper. The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the
required electrical and mechanical properties and the local conditions.
All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the flexibility. In stranded
conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18,
24 ...... wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total number of individual wires is 3n(n + 1) + 1. In the
manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers of wires are twisted or spiraled in opposite
directions so that layers are bound together.
Types of Conductors
1. Copper.
Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and greater tensile
strength. It is always used in the hard drawn form as stranded conductor. Although hard drawing decreases the
electrical conductivity slightly yet it increases the tensile strength considerably.
Copper has high current density i.e., the current carrying capacity of copper per unit of X-sectional area is quite
large. This leads to two advantages.
I. Firstly, smaller X-sectional area of conductor is required and
II. Secondly, the area offered by the conductor to wind loads is reduced. Moreover, this metal is
quite homogeneous, durable and has high scrap value. There is hardly any doubt that copper is an
ideal material for transmission and distribution of electric power. However, due to its higher cost
and non-availability, it is rarely used for these purposes. Now-a-days the trend is to use aluminum
in place of copper.
2. Aluminum.
Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller conductivity and tensile strength.
The relative comparison of the two materials is briefed below:
(i) The conductivity of aluminum is 60% that of copper. The smaller conductivity of aluminum means that for
any particular transmission efficiency, the X-sectional area of conductor must be larger in aluminum than in
copper. For the same resistance, the diameter of aluminum conductor is about 1·26 times the diameter of
copper conductor. The increased X-section of aluminum exposes a greater surface to wind pressure and,
therefore, supporting towers mustbe designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires the use of
higher towers with consequence of greater sag.
(ii)The specific gravity of aluminum (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8·9 gm/cc).Therefore, an
aluminum conductor has almost one-half the weight of equivalent copper conductor. For this reason, the
supporting structures for aluminum need not be made as strong as that of copper conductor.
(iii)Aluminum conductor being light is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms are required.
(iv)Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminum, the sag is greater in
aluminum conductors. Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc.,
aluminum has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor material. It is particularly
profitable to use aluminum for heavy-current transmission where the conductor size is large and its cost forms
a major proportion of the total cost of complete installation.
3. Steel cordaluminum.
Due to low tensile strength, aluminum conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use for larger
spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission. In order to increase the tensile strength, the
aluminum conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanized steel wires. The composite (compound) conductor
thus obtained isknown as steel cordaluminum and is abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (AluminumConductor Steel
Reinforced).
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETER

An electric transmission line has four parameters, namely resistance, inductance, capacitance and shunt
conductance. These four parameters are uniformly distributed along the whole line. Each line element has its
own value, and it is not possible to concentrate or lumped them at discrete points on the line. For this reason
the line parameters are known as distributed parameter, but can be lumped for the purpose of analysis on
approximate basis.
Resistor
It consumes ohmic or dissipative energy. The ohmic form of energy is dissipated into heat whenever current
flows in a resistive medium. If I is the current flowing for a period of t seconds through a resistance of R
ohms, the heat dissipated will be I 2Rt watt sec.
Line Inductance:
When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing flux is set up which links the conductor.
Due to these flux linkages, the conductor possesses inductance.
Line Inductance Stores energy in thepositive half cycle and give away(get rid of) in the negative half cycle of
supply the magnetic field . Mathematically, inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere i.e.
L = ᵠ/I
Whereψ = flux linkage in weber-turns
I = current in turns
Line Inductance,which shows that the self-inductance of an electric circuit is numerically equal to the flux
linkage of the circuit per unit of current.
In inductor,the energy is stored in the form of magnetic field. For a coil of L henries and a current of I amperes
flowing, the energy stored is given by½ LI2.
Inductance of Three phase Overhead line:
(i) Symmetrical Spacing:

If the three conductors A, B and C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side d,
then, d1 = d2 = d3 = d.
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing
When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the conductor spacing is said to be
unsymmetrical. Under such conditions, the flux linkages and inductance of each phase are not the same. A
different inductance in each phase results in unequal voltage drops in the three phases even if the currents in
the conductors are balanced. Therefore, the voltage at the receiving end will not be the same for all phases. In
order that voltage drops are equal in all Conductors, we generally interchange the positions of the conductors
at regular intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies the original position of every other
conductor over an equal distance. Such an exchange of positions is known as Transposition.
. A. .C. .A.
. B. .B. .C .
. C. .A ..B.
Performance of Transmission Line
The transmission lines are categorized as three types :-
1) Short transmission line– the line length is up to 80 km and the operating voltage is < 20 kV.
2) Medium transmission line– the line length is between 80 km to 160 km and the operating voltage is > 20 kV
and < 100Kv.
3) Long transmission line – the line length is more than 160 km and the operating voltage is >100 Kv Whatever
may be the category of transmission line; the main aim is to transmit power from one end to another. Like
other electrical system, the transmission network also will have some power loss and voltage drop during
transmitting power from sending end to receiving end. Hence, performance of transmission line can be
determined by its efficiency and voltage regulation.
Efficiency of transmission line=( Power delivered at receiving end)/(Power sent from sending end ) 100%×
Power sent from sending end – line losses = Power delivered at receiving end.
Voltage regulation of transmission line
It is measure of change of receiving end voltage from no load to full load condition.
% regulation= (No load receiving end voltage-full load receiving end voltage)/full load voltage ×100%
Every transmission line will have three basic electrical parameters. The conductors of the line will have
electrical resistance, inductance, and capacitance. As the transmission line is a set of conductors being run from
one place to another supported by transmission towers, the parameters are distributed uniformly along the
line.
The electrical power is transmitted over a transmission line with a speed of light that is 3X10 8 m ⁄sec. Frequency
of the power is 50 Hz.
The transmission line, with length less than 160 km, the parameters are assumedto be lumped and not
distributed. Such lines are known as electrically short transmission line.
This electrically short transmission lines are again categorized as short transmission line (lengthup to 80 km)
and medium transmission line(length between 80 and 160 km). The capacitiveparameter of short transmission
line is ignored whereas in case of medium length line the, capacitance is assumed to be lumped at the middle
of the line or half of the capacitance may beconsidered to be lumped at each ends of the transmission line.
Lines with length more than 160km, the parameters are considered to be distributed over the line. This is called
long transmissionline.
Capacitor
The energy is stored between the metallicplates of the capacitor in the form of electric field and is given by1/2
CV2, whereC is thecapacitance andV is the voltage across the plates.
Skin Effect
The phenomena arising due to unequal distribution of current over the entire cross section of theconductor
being used for long distance power transmission is referred as the skin effect intransmission lines. Such a
phenomena does not have much role to play in case of a very shortline, but with increase in the effective length
of the conductors, skin effect increasesconsiderably. So the modification in line calculation needs to be done
accordingly. Thedistribution of current over the entire cross section of the conductor is quite uniform in case of
aDC system. But what we are using in the present era of power system engineering ispredominantly (mainly) an
alternating current system, where the current tends to flow with higher densitythrough the surface of the
conductors (i.e. skin of the conductor), leaving the core deprived (poor) ofnecessary number of electrons. In
fact there even arises a condition when absolutelyno current flows through the core, and concentrating the
entire amount on the surface region,thus resulting in an increase in the effective electrical resistance of the
conductor. This particulartrend of an AC transmission system to take the surface path for the flow of current
depriving thecore is referred to as the skin effect in transmission lines.
Why Skin Effect Occurs in Transmission Lines?
Having understood the phenomena of skin effect let us now see why this arises in case of an ACsystem. To have
a clear understanding of that look into the cross sectional view of the conductorduring the flow of alternating
current .
Let us initially consider the solid conductor to be split up into a number of annular filamentsspaced infinitely
small distance apart, such that each filament carries an infinitely small fractionof the total current.
Like if the total current = I
Let us consider the conductor to be split up into n filament carrying current ‘i’ such that I = ni .
Now during the flow of an alternating current, the current carrying filaments lying on the corehas a flux linkage
with the entire conductor cross section including the filaments of the surface aswell as those in the core.
Whereas the flux set up by the outer filaments is restricted only to thesurface itself and is unable to link with
the inner filaments. Thus the flux linkage of the conductor increases as we move closer towards the core and at
the same rate increasesthe inductor as it has a direct proportionality relationship with flux linkage. This results
in alarger inductive reactance being induced into the core as compared to the outer sections of theconductor.
The high value of reactance in the inner section results in the current being distributedin an un-uniform manner
and forcing the bulk of the current to flow through the outer surface orskin giving rise to the phenomena called
skin effect in transmission lines.
Factors Affecting Skin Effect in Transmission Lines
The skin effect in an ac system depends on a number of factors like:-
1) Shape of conductor.
2) Type of material.
3) Diameter of the conductors.
4) Operational frequency
Proximity Effect:
Proximity means nearness in space or time, so as the name suggests, proximity effect in transmission lines
indicates the effect in one conductor for other neighboring conductors.
When the alternating current is flowing through a conductor, alternating magnetic flux is generated
surrounding the conductor. This magnetic flux associates with the neighboring wires and generates a circulating
current (it can be termed as ‘eddy current’ also). Thiscirculating current increases the resistance of the
conductor and push away the flowing current through the conductor, which causes the crowding effect.
When the gaps between two wires are greater the proximity effect is less and it rises when the gap reduces.
The flux due to central conductor links with right side conductor. In a two wire system more lines of flux link
elements farther apart than the elements nearest to each other as shown above. Therefore, the inductance of
the elements farther apart is more ascompared to the elements near to each other and hence the current
density is less in the elements farther apart than the current density in the element near to each other. As a
result the effective resistance of the conductor is increased due to non-uniform distribution of current. This
phenomenon is actually referred as proximity effect. This effect is pronounced in the case of cables where the
distance between the conductors is small whereas proximity effect in transmission lines in the case of overhead
system, with usual spacing is negligibly small.
Series and shunt compensation

The demand of active power is expressing Kilo watt (kW) or Megawatt (Mw). This power should be supplied
from electrical generating station. All the arrangements in electrical pomes system are done to meet up this
basic requirement. Although in alternating power system, reactive power always comes in to picture. This
reactive power is expressed in Kilo VAR or Mega VAR. The demand of this reactive power is mainly originated
from inductive load connected to the system.
These inductive loads are generally electromagnetic circuit of electric motors, electrical transformers,
inductance of transmission and distribution networks, induction furnaces, fluorescent lightings etc. This
reactive power should be properly compensated otherwise, the ratio of actual power consumed by the load, to
the total power i.e. vector sum of active and reactive power, of the system becomes quite less. This ratio is
alternatively known as electrical power factor, and fewer ratios indicates poor power factor of the system. If
the power factor of the system is poor, the ampere burden of the transmission, distribution network,
transformers, alternators and other equipment connected to the system, becomes high for required active
power. And hence reactive power compensation becomes so important. This is commonly done by capacitor
bank.
Let’s explain in details, we know that active power is expressed =VIcosφwhere,cosφ is the power factor of the
system. Hence, if this power factor has got less valve, the corresponding current (I) increases for same active
power P.
As the current of the system increases, the ohmic loss of the system increases. Ohmic loss means, generated
electrical power is lost as unwanted heat originated in the system. The crosssection of the conducting parts of
the system may also have to be increased for carrying extra ampere burden, which is also not economical in the
commercial point of view. Another major disadvantage is poor voltage regulation of the system, which mainly
caused due to poor powerfactor.
The equipments used to compensate reactive power
There are mainly two equipment used for this purpose.
(1) Synchronous condensers
(2) Static capacitors or Capacitor Bank
Synchronous condensers can produce reactive power and the production of reactive power can be regulated.
Due to this regulating advantage, the synchronous condensers are very suitable for correcting power factor of
the system, but this equipment is quite expensive compared to static capacitors. That is why synchronous
condensers, are justified to use only for voltage regulation of very high voltage transmission system. The
regulation in static capacitors can also be achieved to some extend by split the total capacitor bank in 3 sectors
of ratio 1: 2:2. This division enables the capacitor to run in 1, 2, 1+2=3, 2+2=4, 1+2+2=5 steps. If still further
steps are required, the division may be made in the ratio 1:2:3 or 1:2:4. These divisions make the static
capacitor bank more expensive but still the cost is much lower them synchronous condensers.
It is found that maximum benefit from compensating equipments can be achieved when they are connected to
the individual load side. This is practically and economically possible only by using small rated capacitors with
individual load not by using synchronous condensers.
Static capacitor Bank.
Static capacitor can further be subdivided in to two categories,
(a) Shunt capacitors
(b) Series capacitor
These categories are mainly based on the methods of connecting capacitor bank with the system.
Among these two categories, shunt capacitors are more commonly used in the power system of all voltage
levels. There are some specific advantages of using shunt capacitors such as,
a) It reduces line current of the system.
b) It improves voltage level of the load.
c) It also reduces system Losses.
d) It improves power factor of the source current.
e) It reduces load of the alternator.
f) It reduces capital investment per megawatt of the Load.
All the above mentioned benefits come from the fact, that the effect of capacitor reduces reactive current
flowing through the whole system. Shunt capacitor draws almost fixed amount of leading current which is
superimposed on the load current and consequently reduces reactive components of the load and hence
improves the power factor of the system.
Series capacitor on the other hand has no control over flow of current. As these are connected in series with
load, the load current always passes through the series capacitor bank. Actually, the capacitive reactance of
series capacitor neutralizes the inductive reactance of the line hence, reduces, effective reactance of the line.
Thereby, voltage regulation of the system is improved.
But series capacitor bank has a major disadvantage. During faulty condition, the voltage across the capacitor
maybe raised up to 15 times more than its rated value. Thus series capacitor musthave sophisticated and
elaborate protective equipment. Because of this, use of-series capacitor is confined in the extra high voltage
system only.
Corona
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is large as compared
to their diameters, there is no apparentchange in the condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the
applied voltage is low. However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical
disruptivevoltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power loss and
radiointerference. Electric power transmission practically deals in the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from
generating stations situated many kilometers away from the main consumption centers or the cities. For this
reason the long distance transmission cables are of utmost necessity for effective power transfer, which in-
evidently results in huge losses across the system.
Minimizing those has been a major challenge for power engineers of late and to do that one should have a
clear understanding of the type and nature of losses. One of them being the corona effect in power system,
which has a predominant role in reducing the efficiency of EHV(extra high voltage lines). When an alternating
current is made to flow across two conductors of the transmission line whose spacing is large compared to
their diameters, then air surrounding the conductors (composed of ions) is subjected to dielectric stress. At low
values of supply end voltage, nothing really occurs as the stress is too less to ionize the air outside. But when
the potential difference is made to increase beyond some threshold value of around 30 kV known as the critical
disruptive voltage, then the field strength increases and then the air surrounding it experiences stress high
enough to be dissociated into ions making the atmosphere conducting. This results in electric discharge around
the conductors due to the flow of these ions, giving rise to a faint luminescent glow, along with the hissing
sound accompanied by the liberation of ozone, which is readily identified due to its characteristic odor. This
phenomenon of electrical discharge occurring in transmission line for high values of voltage is known as the
corona effect in power system. If the voltage across the lines is still increased the glow becomes more and
more intense along with hissing noise, inducing very high power loss into the system which must be accounted
for.
Factors Affecting Corona Effect in Power System
As mentioned earlier, the line voltage of the conductor is the main determining factor for corona in
transmission lines, at low values of voltage (lesser than critical disruptive voltage) the stress on the air is too
less to dissociate them, and hence no electrical discharge occurs. Since with increasing voltage corona effect in
a transmission line occurs due to the ionization of atmospheric air surrounding the cables, it is mainly affected
by the conditions of the cable as well as the physical state of the atmosphere. Let us look into these criterion
now with greater details : Atmospheric Conditions for Corona in Transmission Lines It has been physically
proven that the voltage gradient for di-electric breakdown of air is directly proportional to the density of air.
Hence in a stormy day, due to continuous air flow the number of ions present surrounding the conductor is far
more than normal, and hence its more likely to have electrical discharge in transmission lines on such a day,
compared to a day with fairly clear weather. The system has to designed taking those extreme situations into
consideration.
Condition of Cables for Corona in Transmission Line
This particular phenomenon depends highly on the conductors and its physical condition. It has an inverse
proportionality relationship with the diameter of the conductors. I.e. with the increase in diameter, the effect
of corona in power system reduces considerably.
Also the presence of dirt or roughness of the conductor reduces the critical breakdown voltage, making the
conductors more prone to corona losses. Hence in most cities and industrial areas having high pollution, this
factor is of reasonable importance to counter the ill effects it has on the system.
Spacing between Conductors
As already mentioned, for corona to occur effectively the spacing between the lines should be much higher
compared to its diameter, but if the length is increased beyond a certain limit, the dielectric stress on the air
reduces and consequently the effect of corona reduces as well. If the spacing is made too large then corona for
that region of the transmission line might not occur at all.
Important Term
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead transmission line. Therefore,
it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in the analysis of corona effects:
(i) Critical Disruptive Voltage: It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overheadline, a balance
should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Below are the Advantages and disadvantages of Corona.
Advantages
 Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual
diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses
between the conductors.
 Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
 Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
 Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.
 The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal Voltage drop
occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighboring Communication lines.
Methods to reduce Corona Discharge Effect
Corona can be avoided
By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: This is accomplished by using utilizing good
high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage
differentials, using conductors with large radii, andavoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges.
Surface Treatments: Corona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using a surface
treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or corona dope.
Homogenous Insulators: Use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such as properly
prepared silicone and epoxy potting materials work well.
If you are limited to using air as your insulator, then you are left with geometry as the critical
parameter. Finally, ensure that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate unwanted voltage transients,
which can cause corona to start.
Using Bundled Conductors: on our 345 kV lines, we have installed multiple conductors per phase. This is
a common way of increasing the effective diameter of the conductor, which in turn results in less
resistance, which in turn reduces losses.
Elimination of sharp points: electric charges tend to form on sharp points; therefore when practicable
we strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line components.
Using Corona rings: On certain new 345 kV structures, we are now installing corona rings. These rings
have smooth round surfaces which are designed to distribute charge across a wider area, thereby
reducing the electric field and the resulting corona discharges.
Whether: Corona phenomena much worse in foul weather, high altitude.
New Conductor: New conductors can lead to poor corona performance for a while.
By increasing the spacing between the conductors: Corona Discharge Effect can be reduced by
increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the transmission lines.
However increase in the phase’s results in heavier metal supports. Cost and Space requirement
increases.
By increasing the diameter of the conductor: Diameter of the conductor can be increased to reduce the
corona discharge effect. By using hollow conductors corona discharge effect can be improved.
Insulators
Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of current to the earth from its
supporting points. The insulator plays a vital role in electrical system. Electrical Insulator is a very high resistive
path through which practically no current can flow. In transmission and distribution system, the overhead
conductors are generally supported by supporting towers or poles. The towers and poles both are properly
grounded. So there must
be insulator between tower or pole body and current carrying conductors to prevent the flow of current from
conductor to earth through the grounded supporting towers or poles.
Insulating Material
The main cause of failure of overhead line insulator, is flash over, occurs in between line and earth during
abnormal over voltage in the system. During this flash over, the huge heat produced by arcing, causes puncher
in insulator body. Viewing this phenomenon the materials used for electrical insulator has to possess some
specific properties.
Properties of Insulating Material
 The materials generally used for insulating purpose is called insulating material. For successful
utilization, this material should have some specific properties as listed below1. It must be mechanically
strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors.
 It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High Voltage system.
 It must possess high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth.
 The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
 It should not be porous.
 There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the moisture or Gases can
enter in it.
 There physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by changing temperature.
Types of overhead insulator
There are mainly three types of insulator used as overhead insulator likewise
1. Pin Insulator
2. Suspension Insulator
3. Strain Insulator
In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator available mainly for low voltage application
1.Stray Insulator and Shackle Insulator.
2. Pin Insulator
Pin Insulator
Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in power network up to 33KV
system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type, depending upon application voltage.
In 11KV system we generally use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly
shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the
vertical length of the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. In order to obtain lengthy leakage
path, one, tower or more rain sheds or petticoats are provided on the insulator body. In addition to that rain
shed or petticoats on an insulator serve another purpose. These rain sheds or petticoats are so designed, that
during raining the outer surface of the rain shed becomes wet but the inner surface remains dry and non-
conductive. So there will be discontinuations of conducting path through the wet pin Insulator surface.
In higher voltage like 33KV and 66KV manufacturing of one part porcelain pin insulator becomes difficult.
Because in higher voltage, the thickness of the insulator become more and a quite thick single piece porcelain
insulator cannot manufactured practically. In this case we use multiple part pin insulator, where a number of
properly designed porcelain shells are fixed together by Portland cement to form one complete insulator unit.
For 33KV tow parts and for 66KV three parts pin insulator are generally used.
Designing Consideration of Electrical Insulator
The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator is at a potential and bottom of the insulator fixed to
supporting structure of earth potential. The insulator has to withstand the potential stresses between
conductor and earth. The shortest distance between conductor and earth, surrounding the insulator body,
along which electrical discharge may take place through air, is known as flash over distance.
1. When insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence the flash over distance of
insulator is decreased. The design of an electrical insulator should be such that the decrease of flash over
distance is minimum when the insulator is wet. That is why the upper most petticoat of a pin insulator has
umbrella type designed so that it can protect the rest lower part of the insulator from rain. The upper surface
of top most petticoats is inclined as less as possible to maintain maximum flash over voltage during raining.
2. To keep the inner side of the insulator dry, the rain sheds are made in order that these rain sheds should not
disturb the voltage distribution they are so designed that their subsurface at right angle to the electromagnetic
lines of force.
Suspension Insulator
In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size, weight of the
insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For
overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.
In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the line conductor is
carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string is called disc insulator because of
their disc like shape.
Advantages of Suspension Insulator
I.Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.
ii. Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage,usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in series.
(iii) If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged disc can be
replaced by the sound one.
(iv) The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the cross arm is such
that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are
minimum.
(v) In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to supply the greater
demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of conductors. The additional insulation
required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired
number of discs.
(vi) The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors run below the
earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides partial protection from lightning.
Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator
1. Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator.
2. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for pin or post insulator to maintain
same ground clearance of current conductor.
3. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator system, hence, more spacing
between conductors should be provided.
Strain Insulator
When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred as string
insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line has to sustain a
great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have considerable mechanical strength as well
as the necessary electrical insulating properties.
Shackle Insulator or Spool Insulator
The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It can be used both
in horizontal and vertical position. The use of such insulator has decreased recently after increasing the using of
underground cable for distribution purpose. The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more
evenly and minimizes the possibility of breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle
insulator is fixed with the help of soft binding wire.
POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVERA STRING OF SUSPENSION INSULATORS:
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series through metallic
links. Porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal links. Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C .This
is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance.
If there were mutual capacitance alone, then charging current would have been the same through all the discs
and consequently voltage across each unit would have been the same i.e., V/3 However, in actual practice,
capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt
capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string.
Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have
the maximum voltage.
The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over a string of suspension insulators:
(i) The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself uniformly across the
individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
(ii) The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards the cross-arm, the
voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
(iii) The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured.
Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each unit.
(iv)The presence of stray capacitance causes unequal potential distribution over the string. The end unit of the
string (which is the closest to the line) takes maximum potential difference and the upper units have a gradually
decreased potential difference until the uppermost unit which has the lowest potential difference. The next
proof illustrates this concept.
String Efficiency:
As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not uniformly distributed
across various units or discs. The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other discs.
This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually expressed in terms of string efficiency.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency i.e. conductor near to disc across Voltagenstring
theacross Voltage .
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution along the string. The
greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution. Thus 100% string efficiency is an ideal
case for which the voltage across each disc will be exactly the same.
Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should be made to improve it as close to
this value as possible.
Vibration Damper
Aeolian vibrations mostly occur at steady wind velocities from 1 to 7 m/s. With increasing wind turbulences the
wind power input to the conductor will decrease. The intensity to induce vibrations depends on several
parameters such as type of conductors and clamps, tension, span length, topography in the surrounding, height
and direction of the line as well as the frequency of occurrence of the vibration induced wind streams.
Distribution system
The distribution represents the final stage of power transfer to the individual consumer (see Fig. 1.6). The
distribution
Network is generally connected in a radial structure. The primary distribution voltage is typically between 11kV
and 33kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary feeders at this voltage level. The secondary
distribution feeder’s supply residential and commercial at 415/240 V. Small generating plants located near the
load centers are usually connected to sub-transmission or distribution system directly.
A power system operates in a normal state if the following conditions are satisfied:
• The bus voltages are within the prescribed limits.

• The system frequency is within the specified limits.
• The active and reactive power balance exists in the system.
However, the system load varies continuously and hence, in order to ensure satisfactory system operation,
proper
controls have to be provided in a power system.
Distribution Subsystem
The distribution system connects the distribution substations to theconsumers’ service-entrance equipment.
The primary distribution lines rangefrom 4 to 34.5 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical
area.Some small industrial customers are served directly by the primary feeders.The secondary distribution
network reduces the voltage for utilizationby commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cables not
exceeding a fewhundred feet in length then deliver power to the individual consumers. Thesecondary
distribution serves most of the customers at levels of 240/120 V,single-phase, three-wire; 208Yl120 V, three-
phase, four-wire; or 480Y/277 V,three-phase, four-wire. The power for a typical home is derived from
atransformer that reduces the primary feeder voltage to 240/120 V usingathree-wire line.
Distribution systems utilize bothoverheadandundergroundconductors. The growth of underground distribution
has been extremely rapidand as much as 70 percent of new residential construction in North America isvia
underground systems.
LoadSubsystems
Power systems loads are divided into industrial, commercial, andresidential. Industrial loads are composite
loads, and induction motors formahigh proportion of these loads. These composite loads are functions of
voltageand frequency and formamajor part of the system load. Commercial andresidential loads consist largely
of lighting, heating, and cooking. These loadsare independent of frequency and consumenegligibly small
reactive power.
The load varies throughout the day, and power must be available toconsumers on demand. The daily-load
curve of a utility is a composite ofdemands made by various classes of users. The greatest value of load during
a24-hr period is called the peak ormaximum demand.
To assess the usefulness ofthe generating plant theload factoris defined. The load factor is the ratio ofaverage
load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in thatperiod. Load factors may be given for a
day, a month, or a year. The yearly orannual load factor is the most useful since a year represents a full cycle of
time.The daily load factor isaverage loaddivided by peak load.
Daily L.F.= Average load/Peak load. (1.1)
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of (1.1) by a time period of 24 hr., we obtain
Peak loadx 24 hr.(1.2)
Daily L.F.= Average load x 24 hr./Peak load x 24 hr. = Energy consumed during 24 hr. / Peak load x 24 hr.
The Annual Load Factoris:-
Annual L.F. = Total Annual Energy /Peak Loadx8760hr.(1.3)
In order for a power plant to operate economically, it must have a high system load factor. Typical system load
factors are in the range of 55 to 70 percent.
Generally thereisdiversity in the peak load between different classes of loads, which improves the overall
system load factor. In order for a powerplant to operate economically, it must have a high system load factor.
Typicalsystem load factors are in the range of55to70percent. Load-forecasting at alllevels is an important
function in the operation, operational planning, andplanning of an electric power system. Other devices and
systems are requiredfor the satisfactory operation and protection of a power system. Some of theprotective
devices directly connected to the circuits are calledswitchgear.
Theyinclude instrument transformers, circuit breakers; disconnect switches,fusesandlightning arresters. These

devices are necessary to deenergize either for normaloperation or on the occurrence of faults. The associated
control equipment andprotective relays are placed onswitchboardsincontrol houses.
For reliable and economical operation of the power system it isnecessary to monitor the entire system in a so-
called control center. The modemcontrol center is called theenergy control center(ECC). Energy control
centersare equipped with on-line computers performing all signals processing throughthe remote acquisition
system. Computers work in a hierarchical structure toproperly coordinate different functional requirements in
normal as well asemergency conditions.
CONCEPTS OF POWER IN ALTERNATING CURRENTSYSTEMS
The power entering any network is the product of the effective values ofterminal voltage and current and the
cosine of the phase angleQ,which is, calledthepower factor(PF). This applies to sinusoidal voltages and currents
only.
When reactance and resistance are present, a component of the current in thecircuit is engaged in conveying
the energy that is periodically stored in anddischarged from the reactance. This stored energy, being shuttled
(TRAVELLED) to and fromthe magnetic field of an inductance or the electric field of a capacitance, addstothe
current in the circuit but does not add to the average power. The value of the average power consumed in a
circuit is calledactivepower,and the power that supplies the stored energy in reactive elements iscalledreactive
power.
Active power isP,and the reactive power, designatedQ,are thus
*P=VICosφ(2.3)
Q= VISinφ(2.4)
In both equations,VandIarermsvalues of terminal voltage and current, andQis the phase angle by which the
current lags the voltage.To emphasize that theQrepresents the non-active power, it is measuredinreactive
voltampere units (var).
*If we write the instantaneous power asp(t)=V(t )xi(t)= VmIm[cosφ(wt)cos(wt-φ)]
Pav=VmIm Cos φ/2
When reactance and resistance are present, a component of the current in the circuit is engaged in conveying
the energy that is periodically stored in and discharged from the reactance. This stored energy, being shuttled
to and from the magnetic field of an inductance or the electric field of a capacitance, adds to the current in the
circuit but does not add to the average power. The value of the average power consumed in a circuit is called
active power, and the power that supplies the stored energy in reactive elements is called reactive power.
When the components ofvoltageVcosφ and Vsinφ are multiplied by current, they
becomePandQ,respectively.Similarly, ifI,Ices φ,and Isin φ re each multiplied by V,they become
Vl,P,andRespectively. This defines a power triangle.
We now define a quantity called the complexor apparent power,designated S,of which P and Q are
components. By definition,
S=P+jQ
=Vl (cosφ + jsinφ)
The nominal voltage of lines and equipment and base value calculation.
The nominal voltage of lines and equipment is almost always known as well as the apparent (complex) power in
Mega volt Amperes, so these two quantities are usually chosen for base value calculation.
The same megavolt Ampère base is used in all parts of a given system. Once base voltage is chosen; all other
base voltages must then be related to the one chosen by the turn’s ratios of the connecting transformers.
From the definition of per unit impedance, we can express the ohmic impedance Z, in the per unit value P,".as
Zp.u. = Zῼ|Sb|p.u. WhereSbandVb are base values.
| Vb|2
As for admittance,we have ,
Yp.u. = (1 ̸ Zῼ) ( |Vb|2 = Ys|Vb|2p.u
|Sb||Sb|
Note that ZP.u." Can be interpreted as the ratio of the voltage drop across Z with base current injected to the
base voltage.
Example
Consider a transmission line with Z =3.346 + j77.299Q. Assume that
Sb= 100MVA
Vb= 735 KV
We thus have
Zp.u. = Zῼ|Sb|p.u. WhereSband Vb are base values.
| Vb|2
Zp.u. = Zῼ(100MVA)/(735)2
1.851X10-4 (Zῼ)
For R = 3.346 ohms we obtain Rp , = (3.346)(1.851x 10 -4) = 6.1 93 72 x1O-4
For X = 77.299 ohms, we obtain Xp, = (77.299)(1.851x10 -4)=1.43x10-2
For the admittance we have
=5.4x103(YS)
Energy and Power / Protection
Various types of devices are available for carrying out the switching and protection tasks listed under a title
that is specially designed to fulfill the respective requirements. The various parts of IEC 60947 (Low voltage
switchgear and control gear) specify the design, performance, and test features of the devices.
The most important features of the main device types are presented below:
Isolator
An isolator must only be able to make and break a circuit, if either a current of negligible size is switched on or
off, or if during switching no noticeable voltage difference between the terminals of each pole occurs.
The isolator function can be realized with a variety of devices such as for example in dis-connectors, fuse-dis-
connectors, switch-dis-connectors, fuse-switch dis-connectors and circuit breakers with isolating function.
Load switch(only switch)
It is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions which may include specified operating overload condition and also carrying for a specified time
currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short-circuit and it does not have a short
circuit breaking capacity.
For load switches the range of designs is similarly wide as for isolator switches, for example “normal” (load)
switches, fuse-switch is connectors, circuit breakers.
Switches disconnectors.In this case, too, there are a variety of designs such as “normal” switch disconnectors,
fuse- switch-disconnectors and circuit breakers.
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breakingcurrents under
normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified
abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short-circuit (IEC 60947-2).
They thus also fulfill the requirements of (load) switches. Circuit breakers are often designed so that they can
fulfill the requirements for Disconnectors.
Isolator main purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to be opened
while current is flowing in the line. Isolators are generally used on both ends of the breaker so that repair or
replacement of circuit breaker can be done without any danger.
Earthing switch
It is a mechanical switching device which earths parts of an electrical circuit. Disconnecting switches are
primarily used to visualize whether a connection is open or closed.
The earthing switch is used to interconnect and earth the phase and neutral conductors of an electrical
installation to ensure the safety of personnel during servicing.
Grounding
Grounding is similar to Earthing, by which insulation against accidental currents is achieved. The main live wire
is connected to a power supply to power an appliance; however, the other portion of the wire is led under the
earth. This is done in case of an accidental cut in the circuit, to avoid overloading and other dangerous side
effects.
The key difference between Earthing and grounding is that the term “Earthing” means that the circuit is
physically connected to the ground which is Zero Volt Potential to the Ground (Earth). Whereas in “Grounding”
the circuit is not physically connected to ground, but its potential is zero with respect to other points.
Earthing VS Grounding
Earthing
 This method protects human beings from electric shocks.
 The earth wire used is green in color.
 Earthing is primarily used to avoid shocking the humans.
 Earthing is located under the earth pit, between the equipment body underground.
Grounding
 This method protects the entire power system from malfunctioning.
 The wire used for grounding is black in color
 Grounding is primarily used for unbalancing when the electric system overloads.
 It is located between the neutral of the equipment being used and the ground.
Single line diagram
A single line diagram is diagrammatic representation of power system in which the components are
represented by their symbols and interconnection between them are shown by a straight Line even though the
system is three phase system0.The ratings and the impedances of the components are also marked on the
single line diagram.
Purpose of using single line diagram
The purpose of the single line diagram is to supply in concise form of the significant information about the
system.
SCADA
There are two parts to the term SCADA.
1. Supervisory control indicates that the operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC),has the
ability to control remote equipment.
2. Data acquisition indicatesthat information is gathered characterizing the state of the remoteequipment
and sent to the operator for monitoring purposes. Themonitoring equipment is normally located in the
substations and isconsolidated in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU).
Generally, the RTUs are equipped with microprocessors having memoryand logic capability. Older RTUs are
equipped with modems to providethe communication link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUsgenerally have
intranet or internet capability.
System Operation
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open orclose selected control circuits to perform a
supervisory action. Suchactions may include, for example, opening or closing of a circuit breakeror switch,
modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or loweringgenerator MW output or terminal voltage, switching in
or out a shuntcapacitor or inductor, and the starting or stopping of a synchronouscondenser. Several security
measures may be used to minimize falseoperations, including select-before-operate, check-back, and
doubletransmission.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECCincludes both analog information and status
indicators. Analog
Analog information includes, for example, frequency, voltages, currents, andreal and reactive power flows. In
addition, checks are made to verifytelemetry integrity in case of failures and errors in the communicationlinks.
For these data, analog-to-digital converters change the quantity todigital form before the information is
transmitted back to the ECC.
Status indicators include alarm signals (over-temperature, low relaybattery voltage, illegal entry) and whether
switches and circuit breakersare open or closed. Such information is provided to the ECC through aperiodic
scan of all RTUs.Power flow: The power flow problem is a very well-known problem inthe field of power
systems engineering, where voltage magnitudes andangles for one set of buses are desired, given that voltage
magnitudesand power levels for another set of buses are known and that a model ofthe network configuration
(unit commitment and circuit topology) isavailable. A power flow solution procedure is a numerical method
that isemployed to solve the power flow problem. A power flow program is acomputer code that implements a
power flow solution procedure. Thepower flow solution contains the voltages and angles at all buses, andfrom
this information, we may compute the real and reactive generationand load levels at all buses and the real and
reactive flows across allcircuits. The above terminology is often used with the word “load”substituted for
“power,” i.e., load flow problem, load flow solutionprocedure, load flow program, and load flow solution.
However, theformer terminology is preferred as one normally does not think of“load” as something that
“flows.”
Automatic Generation Control
The purpose of AGC is to regulate the system frequency and powerinterchange between control areas. It is
sometimes referred to as thesecondary frequency control loop, with the primary frequency controlcoming
from the governors located on each generator. We refer to theinterconnecting circuits between control areas
as tie lines. There are two
SCADA measurement used by AGC: total net tie line flow andfrequency.
CT AND VT
A CT lowers the current signals for measurement purposes, while a PT lowers high voltage values into lower
ones. The transformers are designed to measure whether power systems are both accurate and safe. In
addition, the CT and PT transformer reduces the current and voltage from high to low value.The primary
winding is installed in series in the current.
Conclusion
The current transformer and potential transformer (also called voltage transformer) are both measuring
devices. A CT lowers the current signals for measurement purposes, while a PT lowers high voltage values into
lower ones. The transformers are designed to measure whether power systems are both accurate and safe.
In addition, the CT and PT transformer reduces the current and voltage from high to low value. The current
transformer and voltage transformer have similar construction since they feature a magnetic circuit in their
primary and secondary winding.
On the other hand, potential transformers, also known as voltage transformers, measure an aspect of the
power supply.
Characteristics of a current transformer include:
 The resistance of the instrument’s current coil with which the CT’s secondary winding is connected is
small. The CT transformer operates under a state close to the short circuit under normal condition.
 The primary winding is installed in series in the current.
Functions of a current transformer include:
 Converting large primary currents into small 1A/5A current
 Providing the current for the coil of measuring device and protective relaying
 It separates primary voltage from secondary voltage
Primary and Secondary Winding
 In a current transformer, the primary winding has a smaller number of turns and carries the current to
be measured. In potential transformers, the primary winding has many turns and carries the voltage to
be measured.
Functions of the potential (voltage) transformers include:
 It measures and reduces high voltage values into lesser values.
 Voltage transformers proportionally convert the high voltage into a standard secondary voltage of 100V
or lower for easier utilization of protective and measuring instruments/devices.
 To isolate the high voltage from electricians using the PT.
Burden
 The current transformer doesn’t rely on the secondary burden, whereas the potential transformer
depends on the secondary burden.
Applications
 A current transformer has different applications, including measuring current and power,
monitoring the power grid operation, and operating a protective overlay.
 On the other hand, the potential transformer’s applications include power source,
measurement, and operating protective overlay.
Secondary Side
In the current transformer, the secondary side cannot be open-circuited when under service. On the
other hand, in a potential transformer, you can open-circuit the secondary side without any damage.
Primary Current
In a current transformer, the primary current doesn’t depend upon secondary side circuit
conditions. On the other hand, in the potential transformer, the primary current relies on
secondary side circuit conditions.

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